1.

PLANT PROFILE
Nagarjuna Fertilizers and Chemicals Limited (NFCL) the flag ship of Nagarjuna group is established in 1984. It is the first gas-based fertilizer plant in south India. The plant is based on the latest fertilizer technology from M\S Snam Progetti, Italy for urea process with an installed capacity of 1500 Mt/day for each unit. The ammonia process is based on technology from M\s Haldor Tapsoe, Denmark with an installed capacity of 9000 MT/day per each unit. The feed stock for unit-1 is Na and feed stock for unit-2 is MG/Naphtha or mix of Na (Godavari Krishna basin through GAIL) and Naphtha (from HPCL, Vizag). Fuel for entire complex is on natural gas. The current consumption of NG is 2.15 million standard cubic meters per day. The water requirement of 6.0 million gallons/day is received from samalkot summer reservoir through two pipelines. The construction of the unit-1 was started in 1988 and the commercial production commenced from august 1, 1988. The construction of unit-2 was started in 1995 and the commercial production commenced from March 19, 1998. Presently the total average production is about 4,600 MT or urea per day. The total cost of the emitting complex is Rs.2156 crores. The entire plant is dividing as process plant-1, process plant -2 and offsites. The process plant-1 consists of NG based on ammonia and urea production units. The process plant-2 consists of the Naphtha based ammonia and urea based production units. The off sites include water treatment plants, de-mineralization plants, cooling water, inert gas plants stream and power generation plants, ammonia storages, bagging plant, urea silos etc. the stream and power generation plants include auxiliary boilers and cogeneration gas turbine plants, GT-A and GT-B supplied by M/S Miurgopigone inc and GT-C by Thormmaren internation bv, Netherlands.

2. AMMONIA PROCESS DESCRIPTION

The methodology adopted by the NFCL for manufacture of ammonia is based on steam reforming natural gas is used as feed stock for plant-1, whereas Naphtha for plant-2. About 85% of world ammonia production is based on steam reforming concept. Both ammonia plants are based on Haldor Topsoes low energy steam reformation technology. It consists of a conventional front end with desulphurization, primary reforming, and secondary reforming, high and low temperature shift conversions, CO2 removal by Giammarco-ventricle pottasium carbonate solution of methanation. The synthesis loop consists of Topsoes S-200 radial flow converter. NFCL is the first plant to utilize 2s/3s CR. Ni-Nb alloy for the primary reformer tubes at the grass root level, thereby enabling thinner reformer tubes and lower finance duty, which has resulted in lower skin temperature and increased overall furnance efficiency. For conbustion air pre heating in the primary reformer, waste heat recovery section, a finned plate type heat exchanger is used instead of a Liungstrom type heater where there can be a possibility of leakage of combustion air into flue gas. Low heat Giammarco- Vetrocoke (GV) process is adopted for CO2 removal. Heat recovery by the Dm water heating in GV section is 0.4Gcal/Mt NH 3. The use of S-200 converter which results in higher conversion per pass and lower pressure drop, leads to considerable energy saving, Haldor- Topsoes low pressure synthesis loop of 140kg/cm2 in the conventional plants. Installation of purge gas recovery(PGRU) at the grass root level has helped in low energy consumption in the primary reformer. Hydrogen recovery in the PGRU is more the 90%.

2.1 NATURAL GAS SUPPLY:

76% of the total natural gas is supplied to the NH3 plant, 12% to the gas turbine and 12% to the auxiliary boiler it is supplied from the off sire gas metering station at a pressure of 44kg/cm2. It is received directly from in NH3 plant at 40kg/cm2. It is received directly from in NH3 plant at 40kg/cm2. Fuel gas is received through separate header and it is used for burner. Natural gas is used as

Feed stock
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Fuel Power consumption and steam generation plant.

Ammonia is manufactured by the following steps:

2.2 PRE DESULPHURISATION:

This operation involves removing the dissolved gases and sulphur compounds present in the Naphtha. Dissolved gases like O2 can act as poison for the catalyst in the hydro generator reactor, which is present in own steam. Naphtha is passed through a dearator to remove the dissolved gases, natural gas being used as the stripping medium. Naphtha is used both as feed and fuel. The requirement for fuel is taken from the outlet of the de aerator. Hydrogen sulphide & organic sulphur compounds present in the Naphtha acts as strong catalyst poisons. The remaining for fuel is taken from the outlet of the de aerator hydrogen sulphide & organic sulphur compounds present in the Naphtha as strong catalysts poisons. The remaining stripped Naphtha containing about 1000ppm of sulphur is the sent to the Hydro generator reactor in which hydrogenation of organic sulphur compound takes place to give hydrogensulphide. The reactor is filled with Nickel Molybdenum catalyst, which catalyst the hydrogenetion of organic sulphur compounds to H2S. RSH + H2 RH + H2S H2S produced in the rector & that already present in the feed is then removed in H2S absorbers. Each absorber containing one bed of ZNO catalyst to absorb the sulphur. The sulphur removal in ZNO bed takes as follows ZNO + H2S ZNS + H2O ZNO + COS ZNS + CO2

2.3 FINAL DESULPHURISATION:

The purpose of desulphurisation is to receive the remaining hydrogen sulphide & organic sulphur compounds present in the Naphtha, which are strong catalyst reactor. The process gas after desulphurisation is sent to reforming.
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2.4 REFORMING SECTION:

The reforming process and the design of the reformer are based on the reaction between methane and higher hydrocarbon present in the Natural gas with stream there by generating CO, hydrogen and CO2. Catalyst Ni based catalyst is used inlet temperature 769. CH4 + H2O CO2 + 3H2 CO + H2O CO2 + H2

2.4.1 PRIMARY REFORMER:

The primary reforming of natural gas is done ina Topsoe series side fired furnace. Pre heated hot desulphurised natural gas and recycle gas mixture is combined with Hs steam and distributed through hair pins tubes into Vcle reformer tubes filled with Ni catalyst. The tubes are placed inside the side fired furnace are absorbed in the tubes by radiation from a number of wall burners to the tubes. In case of fired furnace, the reformer outlet temperature increases gradually from the top towards the bottom. The tube kin temperature along the length of the tube can be controlled is side fired furnace. Here potential for C formation cab be better controlled. The primary reformer contains 190 tubes in two parallel sections and each section is divided into 5 rows. The furnace operates with side firing of fuel gas on both sides of each row of tubes to develop a process gap temperature of about 769 at the catalyst tube outlet. There are 360 side fired wall burners arranged in 6 rows and each row having 15 burners. These are LP radon type burner and are arranged construction. Offsite is used as fuel for burners. CH4 + 2H2O CO2 + 4H2 + heat CH4 + H2O CO + 3H2 + heat CO2 + H2 CO + H2O + heat Reaction starts at 500 for the higher hydro carbon and 600 for the methane.

CARBON FORMATION: Here C may be formed partly outside and partly inside the catalyst. C deposits outside the particles will increase the pressure drop over the catalyst bed add deposits inside the particles will reduce their activity and their mechanical strength. It the catalyst is poisoned carbon formation may also occur due to low stream carbon ratio. It the catalyst is sufficiently reduced.

STEAM/CARBON RATIO: It is the most economical when the ratio is 3:3:1. However if the ratio is increased equilibrium shift towards right with a neat effect of decreased Methane and CO2 and increase in CO and H2

PRESSURE: Though higher pressure will drive the reaction in the undesired direction, if other factors remaining same reaction are performed under high pressure to save the synthesis gas compression cost. This will also help to recover the heat by 6 B.F.W preheating.

2.4.2 SECONDARY REFORMER:

In the secondary reformer the heat is supplied by combustion of plant of the gas achieved by mixing air into the gas. The gas then passes down the Ni catalyst bed where the reaction is completed with simultaneous cooling of the gas is 943 CO2 is completely in the process. Process air also supply the N2 and reduce the methane content of the process gas to a lower level order to keep the inert gases low. 2H2 + O2 2H2O heat CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O heat In the catalyst bed CH4 forming reaction takes place. CH4 + 2H2O CO + 2H2 + heat CO2 + H2 CO + H2O + heat For heat recovery, reformed gas is passed through the tube side of a refractory lined waste heat boiler.

2.4.3 CO CONVERSION: CO present in the reformed gas is converted to CO2 in 2 shift

converters. The following reaction takes place in the shift converter: CO + H2O CO + H2O As the reaction results on temperature increase, the outlet gas will be at an unfavourable equilibrium if heat is not removed before the conversion is completed. The shift reaction increases the amount of H2 in the process gas.

2.4.4 CATALYST: Cu promoted iron oxide is used. Catalyst must be activated by reducing
it from Fe2O3 and Fe3O3. Above 400 catalyst activity will be decreased shift converter heat is removed by W.H.B, B.F.W & trim heater. 2.5 CO2 REMOVAL SECTION (G.V section): The unit provides gas free of CO2 for the production of ammonia & necessary CO2 for urea production. In this unit, CO2 in the process gas is absorbed by the GV solution in an absorber. Stripping of the absorbed CO2 is done in two regenerators and CO2 stripped is supplied. The chemistry involved in the removal of CO2 is chemisorptions and is as follows CO2 + H2O HCO3 + H H2CO3 + KCO3 + H 2KHCO3 K2CO3 + CO2 + H2O 2KHCO3 (1) (2) (3)

The reaction rate of (3) depends on the reaction rate of (2). Reaction rate of (1) is slow and the activator activates this reaction by quickly introducing the gases of CO2 in the liquid phase.

2.5.1 CO2 REGENERATOR: In the regeneration section (1) is removed by application of

heat and pressure reduction.

HIGH PRESSURE REGENERATOR: CO2 rich GV solution enters into the high pressure regenerator which is cooling under 1.04g steam is flowing counter currently to
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the rich solution and stripped off the CO2 coming out from the top. The excess steam which is introduced into the regenerator.

LOW PRESSURE REGENERATOR: Low pressure regenerator is working under 0.1(Kg/cm2) rich solutions are introduces here from the high pressure section. No external heat is supplied CO2 removal from the regenerator section is cooled in DM water pre heater thus the vapour present with it is condensed. CO 2 gets from the low pressure section CO2 coming from the high pressure section. 4CO + Ni Ni(CO)4

High Ar and CH4 concentration reduces the partial pressure of N2 and H2 thereby reducing the conversion rate. Therefore a constant purge of gas from the loop is maintained to keep the inert level in the converter inlet at about 8%.

H2/N2 ratio in the makeup gas and in the synthesis loop must be close to the 3:1. I the makeup ratio is 2.78:1, after the addition of H2 from the purge gas it becomes 3. When the ratio is decreased to 2.5 reaction rate will increase but circulating synthesis gas will be heavier. Therefore a pressure drop will generate which will decrease separator efficiency. Hence the ratio must be constant.

Reaction temperature of the synthesis gas is 252 and is heated in a inter bed exchanger by the hot gas coming out from the first bed. Before entering the first bed it is mixed with the cold shot. This help to maintain temperature is increased to 520 - 530 . Before entering the second bed the temp is decreased by the cold shot. The temperature in each catalyst bed should not be below 360 otherwise the reaction will quickly extinguish itself again temp should not be over 530

The capacity of the synthesis loop with regard to ammonia production rises with increasing circulation rate. The NH3 production per cubic meter of circulation gas is proportional to the temperature difference between converter exit and inlet.

The synthesis loop is designed for a maximum pressure of 115(Kg/cm2)g under design production rate, design inert level, design gas composition it can operate at a pressure of 142(Kg/cm2)g. actual pressure is dependent on

Process condition
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 Inert level Production rate Catalyst rate NH3 concentration at the inlet.

The loop pressure will increase with increase in makeup gas flow to the loop. Decreasing the inert level and the circulation activity. Increasing the NH3 concentration at the inlet. By changing H2/N2 ratio away from the optimum.

2.5.2 CATALYST:
Catalyst is pre reduces and stabilized. Stabilization involves skin oxidation of the catalyst where it takes 2% wt of the O2. Above 100 this pre reduced catalyst will react with air & spontaneously heat up. It is activated by Iron oxide to Iron.

Actual process condition Temperature of the catalyst bed CATALYST POISON: Mainly the compound and compounds have catalyst activity increases by loop pressure and circulation rate and decreasing inert level only 25% N 2 and H2 react to form NH3 rest to be recycled gas coming out from the convector.

2.5.3 REFRIGERATION SECTION:

The refrigeration sections used to liquefy gases NH3 and consist of a compressor, an accumulator and number of chillers. Evaporator vapor from the makeup gas chiller and first NH3 chiller and from the flash vassal is compresses by the refrigeration compressor.

2.5.4 AMMONIA ABSORPTION:

Ammonia produced in the ammonia synthesis converter separated from the unrelated gas mixture in the ammonia separator. Due to high pressure and low temperature and loop gases is dissolved into NH3 to certain extent. The vapour from the top of the vessel is sent for refrigeration.
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2.5.5 PURE GAS RECOVERY SECTION:

In order to maintain the inert convention in the synthesis loop at a constant value a continuous purge is taken from the cold heat exchanger H2 from the cold heat exchanger. H2 from these inert is recovered and thus maintaining the N 2:H2 ratio at 1:3.

2.6 AMMONIA STORAGE TANKS

During normal operation Ammonia produced in the ammonia plant goes directly for Urea manufacture. In case of Urea plant stoppage or running at low load, in order to avoid stoppage or reduction of Ammonia plant load. Two Ammonia storage tanks of 5000Mt capacity are provided where liquid Ammonia can be stored. The storage tank is double wall double integrity type to ensure utmost safety. By double integrity it is meant that the outer tank is also made of the same material as the inner tank and is equally strong. In case the inner tank is very equally strong. In case inner tank leaks the outer tank will be able to contain the ammonia. Due to heat ingress from ambient air and flashing of product liquid Ammonia entering the tank from the Ammonia plant, Vapour will be generated in the storage tank which are compressed, cooled, condensed and sent back to the Ammonia storage tanks for Urea plant it is pumped by Ammonia storage pumps. Emergency power is provided for the refrigeration system. Sufficient precaution and provisions have been made incorporated to protect the storage tank from under and over pressure.

3. UREA PROCESS AND PLANT DESCRIPTION

Urea is produced by synthesis form liquid ammonia and gaseous CO2. In the reactor ER-101 the ammonia and CO2 react to form ammonia carbonate, a portion of which dehydrates to form urea and water. The reactions are: 2NH3 + CO2 NH2COONH4 NH2COONH4 NH2CONH2 + H2O In the synthesis conditions the first reactions occur rapidly and is completed, the second reaction occurs slowly. The liquid ammonia coming directly is collected in ammonia receiving tank EV-101 from the liquid ammonia receiver, the ammonia is pumped to the high pressure section of the plant. Two pumps are used to do this. The first pump, the ammonia booster pump increases the pressure of the ammonia to the second pump, the high pressure ammonia feed pump. The high pressure ammonia feed pump is a reciprocating pump. Urea purification in the medium, low and pre-vacuum pressure recoveries.

3.1 UREA PURIFICATION:

It is pointed out that the exchanger where urea purification are called decomposers in this apparatus the residual carbonate decomposition takes place. 3.1.1 First Stage Purification and Recovery Stage at 18ksca: The solution with a low residual CO2 content, leaving the bottom of the stripper is expanded at the pressure of 18ksca and enters the medium pressure decomposed EE-102 The equipment is divided into two phases:

Separator EMV-02 where the released flash gases are removed before the salon enters the tube bundle. Comparison section where the residual carbonate is decomposed and the required heat is supplied by means of M.P steam and M.P condensate flowing out from the stripper
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3.1.2 Second Purification and Recovery Stage At 4.5ksca: This is divided into two parts

Top Separator Decomposition section

The liquid phase with the remaining inert gases is sent to the carbonate solution vesses from here the carbonate solution is recycled back to the vaccum pre concentrator by means of the centrifugal pump. The inert gases washed in the low pressure inert washing towers are collected to vent stack practically free from ammonia. 3.1.3 Third Purification And Recovery Stage At 0.35ksca: The gas leaving the preconcentrator top is routed to the vaccum unit where condensation takes place. The Urea solution collected at the bottom pre contractor holder is sent to the vaccum section by pumps.

3.2 UREA CONCENTRATION SETION: In order to prill urea, to concentrate the urea
solution up to 99.8% weight, a vaccum concentration section in two stages is provided for this.

3.3 UREA PRILLING:

The melted urea leaving the second vaccum holder is sent to the prilling bucket by means of a centrifugal pump. The urea coming out of the bucket in the form of drop falls along the prilling tower and encounters a cold air flow which causes its solidfications. The solid pills falling to the bottom of the prilling tower are set into the conveyor.

3.4 PROCESS WATER TREATMENT: The condensed vapors from the first and
second vaccum system, containing urea, ammonia and carbondioxide are collected in the process condensate tank. In the tank the carbonate drain collected in the tank are fes by means pump.

3.5 FLUSHING NETWORKS: Three Flushing networks have been provided in the plant
operating at the following pressures
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HP flushing p-176ksc MP flushing p-22ksc LP flushing -p-9ksc

3.6 DE-DUSTING SYSTEM: The Urea melt coming out of the bucket in the form of
droplets add while falling inside the pill tower a counter current flow of cold air which causes solidification. Hot air leaving prill tower top consist of fine urea dust and free-ammonia. In order to prevent pollution caused during the process of prilling, deducting system has been incorporated at prill tower top. The system also recovers urea, which is recycled back into the system.

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4. BAGGING PLANT
BAGGING means pre-weighting the UREA in an automatic machine, dumping the pre-weighted Urea material in an empty material and stitching the side bag. 8 Bagging streams are available here. Any stream can be taken on line to the loading program. Each Stream Has The Following Equipments:

Bunker Electromagnetic Vibrators Electromagnetic Bagging Machines with two independent units. Wooden Slat Conveyor Stitching Machine Bag Turner Stream of Conveyors and bag diverters for handling the stitched bags. Lorry loading Wagon loading

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5. POWER PLANT
The plant consists of mainly:

Boilers Gas Turbines Stream Turbines GAIL

5.1 BOILERS: The auxillary boiler manufactured by Mitsui engineering and ship building
company limited, Japan is a pressurized furnance, natural circulation, two drum, three pass out door, self standing, multiple fuel, front fired, bottom support unit. 5.1.1 Water Drum And Stream Drum With Internals :

Boiler has a drum which support the stream during through 904 no. of bank tubes. Bank tube ends are inserted in steam drum and water drum are expanded and seal welded. Lower drum rests on its legs. One end of the lower drum is bolted tightly on foundation and is free to expand or contract. The other end rests on sliding pad and is free to expand or contract. About half the bank tubes act as a down corners. Preheated feed water from economizer is received in steam drum and a feed pipe placed below normal water. Distributes through 73 numbers and 17mm diameter holes.

5.1.2 Boiler Bank Tubes:

The nest of the tubes connecting water and steam drum is called boiler bank tubes. They are 904 in number. The tube ends have been inserted in holes and expanded in the drums. The expanded tube forms a perfect sealing against drum plates and also the grooves.
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Further sealing is obtained by seal wedding the tubes to the drum.

5.1.3 Further Wall Tubes:

The furnace has an ample volume to secure complete combustion of fuels. Furnace walls are made from tubes. The space between the tubes are covered by fins. The fins are welded to tubes thus forming totally gas tight furnance walls. Furnace wall tube receiver water from the lower drum and these tubes exceeds to make the front wall.

5.1.4 Super Heater:

Two super heater both of pendant type, non-drainable have been provided. Both super heater are conventional type. Primary super heater is located near the bank of tubes and secondary super heater is located at the exit of furnace. Super heater are hung from super headers which are mounted on furnace side headers. Thermal expansion of super heater is vertical downward allowing free expansion.

5.1.5 De-Super Heater:

To have control over the super heater outlet steam temperature a de super heater has been provided between two super heaters. Feed water trapped upstream of feed water control value is sprayed into steam at the end of primary super heater. This spray is done through super heater nozzle. To prevent quenching a thermal sleeve is provided. Spray water will require from 50%MCR to 110%MCR.

5.2 GAS TURBINES:

Gas turbine is a machine which works like a car engine fuel energy into mechanical energy. By heating up compressed air and expanding it in a set of nozzels, and output shift will drive a generator or a compressor.
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The compressed air is produced in the machine itself by an axial or a radial flow compressor. The compressed air is heated up by fire. The fuel can be heavy oil, diesel oil, kerosene or natural gas or combustion of gas and liquid fuel. The hot compresses air (~1200 c) posses an amount of energy which will partly be transformed into velocity in the nozzles. The high velocity air will now change direction in the gas turbine buckets, heating a force that will rotate the turbine wheel. The process can be repeated in a second or even in a third wheel.

5.3 APPLICATION:
5.3.1 GENERATOR DRIVE: The biggest gas turbine by Thomason international is the so called MS 900 IF of generator electric, USA design. This machine can produce about 220Mw. This power can be compared with the total output of 5000 middle class cars or 3766600 lamp bulbs of 60W each. 5.3.2 COMPRESSOR DRIVE: In the refiners in the chemical plant and th other industries the gas turbines is a well known6 driver for process compressor. These are normally of the centrifugal type. They consume a lot of power due to the very large volume flows are handled. The combination gas turbine compressor is very compacting reliable. In the process, the compressor inlet volume flow might be controlled in speed controlled processes we will find the shaft gas turbine. In these machine we can control the speed of the output shaft by varying the nozzels. 5.3.3 PROPULSION OF AIRCRAFT AND SHIPS: The well known boring 747 dc airbus and fohher air planes are propelled by gas turbines. The fuel used is kerosene. Modern jet engines are equipped with a front fan which delivers 80% of total thrust. The other 20% is generated by the force of the accelerated exhaust gas. In ships, naval ships make use of there relatively small, high power match to develop high cruising speeds. Gas turbines used for jet engines can be modified for stationary use.

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6. OFFSITES
6.1 PRE TREATMENT:
The water from samalkot reservoir being surface water has impurities that are not suitable for industrial process and human consumption. The water after treatment is safe for use in process and for human consumption. The salient unit processes that are involved within the scope of treatment are

Pre-chlorination of raw water in stilling chamber Coagulation with chemicals in flash mixer Flocculation and clarification in Clariflocculator Filtration in rapid gravity filter Post chlorination of filtered water for drinking water purpose.

6.1.1 Pre-chlorination: Pre-chlorination is the application of chlorine to raw water prior to any unit treatment process. The point of application as well as the dosage is determined by the objectives viz. control of bacterial growth in raw water, prevention of mud ball formation and slime promotion in filters, reduction of taste and colour and minimizing the post chlorinisation dosage when dealing with heavy polluted water. 6.1.2 Coagulation with Chemicals in Flash Mixer: Very fine suspended particles and colloidal donor settle by simple gravitational sedimentations and a special treatment is necessary to remove them from suspension. Chemical coagulation is an important process applied extensively in water treatment practice. The effect produced by addition of a chemical to a colloidal dispersion, resulting in particle destabilization that eventually changes into readily settle able solids is called coagulation. The commonly used cost effective, coagulation in water treatment is aluminium sulphate commonly as alum with a chemical formula AL2(SO4)3 18H2O

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For a coagulant to act efficiently, it is necessary that there is sufficient alkanety, in the neutral water, when the alkanity is found to be less than required for complete neutralization of coagulant. Alkanity is imparted by addition of sodium carbonate solution and it reacts with alum. 6.1.3 Clariflocculator: The object of clariflocculator is to form distinct settle able flocs during flocculation and their removal by gravitational setting in the clarifying zone. The cleared water overflows leaving behind the settle able solids. The clariflocculator is a circular tank with flocculation zone in the centre for flocculation and the outer being the clarifying zone for sedimentation. The raw water entering clariflocculator discharges at the top of the flocculation zone through the central opening provided in the central shaft. The water entering the flocculation zone is to subject to slow agitation by the paddles provided. 6.1.4 Filter Beds: The object of this unit to remove the residual suspended impurities from clarified water. The filtering media consists of sand and gravel of desired size and quality. The clarified water containing the residual suspended matter passes down the filter during which the solids are retained on the top of the filter media. Filters water is used for back washing the filters the water being drawn from the wash water tank located on the top of the filter house.

6.2 DM PLANT:
Water is main responsible for the formation of deposits on the water side heating surfaces of boiler units and since these deposits posses low thermal conductivity they cause overheating of tubes, thereby reducing the strength of the metal. Of much importance to the elimination of the above mentioned problems is suitable treatment of water. Such water treatment of water includes ion exchange method. Ion exchanger removes unwanted ions from raw water by transferring them to a solid material called an ion exchange. This operation is cyclic chemical process and the complete cycle usually includes back washing, regeneration and rinsing.

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The plant consists of

Filtered water supply system Activated carbon filters Strong acidic cation exchanger Degasser towers Degassed water storage and pumping system WBA units, SBA units, Mixed beds

6.2.1 Filtered Water Supply System: After removing the turbidity in PTP, water is supplied to the DM plant by means of 4 filtered water pumps. 6.2.2 Activated Carbon Filters: The filtered water from common discharge having residual chlorine is passed through activated carbon filers to remove any organic matter present and residual chlorine which effects the SAC resin. 6.2.3 Strong Acidic Cation Exchanger: The dechlorinated water from activated carbon filters enters the cation exchanger were cations such as Ca, Na etc are taken up by the cation resin and converted into corresponding mineral acids. 6.2.4 Degassed Tower: De cationsed water from the cation exchanger which contains free CO2 or carbonic acid flows down a packed tower against a counter current flow of low pressure air supplied by a monitories air blower from bottom of the tower, CO2 is stripped from water by scrubbing action of air and carried out through the vent. 6.2.6 Weak Base Anion Exchanger: The degasser water containing anion like sulphates, nitrates, chlorides and silica enter water weak base anion exchanger either after completion. 6.2.7 Strong Base Anion Exchanger: The water devoid of strong anions like chlorides, sulphates and nitrates containing only residual chloride and residual CO 2 and silica is passed through SBA exchanger for complete removal of anions. 6.2.8 Filter Beds: The water free from almost all tons containing residual CO2 and silica is passed through mixed bed unit called polishing unit, which contains both cation and anion resins
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in mixed water. The outlet from this unit is demenaralised water containing silica less than 0.01 ppm, PH 7.0

6.3 EFFLUENT TREATMENT PLANT

The water scheme essentially involves removal of oil and Clariflocculator sludge. PH correction and dilution so as to make the treated effluent water fit for aquatic life and plants. 6.3.1 Oil Separator: The oil bearing effluent from process plant and offsites is collected in oil separation pit. The disc oil separator is a floating device supported by 3 numbers of floats which in turn are firmly secured to the two sliding guides provided in the oil separation pit. The principle behind disc oil separator is based on the adhesion of oil, to the lateral surface of metallic discs arranged perpendicular and partially submerged in respect to the surface of oil and routing in respect to the horizontal axis. 6.3.2 Removal of Sludge: Sludge thickener is provided to increase the solid concentration of Clariflocculator sludge. It is a circular sedimentation tank. The sludge is received at the central chute. The settled sludge is with drawn to the thickened sludge pit by gravity. The effluent overflows to circular peripheral launder and conveyed to collection sump or equalization pond directly. 6.3.3 Ph Correction: The ammonia and urea bearing effluents from the respective plant off-spec process condensate from urea and ammonia plant, acidic regeneration effluent from DM plant. HCL acid is added to bring down the PH to the range 7 to 8. When the PH of the mixed effluent is stabilized, it is pumped to equalization pond by effluent recirculation transfer pump.

6.4 COOLING TOWERS:

Most industrial process need cooling medium for efficient and proper operation. Water is the most effective cooling medium and

It is readily available in plenty. It is easily handled. It can carry large amount of heat per unit volume.
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It does not expand or compress significantly with in normally encountered temperature ranges. It does not decompose. The system using water as coolant are called as cooling water systems. They

control temperature and pressure by transferring heat from hot process fluid into the cooling water which carries the unwanted heat away. There are 3 basic cooling water systems. The choice of the right cooling water system depend on various factors such as type of process fluid being cooled, nature of the process, availabilty and the cost of water characterstics of water and environmental considerations.

6.5 INERT GAS PLANT

The plant is designed to produce gaseous and liquid nitrogen with a high level of purity, oxygen content of the order of less than 1ppm by volume by volume. The process adopted here is seperation of air into nitrogen and waste gas rich in O2. The compressed air is cooled, liquified and then distilled there by a portion of nitrogen content of the air is seperated as pure nitrogen. The waste gas is expanded through an expanded to produce refrigeration necessary for the operation of the plant. 6.5.1 Equipment associated with warm ends for purification of air

MAIN AIR COMPRESSOR: The screw compressor consists of two stages, namely one L.P and one H.P and it is provided as a source of feed air to the plant. CHILLER: The chiller unit is intended for lowering the feed air temp from 49 to 12 with the help of a closed loop refrigeneration system, thereby removing the bulk of the moisture content from it before passing it on molecular sieve bed.

MOLECULAR SIEVE ADSORBER: The molecular sieve adsorbers are mainly intended for drying and removal of cantaminants like CO 2 and hydro carboons like Acetylene, Propylene etc.., by employing solid granular dessicant.

6.5.2 The Main Equipments Are:

COLD BOX: As the name implies, cold box consists of equipment associated with cryogenic process such as main heat exchanger, HP column and re-boiler/condensor
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vessel valves, control valves and expander. During operation of plant pure N 2 gas is fed into Cold box to prevent O2 rich in atmosphere which may develop due to leaks.

EXPANDER: The cryogenic centripetal expands is employed as a cold producer. The waste gas is generated in the re boiler is the motive force for spinning the expander. STORAGE TANKS: Two number of sorage are provided for storing N2 in the state of liquid. VAPORIZER: Two numbers of ambient vaporizers are installed because of enormous surface area to which it is exposed and aided by start type arrangement of the tube LIN is instantly to become GAN.

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7. DCS and PLC

7.1 MAJOR TYPES OF INDUSTRIAL CONTROL SYSTEMS:
Industrial control system or ICS comprise of different types of control systems that are currently in operation in various industries. These control systems include PLC, SCADA and DCS and various others: 7.1.1 PLC: They are based on the Boolean logic operations whereas some models use timers and some have continuous control. These devices are computer based and are used to control various process and equipments within a facility. PLCs control the components in the DCS and SCADA systems but they are primary components in smaller control configurations.

7.1.2 DCS:
Distributed Control Systems consists of decentralized elements and all the processes are controlled by these elements. Human interaction is minimized so the labor costs and injuries can be reduced.

7.1.3 EMBEDDED CONTROL: In this control system, small components are attached to the industrial computer system with the help of a network and control is exercised.

7.1.4 SCADA: Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition refers to a centralized system and this system is composed of various subsystems like Remote Telemetry Units, Human Machine Interface, Programmable Logic Controller or PLC and Communications.

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7.2 PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER

A programmable logic controller (PLC) or programmable controller is a digital computer used for automation of electromechanical processes, such as control of machinery on factory assembly lines, amusement rides, or lighting fixtures. PLCs are used in many industries and machines. Unlike general-purpose computers, the PLC is designed for multiple inputs and output arrangements, extended temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise, and resistance to vibration and impact. Programs to control machine operation are typically stored in batterybacked or non-volatile memory. A PLC is an example of a hard real time system since output results must be produced in response to input conditions within a bounded time, otherwise unintended operation will result. These PLCs were programmed in "ladder logic", which strongly resembles a schematic diagram of relay logic. This program notation was chosen to reduce training demands for the existing technicians. Other early PLCs used a form of instruction list programming, based on a stack-based logic solver. Early PLCs, up to the mid-1980s, were programmed using proprietary programming panels or special-purpose programming terminals, which often had dedicated function keys representing the various logical elements of PLC programs. Programs were stored on cassette tape cartridges. Facilities for printing and documentation were very minimal due to lack of memory capacity. The very oldest PLCs used non-volatile magnetic core memory. More recently, PLCs are programmed using application software on personal computers. The computer is connected to the PLC through Ethernet, RS-232, RS-485 or RS-422 cabling. The programming software allows entry and editing of the ladder-style logic. Generally the software provides functions for debugging and troubleshooting the PLC software. 7.2.1 COMPONENTS OF PLC:

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT: The CPU used is a standard CPU present in many other microprocessor controlled systems. The choice of the CPU depends on the process to be controlled. Generally 8 or 16 bit CPUs fulfilling the requirement adequately.

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MEMORY UNIT: Memory in a PLC system is divided into the program memory which is usually stored in EPROM/ROM, and the operating memory. The RAM memory is necessary for the operation of the program and the temporary storage of input and output data. Typical memory sizes of PLC systems are around 1kb for small PLCs, few kb for medium sizes and greater than 10-20 kb for larger PLC depending on the requirements. Many PLC would support easy memory upgrades.

INPUT/ OUTPUT UNIT: Input/Output units are the interfaces between the internal PLC systems and the external processes to be monitored and controlled. Since the PLC is a logic based device with a typical operating voltage of 5 volts and the external processes usually demand higher powers and currents, the I/O modules are optically or otherwise isolated. The typical I/O operating voltages are 5V - 240 V dc (or ac) and currents from 0.1A up to several amperes. The I/O modules are designed in this way to minimize or eliminate the need for any intermediate circuitry between the PLC and the process to be controlled.

7.2.2 PROGRAMMING UNIT: Programming units are essential components of the PLC systems. Since they are used only in the development/testing stage of a PLC program, they are not permanently attached to the PLC. The program in a ladder diagram or other form can be designed and usually tested before downloading to the PLC. The Programming unit can be a dedicated device or a personal computer. It allows the graphical display of the program (ladder diagram). The unit, once connected to the PLC can download the program and allows for the real time monitoring of its operation to assist debugging. Once the program is found to operate as required the Programming Unit is disconnected from the PLC which continues the operation.

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Fig 1: programming unit of plc

7.2.3 PLC OPERATION STEPS:

Input Scan: Scans the state of the Inputs Program Scan: Executes the program logic Output Scan: Energize/de-energize the outputs Housekeeping

7.2.4 TRADITIONAL PLC APPLICATIONS : In automated system, PLC controller is usually the central part of a process control system. To run more complex processes it is possible to connect more PLC controllers to a central computer. 7.2.5 DISADVANTAGES OF PLC CONTROL:

Too much work required in connecting wires. Difficulty with changes or replacements. Difficulty in finding errors; requiring skillful work force. When a problem occurs, hold-up time is indefinite, usually long.

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7.2.6 ADVANTAGES OF PLC CONTROL:

Rugged and designed to withstand vibrations, temperature, humidity, and noise. Have interfacing for inputs and outputs already inside the controller. Easily programmed and have an easily understood programming langauge.

7.3 DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM: A distributed control system (DCS) refers to a control system usually of a manufacturing system, process or any kind of dynamic system, in which the controller elements are not central in location (like the brain) but are distributed throughout the system with each component subsystem controlled by one or more controllers. The entire system of controllers is connected by networks for communication and monitoring.

Fig.2: Distributed control System A DCS typically uses custom designed processors as controllers and uses both proprietary interconnections and communications protocol for communication. Input and output modules form component parts of the DCS. The processor receives information from input modules and sends information to output modules. The input modules receive information from input instruments in the process (a.k.a. field) and transmit instructions to the output instruments in the field. Computer buses or electrical buses connect the processor and modules through multiplexer or demultiplexers. Buses also connect the distributed controllers with the central controller and finally to the Human-Machine Interface (HMI) or control consoles. See Process Automation System. Elements of a distributed control system may directly connect to physical equipment
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such as switches, pumps and valves or may work through an intermediate system such as a SCADA system.

7.4 HISTORY:
Early minicomputers were used in the control of industrial processes since the beginning of the 1960s. The IBM 1800, for example, was an early computer that had input/output hardware to gather process signals in a plant for conversion from field contact levels (for digital points) and analog signals to the digital domain.

Fig.3: working block diagram of DCS The first industrial control computer system was built 1959 at the Texaco Port Arthur, Texas, refinery with an RW-300 of the Ramo-Wooldridge Company The DCS was introduced in 1975. Both Honeywell and Japanese electrical engineering firm Yokogawa introduced their own independently produced DCSs at roughly the same time, with the TDC 2000 and CENTU systems, respectively. US-based Bristol also introduced their UCS 3000 universal controller in 1975. Digital communication between distributed controllers, workstations and other computing elements (peer to peer access) was one of the primary advantages of the DCS. Attention was duly focused on the networks, which provided the all-important lines of communication that, for process applications, had to incorporate specific functions such as determinism and redundancy

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7.5 COMPONENTS OF DCS: DCS System consists minimum of the following components:

Field Control station (FCS): It consists of input/output modules, CPU and communication bus. Operator station: It is basically human interface machine with monitor, the operator man can view the process in the plant and check if any alarm is presents and he can change any setting, print reports etc.

Engineering station: It is used to configure all input & output and drawing and any things required to be monitored on Operator station monitor. Information management system: This component maintain a continues and complete track record of every function done by the operator every command performed and can be viewed as history.

Controller Subsystems: Provides continuous and or discontinuous monitoring and control of the process.

7.6 APPLICATIONS:
Distributed Control Systems (DCSs) are dedicated systems used to control manufacturing processes that are continuous or batch-oriented, such as oil refining, petrochemicals, central station power generation, fertilizers, pharmaceuticals, food & beverage manufacturing, cement production, steelmaking, and papermaking. DCSs are connected to sensors and actuators and use set point control to control the flow of material through the plant. The most common example is a set point control loop consisting of a pressure sensor, controller, and control valve. Pressure or flow measurements are transmitted to the controller, usually through the aid of a signal conditioning Input/output (I/O) device. When the measured variable reaches a certain point, the controller instructs a valve or actuation device to open or close until the fluidic flow process reaches the desired setpoint. Large oil refineries have many thousands of I/O points and employ very large DCSs.

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Processes are not limited to fluidic flow through pipes, however, and can also include things like paper machines and their associated quality controls (Quality Control System QCS), variable speed drives and motor control centers, cement kilns, mining operations, ore processing facilities, and many others.A typical DCS consists of functionally and/or geographically distributed digital controllers capable of executing from 1 to 256 or more regulatory control loops in one control box. The input/output devices (I/O) can be integral with the controller or located remotely via a field network. Todays controllers have extensive computational capabilities and, in addition to proportional, integral, and derivative (PID) control, can generally perform logic and sequential control. Modern DCSs support also neural networks and fuzzy application. DCSs may employ one or several workstations and can be configured at the workstation or by an off-line personal computer. Local communication is handled by a control network with transmission over twisted pair, coaxial, or fiber optic cable. A server and/or applications processor may be included in the system for extra computational, data collection, and reporting capability.

7.7 ADVANTAGES:

The computer can record and store a very large amount of data The data can be displayed in any way the user requires Thousands of sensors over a wide area can be connected to the system The operator can incorporate real data simulations into the system Many types of data can be collected from the RTUs The data can be viewed from anywhere, not just on site.

7.8 DISADVANTAGES:

Different operating skills are required, such as system analysts and programmer With thousands of sensors there is still a lot of wire to deal with.

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7.9 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DCS AND PLC:

The differences between DCS and PLC are: DCS (Distributed Control System) is a CONTROL SYSTEM that works using several controllers and coordinates the work of all these controllers. Each controller is handling a separate plant. This controller is referred to the PLC. The PLC (Programmable Logic Controller) is a CONTROLLER which can be re-program back. If the PLC is only a stand-alone and not combined with other PLCs, it is called as DDC. It means PLC is a sub system of a large system called DCS.

DCS is not a large PLC. Because system architecture of DCS and PLC are different. DCS is not PLCs that integrated into one large system. "Controller" in the PLC is more intended as a "Logic Controller", while Controller in the DCS is more intended as a "Process Controller".

Both DCS and PLC is a configurable and reconfigurable.

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8. MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE

8.1 INTRODUCTION: Temperature is arguably the one physical variable in science to which man is most sensitive. Websters defines temperature as the degree of hotness or coldness measured on a definite scale. It is sometimes more convient to think of temperature as the level of thermal energy. It is similar to voltage as a measure of electrical energy. Temperature is the driving force for heat flow much the way voltage is the driving force for the flow of electricity.

8.2 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY THEROMOMETERS:

Thermometers can be divided into two separate groups according to the level of knowledge about the physical basis of the underlying thermodynamic laws and quantities. For primary thermometers the measured property of matter is known so well that temperature can be calculated without any unknown quantities. Examples of these are thermometers based on the equation of state of a gas, on the velocity of sound in a gas, on the thermal noise of an electrical resistor, on blackbody radiation, and on the angular anisotropy of gamma ray emission of certain radioactive nuclei in a magnetic field. Primary thermometers are relatively complex. Secondary thermometers are most widely used because of their convenience. Also, they are often much more sensitive than primary ones. For secondary thermometers knowledge of the measured property is not sufficient to allow direct calculation of temperature. They have to be calibrated against a primary thermometer at least at one temperature or at a number of fixed temperatures. Such fixed points, for example, triple points and

superconducting transitions, occur reproducibly at the same temperature.

8.3 CALIBRATION:
Thermometers can be calibrated either by comparing them with other

calibrated thermometers or by checking them against known fixed points on the

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temperature scale. The best known of these fixed points are the melting and boiling points of pure water. The traditional method of putting a scale on a liquid-in-glass or liquid-in-metal thermometer was in three in stages:

Immerse the sensing portion in a stirred mixture of pure ice and water at 1 Standard atmosphere and mark the point indicated when it had come to thermal equilibrium.

Immerse the sensing portion in a steam bath at 1 Standard atmosphere and again mark the point indicated. Divide the distance between these marks into equal portions according to the temperature scale being used.

Other fixed points were used in the past are the body temperature (of a healthy adult male) which was originally used by Fahrenheit as his upper fixed point (96 F (36 C) to be a number divisible by 12) and the lowest temperature given by a mixture of salt and ice, which was originally the definition of 0 F (18 C).As body temperature varies, the Fahrenheit scale was later changed to use an upper fixed point of boiling water at 212 F (100 C). These have now been replaced by the defining points in the International Temperature Scale of 1990, though in practice the melting point of water is more commonly used than its triple point, the latter being more difficult to manage and thus restricted to critical standard measurement. Now a days manufacturers will often use a thermostat bath or solid block where the temperature is held constant relative to a calibrated thermometer. Other thermometers to be calibrated are put into the same bath or block and allowed to come to equilibrium, then the scale marked, or any deviation from the instrument scale recorded .For many modern devices calibration will be stating some value to be used in processing an electronic signal to convert it to a temperature.

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8.3.1 SELECTING A CALIBRATION SYSTEM:

Before selecting equipment for a calibration system, it is important to have a clear idea of what results are expected. The object should provide the greatest return on investment by selecting the equipment which will satisfy the need. The following points should be considered.

Size and type of devices to be calibrated. Total number of frequency of calibrations. Temperature range. Accuracy requirements. Speed and convenience of changing temperature. Speed and convenience of measuring bath temperature.

8.4 THERMOCOUPLE:
A thermocouple is a thermo-electric temperature-measuring device .It is formed by welding, soldering, or merely pressing two dissimilar metals together in series to produce a thermal electromotive force(E), when the junctions are at different temperatures.

8.4.1 THEORY OF THERMOCOUPLES:

Any junction of dissimilar metals will produce an electric potential related to temperature. Thermocouples for practical measurement of temperature are junctions of specific alloys which have a predictable and repeatable relationship between temperature and voltage. Different alloys are used for different temperature ranges. Properties such as resistance to corrosion may also be important when choosing a type of thermocouple. Where the measurement point is far from the measuring instrument, the intermediate connection can be made by extension wires which are less costly than the materials used to make the sensor.

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8.4.2 Different Thermocouple Types:

A thermocouple is available in different combinations of metals or calibrations. The four most common calibrations are J, K, T and E. There are high temperature calibrations R, S, C and GB. Each calibration has a different temperature range and environment, although the maximum temperature varies with the diameter of the wire used in thermocouple. Although the thermocouple calibration dictates the temperature range, the maximum range is also limited by the diameter of the thermocouple wire.

8.4.3 How to Choose a Thermocouple Type?

Because a thermocouple measures in wide temperature ranges and can be relatively rugged, thermocouples are very often used in industry. The following criteria are used in selecting a thermocouple:

Temperature range Chemical resistance of the thermocouple or sheath material Abrasion and vibration resistance Installation requirements

Fig.4: practical circuit of thermocouple

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This phenomenon of generating EMFs is governed by the Peltier, Thomson and Setback effects each producing EMFs in the thermoelectric circuit. The Peltier and Thomson effects are heat-transport effects associated with electric current. They describe the interchange between thermal and electric energy.

8.4.4 BIMETALLIC THERMOMETERS:

The bimetallic thermometer is based on two simple principles. First that metals change in volume in response to a change in temperature and, secondly, the coefficient of change is different for all metals strips are bonded together and then heated the resultant strip to bend in the direction of the metal with the lower coefficient of expansion. The degree of deflection is proportional to the change in temperature. Since the amount of movement is typically rather small it is amplified by using a long strip of material wound into a helix or a spiral. One end of the spiral is immersed in the medium to be measured and the other end is attached to a pointer. The bimetallic thermometer may be rugged to actuate a recorder pen. The bimetallic thermometer offers the advantage of being much more resistant to breakage than the glass thermometer. It is however, subject is not as the glass thermometer.

8.5 FILLED THERMAL ELEMENTS:

The filled thermal element consists of a bulb connected to a small capillary, which is connected to an appropriate indicating device. The system acts as a transducer, which in turn is converted to temperature by use of an appropriate indicating scale. The entire mechanism is gas tight and filled with gas or liquid under pressure. The fluid or gas inside the device expands and contracts with a change in temperature causing a spiral bourdon gauge to move. The response time and accuracy are provided by the filled thermal element are sufficient for many industrial-monitoring applications. Since the unit is self-contained and needs no power it is naturally explosion proof. On the down side the bulbs are usually much larger than that of a thermocouple or RTD. Also repair must typically be done at the manufacturers facility.

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8.6 QUARTZ CRYSTAL THERMOMETERS:

Measurement of temperature deviations in the 103 to 106C range has been made, using a specially designed 5Mc quartz crystal unit. The crystal unit consists of a 5 Ycut crystal plate in a glass bulb. The oscillator is a Piercetype transistor circuit similar to those presently in use in ground station frequency standards. The crystal units have a temperaturefrequency coefficient of approximately 80 parts per 10 6C. The crystal Q is of the order of 3 million, and the oscillator has a short time stability of 3 pp 10 10, giving a temperature sensitivity of 3.8106C for periods of the order of 10 sec. To measure temperature deviations of a few micro degrees requires the ability to measure frequency deviations of a few parts in 1010. However, to measure temperature deviations of a few tenths of a milli degree, it is necessary only to measure frequency deviations of a few parts in 108.

8.7 RADIATION PYROMETRY:

Radiation pyrometers infer temperature by collecting the thermal radiation from an object and focusing it on a sensor. The sensor or detector is typically a photon detector, which produces an output as the radiant energy striking it releases electrical charges. The advantage of the radiation pyrometery method is that they produce a stable non-contact output signal. This is of particular usefulness when working with very high process temperatures where conventional sensing elements would have very short life spans. They are also useful in applications where the temperature of a continuously moving sheet of material must be monitored. Radiation pyrometers can be very susceptible to ambient temperature fluctuations and often require special installation or water-cooling to maintain a constant ambient.

8.8 THERMISTORS: Thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance varies significantly with
temperature, more than in standard resistors. The word is a portmanteau of thermal and resistor. Thermistors are widely used as inrush current limiters, temperature sensors, selfresetting over current protectors, and self-regulating heating elements.

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Thermistors differ from resistance temperature detectors(RTD) in that the material used in a thermistor is generally a ceramic or polmer, while RTDs use pure metals. The temperature response is also different. RTDs are useful over larger temperature ranges, while thermistors typically achieve a higher precision within a limited temperature range.

Thermistor symbol Assuming, as a first approximation that the relationship between resistance and

temperature is linear, then: R kT Where R = change in resistance T = change in temperature k = first-order temperature coefficient of resistance Thermistors can be classified into two types, depending on the sign of k. If k is positive, the resistance increases with increasing temperature, and the device is called a positive temperature coefficient(PTC) Thermistor or posistor. If k is negative, the

resistance decreases with increasing temperature, and the device is called a negative temperature coefficient(NTC) thermistor. Resistors that are not Thermistor are designed to have a k as close to zero as possible so that their resistance remains nearly constant over a wide temperature range. Instead of the temperature coefficient k, sometimes the temperature coefficient of resistance (alpha) or T is used. It is defined as

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8.9 RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTORS:

The same year that Seebeck made his discovery, Sir Humphrey Davy announced that the resistivity of metals showed marked temperature dependence. In 1871 Sir William Siemens suggested the use of platinum in a resistance thermometer. Resistance thermometers also called resistance detectors or resistive thermal devices are temperature sensors that exploit the predictable change in electrical resistance of some materials with changing temperature. As they are almost invariably made of platinum they are often called platinum resistance thermometers(PRTs). They are slowly replacing the use of thermocouples in many industrial applications below 600 C, due to higher accuracy and repeatability. Rt =Ro[1+(t-to)] Where: Rt= resistance of temperature T Ro= resistance of standard temperature To = temperature coefficient of resistance Nickel offers the best sensitivity or change in resistance for a change in temperature. Because platinum is a noble metal, it offers the greatest stability and largest temperature range of the RTD metals. Its good linearity combined with the high repeatability and stability make platinum the most widely used metal for RTDs. To achieve an accurate R vs T curve and equation over the wide temperature range can be a complex procedure, the equation must contain variables that will account for variations in nominal resistance as specific temperature as well variations due to the effect of strain and impurities. For example the Calender-Van Dusen equation is

commonly used in industry to define the R vs T relationship for platinum between 183C and +630C.

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Most RTDs fall into one of two types- immersion or surface mounted. In each case, the element and its enclosure are designed for specific measurement applications and conditions.

8.9.1 IMMERSION RTDS:

As the name suggests, immersion RTDs are meant to allow a sensing element to be immersed in media to measure its temperature. Various threaded to flange-mounted fittings area available to support such installation. The primary components of an immersion RTD are:

Sensing element Protective sheath or shield Threaded or flange mount Housing Electrical connector

8.9.2 SURFACE-MOUNTED RTDS:

In a number of applications surface mounting of the sensing device is the most efficient or convenient installation method. Be aware that for surface

measurement , conditions such as sensor insulation and lead wire conduction should be investigated to ensure an accurate measurement.

8.9.3 PLATINUM RTD:

It is also known as PtRTD, platinum RTDs are typically the most linear, stable, repeatable, and accurate of all RTDs.Platinum wire was choosen by OMEGA because it best meets the need of precision thermometry.

8.9.4 THIN FILM RTD:

Thin film RTDs are made up of a thin layer of a base metal embedded into a ceramic substrate and trimmed to produce the desired resistance value. OMEGA RTDs
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are made by depositing platinum as a film on a substrate and then capsulating both. This method allows for the production of small, fast response, accurate sensors. Thin film elements conform to the European curve.

8.10 SENSING ELEMENTS:

The heart of an RTD is the sensing element. The most basic configuration for an RTD sensing element suitable for practical application. The small diameter wire element is wound in a baffler manner onto a cylindrical mandrel, usually made of ceramic. Lead wires run axially through the mandrel and are connected to the element wire. The mandrel assembly is usually covered with a coating or glaze to protect the element wire. RTD sensing element design considers several factors that affect accuracy. For example, in RTDs the sensing element materials should have thermal expansion properties as similar to platinum as possible.

8.11 SIGNALLING CONDITION NECESSARY FOR TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS:

To make accurate and reliable temperature measurements, signal conditioning is required. In designing the right measurements system for your temperature sensor, you should consider,

8.11.1 AMPLIFICATION:
Output signals from temperature sensors are typically in the millivolt range, so you should amplify the signal and take care to prevent noise in your measurement system. Choose a gain that optimizes the input limits of the analog-to-digital converter (ADC) in your hardware. To improve the noise performance of your system, you can amplify the low-level voltages near the signal source or measurement point.

8.11.2 ISOLATION:
Thermocouples being mounted on or soldered directly to a conductive material, such as steel or water, introduce another source of noise. This configuration makes thermocouples particularly susceptible to common-mode voltage and ground loops. Isolation
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helps to prevent ground loops and can dramatically improve the rejection of commonmode voltage. With conductive material that has a large common-mode voltage, isolation is required because non isolated amplifiers cannot measure signals with large commonmode voltages.

8.11.3 FILTERING:
Lowpass filters are commonly used to effectively eliminate high-frequency noise in temperature measurements. For example, lowpass filters are useful for removing the 60 Hz power line noise that is prevalent in many laboratory and plant settings.

8.11.4 EXCITATION:
Because resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) and thermistors are resistive devices, you must supply them with an excitation current and then read the voltage across their terminals. If extra heat cannot be dissipated, heating caused by the excitation current can raise the temperature of the sensing element above that of the ambient temperature. Self-heating actually changes the resistance of the RTD or thermistor, causing error in the measurement. You can minimize the effects of self-heating by supplying lower excitation current.

8.11.5 ACCURACY AND RESOLUTION:

In selecting the right sensor and data acquisition hardware, you must know the accuracy and resolution requirements for your application. Though filtering and

amplification can dramatically improve the accuracy of thermocouple measurements, RTDs and thermistors are known to yield more accurate readings. In addition to sensor considerations, you should match the required accuracy and resolution for your application to the data acquisition and signal conditioning hardware that you select.

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9. MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE
Gravity dependent and independent units of force and pressure are given. The concepts of liquid head, static pressure and various other pressure definitions are intorduced. Important manometer types are surveyed and the essential principles of operations are explained.

9.1 SECONDARY ELEMENTS:

Bellows, metallic diaphram, force-balance, bourdon spring are compared to modern electronic versions. The important principles of pressure transmitter selection are outlined and reinforced by the space study, calibration of transmitters is out lined.

9.2 MANOMETERS:

The U tube is the easiest to manufacture and most widely used type. Measurements are taken from the topmost point of the curved surface(meniscus) of hg and the lowest point of H2O

The well manometer amplifies the smaller level moment in the larger reservoir by using a narrower scaled tube. This increases sensitivity of measurements in the ratio of the areas of the tubes.

In the inclined manometer, the inclined leg further amplifies the small level fluctuations of larger well by the sine of the angle of inclination. The narrower tube can be parabolically curved to extract the square root and rear flow rate directly. Often dyed oil issued in these devices and detergent is added to reduce frictional effects with the glass. The instrument is supplied with the quoted specific gravity of the oil is used.

The mercury float manometer uses metallic displaces, which floats in mercury. The pointer, passes through the gland and indicate against the scale. The bell type manometer is used expensively in industry to measure low pressure, with a range of generally from 2-20cm of water. With proper design to minimize friction this gauge can be made responsive to the smallest pressure variations normally encountered in industry, except for those measurements which might be termed high vaccum.

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Figure 6 With the design of bell type instrument, most of the bell will be out of liquid when the differential pressure is zero. Increasing the differential will then force the bell down against the action of spring and the lower pressure. Whether the pressure forces the bell ups and down is of no concern is studying the characterstics of this type of instrument.

9.3 RING BALANCE TYPE:

This type of instrument is frequently used for the measurement of low differential pressure of the order of a few inches of water gauge. The essential portion of this instrument consists of a hollow ring of circular section, partitioned at its upper part and partially filled with a liquid in order to form two pressure measuring chambers. The body of the ring is supported at its centre by knife edging resting on a bearing surface, or by roller bearing or ball bearings. The force which operates the instrument is due to the difference between the pressures on the two sides of the partition. This ring will therefore rotate in a counter clockwise direction.

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Figure 7

9.4 MEASURING DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE:

Differential head type flow meters are the most economical of all the flow rates devices. They perform well with both liquids and gases. A great deal of data and experience are available to support their position. Their major limitations are difficulty in reading low flow rates, a square root relationship in read out and inability to cope with certain types of fluids. Some difficulties can overcome by other types of flow meters, such as the magnetic flow meter. As the picture shows, the effect of the measured pressure is to increase the height of a column of material above its equilibrium state. The difference in the pressure between process and reference is proportional to the height of the fluid supported.

9.5 MEASURABLE PRESSURES:

Absolute Pressures Atmospheric Pressure Barometric Pressure Differential Pressure

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Gauge Pressure Hydrostatic Pressure Static Pressure Vaccum Working Pressure Dynamic Pressure Compound Pressure

9.6 GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF MEASUREMENT:

The measurement of pressure is considered the basic process variable in that it is utilized for measurement of flow and even temperature. All pressures measurement systems consist of two basic parts, a primary element which is contact, directly or indirectly with the pressure medium and interacts with pressure changes and a secondary element which translates this interaction into appropriate values for use in indicating, recording and/or controlling.

9.7 MECHANICAL TRANSDUCERS: 9.7.1 BELLOWS: A metallic bellows is a series of circular parts so firmed or joined that
they can be expanded axially by pressure. To the extent it is desirable to limit their travel a range spring is employed so that the bellows work against it. The practical limitations of material selection usually limit the bellows to measurements from 0.5 to 70psi by increasing the diameter of the bellows force, pressures as low as 0.06psi can be measured.

9.7.2 BOURDON TUBES: The original patent described it as a curved or twisted tube
whose cross section isnt circular. The application of internal pressure causes the tube to un wind or straighten out. The movement of the free end is transmitted to a pointer or other indicating element. Phosphor bronze, beryllium copper, steel, chrome alloy and stainless steel are commonly used. Indeed they are the most widely used type of pressure gauge. The pressure gauge can be filled with oil to limit the damage caused by variation.

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9.7.3 METTALIC DIAPHRAGM: Gauges employing diaphragm give a better and more
positive indication than the bourdon type of gauge for low pressure ranges. The principle employed simply requires that the deformed middle section of the diaphragm push against and deflect a pointer on a scale. The aneroid barometer is an example of such a system

9.7.4 FORCE BALANCE: Force balance pressure transmitters are closed loop feedback
devices. In a force balance unit, pressure displays an element. The amount of displacement is detected and the element is returned to null or zero displacement position by restoring force which can be pneumatic. Force balance type transmitters have been around for a long time and are familiar to many users. They are rugged and work well with high pressures. But they are big and can be sensitive to vibration and temperature. In a situation above a force balance principle is employed to generate a pneumatic signal proportional to the diaphragm deformation deformation. As the force bar is deflected towards the nozzle, back pressure in the nozzle is communicated to the output signal and the feedback bellows. These bellows bring the force bar to a new equilibrium position.

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10. MEASUREMENT OF LEVEL

In many industrial processes it is very important to know the level of liquid in a tank or vessel. The need for an instrument to indicate this probably arose with the invention of the steam engine. It is essential to know the level of the water in the boiler while it is in use and under pressure but it is impossible to view it directly. Industrial methods of determining level can be divided into two groups. Level measurement is one of the oldest measurements. The measurement of industrial process level parameters is of great importance in the industrial field. The level of liquids may affect both the pressure and the rate of flow in and out of the tank or vessel, hence the quality may be effected. In this, we will be discussing about different methods of level measurement. In the first group, the level if the liquid is measured directly by means of a hook type level indicator, a sight glass, or float-actuated mechanism. In the second group, use is made of the fact that the pressure due to a column, but only upon the depth and density. Thus, if the pressure due to the column of liquid doesnt depend on the cross sectional area of the column, but not only on the depth and the density. Thus, if the pressure due to a column of liquid of known density is known density is measured, then its depth may be calculated. The pressure may be measured directly, by balancing it against a mercury column. It may be measured by means of a gauge using some form of diaphragm of elastic pressure element, or some form of gas or liquid purge system is used when a fluid pressure equal to that of a column of liquid has to be measured in this second group may be included weighing tubes and buoyancy types.

Methods of Liquid Level Measurement:

Generally there are two methods used in industries for measuring liquid level. There are: direct methods indirect method

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DIRECT METHOD:
This is simplest method of measuring liquid level. In this method, the level of the liquid is measured directly by means of following level indicators: hook type level indicator sight glass float type

10.1 HOOK TYPE LEVEL INDICATOR:

When the level of liquid in an open tank is measured directly on a scale,it is sometimes difficult to read the level accurately because of parallax error. In this case a hook type of level indicator is used. 10.1.1 Construction: Hook type level indicator consists of a wire of corrosion resisting alloy about in diameter, bent into u shape with longer than the other, as shown. The shorter arm is pointed with a 60 degrees taper, while the longer one is attached to a slider having a vernier scale, which moves over the main scale and indicates the level.

Fig 8: Hook-type level indicator

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10.1.2 Working: Here the hook is pushed below the surface of the liquid whose level is to be measured and gradually increased until the point is just about to break through the surface. It is then clamped, and the level is read on the scale. This principle is further used in measuring point nanometer in which the measuring point consists of steel point fixed upwards underneath the water surface. an eye piece is fixed to view this point at 45 degrees under the water so that in addition to the point being seen, the image of the point by total internal reflection is also seen, as shown in the figure. Now, the water level is adjusted until the tip of the image touches tip of the point and the level is read on the scale. Since the point is always under water, the trouble due to the surface tension, when the point is above the water, is not experienced.

10.2 SIGHT GLASS:

This is also called as gauge glass. This is another method of liquid level measurement. It is used for continuous indication of liquid level within the tank or vessel. 10.2.1 Construction and working: A sight glass instrument consists of a graduated tube of toughened glass which is connected to the interior of the tank at the bottom in which the water level is required. This figure shows a simple sight glass for open tank in which the liquid level in the sight glass matches the level of liquid in the tank. As the level of liquid in the tank rises and falls, the level in the sight glass also rises and falls accordingly. Thus by measuring the level in the sight glass, level of liquid in the tank is measured. In the sight glass, it is not necessary to use the same liquid as in the tank. Any other desired liquid also can be used.

Fig 9: Sight glass for an open task

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When it is desired to measure a liquid level with the liquid under the pressure or vaccum ,the sight glass must be connected to the tank at the top as well as at the bottom ,otherwise the pressure difference between the tank and the sight glass would cause false reading. in this case, the glass tube is enclosed in a protective housing ,and two valves are provided for isolating the gauge from the tank in the case of breakage of the sight glass .the smaller valve at the bottom is provided for blowing out the gauge for cleaning purposes. In the figure it shows a high pressure sight glass in which measurement is made by reading the position of the liquid level on the calibrated scale. This is type of sight glass in high pressure tanks is used with appropriate safety precautions. The glass tube must have a small inside diameter and the thick wall.

Fig 10: High Pressure sight glass 10.2.2 Advantages:

Direct reading is possible. Glassless designs are available in numerous materials for corrision resistance.

10.2.3 Disadvantages:

It is read only where the tank is located, which is not always convenient. Accuracy and readability depend on the cleanliness of the glass and fluid.

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10.3 Float type level indicator:

Float operated level indicator is used to measure liquid levels in a tank in which a float rests on the surface of liquid and follows the changing level of the liquid. The movement of the float is transmitted to a transmitted to a pointer through a suitable mechanism which indicates the level on a calibrated scale. Various types of floats are used such as hollow metal spheres, Cylindrical -shaped floats and disc shaped floats. 10.3.1 Construction and working: This figure shows the simplest form of float operated mechanism for the continuous liquid level measurement. In this case, the movement of the float is transmitted to the pointer by stainless steel or phosphor-bronze flexible cable wound around a pulley, and pointer indicates liquid level in the tank. The float is made of corrosion resisting material and rests on liquid level surface between two girds to avoid error due to turbulence. With this type of instrument liquid level from 1/2ft to 60 ft can be easily measured.

Fig 11 : Float operated liquid level indicator With the float operated of mechanism, the liquid level can be transmitted to a distant place using a hydraulic transmission system, as shown in the figure.

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10.3.2 Advantages: It is possible to read the liquid levels in the tank from the ground level even if the tank is kept empty below the round level. It cost is low and has reliable designs. It operates over a large temperature range.

10.3.3 Disadvantages: They are normally limited to moderate pressures. They are tailored to tank geometry.

Indirect methods:
Generally these methods are used in industries: Hydrostatic pressure type Electrical methods

10.4 HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE TYPE:

A liquid in a tank at rest exerts a force on the walls of the tank. This force in liquid at rest is hydrostatic pressure, and is proportional to the depth of liquid in the tank. Hydrostatic pressure methods used for liquid measurement are listed below: 1) Pressure gauge method 2) Air bellows 3) Air purge system 4) Liquid purge system

10.5 PRESSURE GAUGE METHOD:

This is simplest method used for liquid level measurement in an open tank. Hydrostatic pressure of any liquid in an open tank is given by the equation:

P= *h*Sg
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Where, P = pressure in psi or N/m2

= water density
h =height of liquid in inch or meter Sg = specific gravity

Hydrostatic pressure of a liquid in a close tank or vessel is given by the equation:

P= (*h*Sg) + external pressure on liquid

Therefore, the pressure measured at the bottom of the tank containing a liquid of known density and specific gravity is directly proportional to the height or level of liquid in the tank .this principle is utilized in pressure gauge instrument for liquid measurement. 10.5.1 Construction and working: The pressure gauge level indicator consists of a pressure gauge connected at the lowest level of the tank. The level at which the pressure gauge is fitted ,is known as the reference level and the static pressure measured by the gauge is a measure of the height of the liquid column above the reference level and hence the liquid level.

Fig 12: Open Tank Pressure Indicator

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A liquid seal is connected with the piping on the tank including a shut-off valve while measuring corrosive or highly viscous liquids .This liquid seal consists of a fluid with which the measuring system is filled. This filing liquid transmits the pressure head of the measured liquid. The free surface of the filling liquid is kept indirect contact with the measured liquid. These two liquids must not mix or react chemically. The location of the pressure gauge should be chosen carefully, since any difference in elevation above or below the lowest level of the tank will affect the reading.

10.5.2 Disadvantages:
The instrument must be mounted at same level as the minimum level in the tank. This is often inconvenient, as a tank may be located at certain height above the control room. In this case, the level indicator in the control room would show an error equivalent to the height of the tank from the control room. Level management is therefore described under the following headings:

Servo Level Gauging Capacitive Probes Nucleonic Gauging Ultrasonic Gauging

10.6 SERVO LEVEL GAUGE:

Where high accuracy is required, servo gauges may be used. Measured surfaces can only be mildly turbulent. The liquid level sensing element is a small solid displacer (A) suspended by a flexible wire or cable (K). this measuring cable is stored on a precision machined type 316 stainless steel grooved measuring drum(b),mounted on precision stainless ball bearings. Through a magnetic coupling(C),the drum shaft is coupled to a weighting balance consisting of a slot initiator and detection plate(D).in an equilibrium position ,the weight of the displacer ,partly immersed in the product, balances against the force of balance spring(J).a raising or falling level causes a change in bouncancy and the detection plate(D) will move in a
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slotted initiator. The gauge operates via an integration circuit(E), and the servo motor(F),which turns the measuring drum, raising or lowering the displacer until the balance position is restored. A positive tooth belt drives a mechanical digital counter (G) which provides local level indication. The counter mechanism is mechanically linked to either a brush type or optical type digital encoder, or an analog encoder (H) for remote level data transmission. Five level/limit/alarm switches (I) are provided as standard, two (2) of which are required for displacer high/low limit settings.

10.7 CAPACITIVE PROBES:

This works in most liquids(and solids ),as it relies upon the electric constant of the liquid to operate .as the liquid rises the space between two electrodes, which are in affect the two plates of capacitor, the variation in capacitance can be monitored and set to alarm. the nature of the liquid must be considered .if it is non conductive then with the vessel well as the second plate, the primary electrode or first plate should only be insulated from the vessel. However if the liquid is conductive, the primary electrode must be fully insulated from the vessel and liquid, usually via a coating of some sort. In this case liquid itself acts as the second plate of the capacitor , with the insulation of primary electrode acting as the dielectric. Problems often arise from incorrect installation ,build up of conductive coatings damage to insulation and false signals caused by foams. For some organic based oils such as hydraulic fluid, the low dielectric constant means that probe sensitivity has to be increased, which can also be led to false alarms. To overcome some of the problems mentioned above ,an RF(radio frequency)capacitance system is available. The radio frequency excited two electrodes, one of which may again be the vessel wall if appropriate. An electronic control box monitors the capacitance caused by the level of liquid between the probes and resistance caused by any casting, the latter being measured and then eliminated by the electronics.

10.8 NUCLEONIC GAUGING:

These systems operate on a simple non-contacting, nuclear principle: Gamma Radiation will penetrate any material, but it absorbed in proportion to the amount of mass it penetrates. A
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small gamma radiation source is safely housed in a shielded holder mounted outside the process vessel. When the shutter mechanism is opened, a calumniated radiation beam is emitted. This gamma energy penetrates vessel walls, spans across the entire width of the vessel and is received by the detector also externally mounted directly opposite portion of the radiation beam. The detector senses this radiation change and produces a signal used to indicate an alarm, operate a recorder or perform various control functions. There are two basic types of level measurement: single point-used for high/low conditions; and continuous-used for indicating exact material height with in a designated span, Single point systems, utilizing a narrow conical radiation beam, are installed at one particular level. when the process material reaches that level, a relay is actuated. Continuous systems utilize a fan-shaped radiation beam and a vertical ion chamber detector. As the process material rises, increasing amounts of radiation are blocked. The detector sensing proportionally less radiation produces an analog signal corresponding to material level.

10.9 ULTRASONIC GAUGING:

These use high frequency sound waves as the probe .These instruments achieve accuracy of 0.25% of span. A sound pulse is transmitted and reflects off the surface back to the transceiver. The true reflected echo pulse is extracted and the time interval between transmission and reception is determined.

10.9.1 ULTRASONIC LEVEL SWITCHES:

Solid-state reliable switches are maintenance-free and specially designed for accurate measurements of liquids, slurries and solids upto 20 feet (6m).powerful sensor compensates for signal interference from noise, dust, uneven fills, etc. Two easily calibrated adjustable SPDT set points accurate process controls alarms. This unit works with two different sensors for spans from 10to 200 feet (3-60m).

10.9.2 ULTRASONIC LEVEL MONITORS:

Unaffected by agitator blades or wave action. Pulsed signal averaging (PSA) allows consistent and reliable measurement and control of liquid and slurry levels upto 24 feet (7.3m)57

50-ft (15m) this system features a digital display with three alarm set points, and also provides a full range of analog outputs. No potentiometers need to be adjusted as all parameters are dialed in via BCD switches.

10.10 APPLICATIONS:

chemical food steel power pulp, Paper and other process industries.

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CONCLUSION

We have carried out our project in N.F.C.L, Kakinada. The modern process industries like NAGARJUNA FERTILIZERS AND CHEMICALS LIMITED have the latest instrumentation. Modern techniques are employed to measure flow of temperature, level and pressure. For the automation at the process DCS and PLCs are used. PLCs have now established themselves not as just devices but as a part of process control systems.

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BIBILIOGRAPHY
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Nagarjuna Fertilizers and Chemicals Limited, Kakinada, Library http://program-plc.blogspot.com www.plcs.net/ - Cached www.plcdev.com/ - Cached en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmable logic controller Cached Instrumentation and Measurements by SINGH

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