Gastrin: causes the stomach to produce an acid for dissolving and digesting some foods.

It is also necessary for the normal growth of the lining of the stomach, small intestine, and colon. Secretin: causes the pancreas to send out a digestive juice that is rich in bicarbonate. It stimulates the stomach to produce pepsin, an enzyme that digest protein, and is also stimulates the liver to produce bile. Enterogastrone: slows down stomach emptying by reducing the amount of acid produced. High acid content causes the valve between the stomach and intestine to relax, allowing food passage

is any hormone secreted by the mucosa of the duodenum in the lower gastrointestinal tract in response to dietary lipids that inhibits the caudal (or "forward, analward") motion of the contents of chyme.

Examples include: secretin cholecystokinin gastric inhibitory peptide

Cholecystokinin: Abbreviated CCK. A polypeptide hormone that stimulates the contraction of the gallbladder with release of bile and the secretion of pancreatic enzymes into the small intestine. CCK is secreted by cells lining the upper intestine and by the hypothalamus. Hypothalamic cholecystokinin is a neurotransmitter. CCK mediates a number of physiological processes, including digestion and satiety. It is located in the small intestine, and detects the presence of fat in the chyme. CCK then tells the stomach to slow down the speed of digestion so the small intestine can effectively digest the fats.

Stimuli for Release

Gastrin: Presence of peptides and amino acids in gastric lumen Secretin: Acidic pH in the lumen of the small intestine Cholecystokinin: Presence of fatty acids and amino acids in the small intestine. Cholecystokinin is stimulated by fat- or protein-rich chyme entering the duodenum Enterogastrone: dietary lipids that inhibits the caudal (or "forward, analward") motion of the contents of chyme.

EFFECTS
Gastrin:

In the Zollinger-Ellison syndrome, gastrin is produced at excessive levels, often by a gastrinoma (gastrinproducing tumor, mostly benign) of the duodenum or the pancreas. To investigate for hypergastrinemia (high blood levels of gastrin), a "pentagastrin test" can be performed.

Secretin: It has been suggested that abnormalities in such secretin release could explain the abnormalities underlying type D Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone hypersecretion (SIADH). In these individuals, vasopressin release and response are normal, although abnormal renal expression, translocation of aquaporin 2, or both are found.It has been suggested that "Secretin as a neurosecretory hormone from the posterior pituitary, therefore, could be the long-sought vasopressin independent mechanism to solve the riddle that has puzzled clinicians and physiologists for decades." Cholecystokinin: Diseases resulting from excessive or deficient secretion of cholecystokinin are rare. Cholecystokinin deficiency has been described in humans as part of autoimmune polyglandular syndrome, and was manifest as a malabsorption syndrome clinically similar to pancreatic exocrine insufficiency. Additionally, there is mounting evidence that aberrations in expression of cholesystokinin or its receptor within the human brain may play a part in the pathogenesis of certain types of anxiety and schizophrenia. Clearly, a much better understanding of the role of cholecystokinin in brain function is required.

PRODUCTION
Secretin: is synthesized in cytoplasmic secretory granules of S-cells which are found mainly in mucosa of duodenum, and smaller numbers in jejunum of small intestine. Cholecystokinin: duodenal and intestinal mucosa/ mucosal epithelial cells in the first segment of the small intestine (duodenum) Gastrin: cells lining the stomach Enterogastrone: mucosa of the duodenum in the lower gastrointestinal tract

Sources of Calcium
Milk, yogurt, and cheese are rich natural sources of calcium and are the major food contributors of this nutrient to people in the United States [1]. Nondairy sources include vegetables, such as Chinese cabbage, kale, and broccoli. Spinach provides calcium, but its bioavailability is poor. Most grains do not have high amounts of calcium unless they are fortified; however, they contribute calcium to the diet because they contain small amounts of calcium and people consume them frequently. Foods fortified with calcium include many fruit juices and drinks, tofu, and cereals.

Calcium Deficiency
Inadequate intakes of dietary calcium from food and supplements produce no obvious symptoms in the short term. Circulating blood levels of calcium are tightly regulated. Hypocalcemia results primarily from medical problems or treatments, including renal failure, surgical removal of the stomach, and use of certain medications (such as diuretics). Symptoms of hypocalcemia include numbness and tingling

in the fingers, muscle cramps, convulsions, lethargy, poor appetite, and abnormal heart rhythms. If left untreated, calcium deficiency leads to death. Over the long term, inadequate calcium intake causes osteopenia which if untreated can lead to osteoporosis. The risk of bone fractures also increases, especially in older individuals . Calcium deficiency can also cause rickets, though it is more commonly associated with vitamin D deficiency

Sources of Phosphorus
Protein-rich foods, such as meat, poultry, fish, eggs, dairy products, nuts, and legumes, are good sources of phosphorus. Other sources include whole grains, hard potatoes, dried fruit, garlic cloves, and carbonated beverages.

Phosphorus Deficiency

A phosphorus deficiency may cause loss of weight, retarded growth, reduced sexual powers, and general weakness. It may result in poor mineralization of the bones, and a deficient nerve and brain function. Conditions associated with calcium deficiency may also occur due to phosphorus deficiency. Deficiencies of phosphorus are however rare, as it is one of the elements available in large quantities in most diets.

Sources of Sulphur
Sulphur is found in all proteins so eating a protein rich diet is one of the best ways to ensure the body gets an ample amount. Some of the best sources of Sulphur include lean meats, poultry, fish, eggs and egg yolks, milk and legumes. Garlic, cabbage, brussels sprouts, onions, turnips, kale, lettuce, kelp, seaweed and some nuts also contain Sulphur

Sulphur Deficiency
Since most people get sufficient quantities of Sulphur from their diets, instances of Sulphur deficiency are extremely rare. Symptoms of Sulphur Deficiency may include skin problems or disorders, muscle pain, nerve disorders, circulatory trouble, arthritis, inflammation, damages resulting from free radicals, stress, infection, constipation and wrinkles.

Sources of Potassium
Good sources of potassium include bananas, citrus juices (such as orange juice), avocados, cantaloupes, tomatoes, potatoes, lima beans, flounder, salmon, cod, chicken, and other meats.

Potassium Deficiency

Muscular weakness Fatigue Anxiety Acne and other skin related problems Weak memory and temporary memory loss Improper sleep Constipation Nervous system deterioration Heart deterioration Vibration in ears

Sources of Sodium
Sodium is found in table salt, baking soda, monosodium glutamate (MSG), various seasonings, additives, condiments, meat, fish, poultry, dairy foods, eggs, smoked meats, olives, and pickled foods.

Sodium Deficiency
Symptoms of hyponatremia(sodium deficiency) include nausea and vomiting, headache, confusion, lethargy, fatigue, appetite loss, restlessness and irritability, muscle weakness, spasms, or cramps, seizures, and decreased consciousness or coma. The presence and severity of symptoms are associated with the level of serum sodium, with the lowest levels of serum sodium associated with the more prominent and serious symptoms.

Sources of Magnesium
Green vegetables such as spinach are good sources of magnesium because the center of the chlorophyll molecule (which gives green vegetables their color) contains magnesium. Some legumes (beans and peas), nuts and seeds, and whole, unrefined grains are also good sources of magnesium. Refined grains are generally low in magnesium . When white flour is refined and processed, the magnesium-rich germ and bran are removed. Bread made from whole grain wheat flour provides more magnesium than bread made from white refined flour. Tap water can be a source of magnesium, but the amount varies according to the water supply. Water that naturally contains more minerals is described as "hard". "Hard" water contains more magnesium than "soft" water.

Magnesium Deficiency
Irregular heart beat Insomnia Diabetes Muscle spasms Heart disease Anxiety disorders Migraines Osteoporosis

Sources of Chromium
Dietary sources of chromium include brewer's yeast, lean meats (especially processed meats), cheeses, pork kidney, whole-grain breads and cereals, molasses, spices, and some bran cereals. Brewer's yeast (particularly yeast grown in chromium-rich soil) is a rich dietary source of chromium, as are organ meats, mushroom, oatmeal, prunes, nuts, asparagus, and whole grains and cereals. Vegetables, fruits, and most refined and processed foods (except for processed meats) contain low amounts of chromium.

Chromium Deficiency
The symptoms of chromium deficiency caused by long-term total parenteral nutrition are severely impaired glucose tolerance, a loss of weight, and confusion.[10] Another patient also developed nerve damage (peripheral neuropathy)

Molybdenum Sources
Milk, milk products, legumes, organ meats, and cereals are good dietary sources of molybdenum.

Molybdenum Deficiency
Based on limited case studies, a molybdenum deficiency may cause metabolic disturbances that lead to developmental delays, seizures, visual alterations and neurological changes. The patient in the 1981 "American Journal of Clinical Nutrition" case report suffered from headaches, night blindness, and an accelerated heart and respiratory rate. The patient eventually became comatose, but recovered from his symptoms after his nutritional solution was supplemented with a form of molybdenum. More clinical research is required to determine the effects of molybdenum deficiency in the human diet.

Vitamin B
Vitamin B1
Vitamin B1, also called thiamin is a water-soluble vitamin that is essential for the breakdown ofcarbohydrates into the simple sugar glucose. Thiamin is also important for the proper functioning of the nervous system. Thiamin is found in whole-grain cereals, bread, red meat, egg yolks, green leafy vegetables, legumes, sweet corn, brown rice, berries, and yeast. Thiamin is absorbed through the intestines.

Deficiency of Vitamin B1
Thiamin deficiency is rare. However, thiamin deficiency often occurs in alcoholics. It occurs in alcoholics because alcohol interferes with the absorption of thiamin through the intestines. Thiamin deficiency can cause beriberi, wernicke's encephelopathy, and sensitivity of the teeth, cheeks and gums.

Too Much Vitamin B1 Large doses (5,000 to 10,000 mg) can cause headaches, irritability, rapid pulse, and weakness Vitamin B2
Vitamin B2, also called riboflavin is a water-soluble vitamin that is important in the breakdown of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. It is also important in the maintenance of the skin and mucous membranes, the cornea of the eye and for nerve sheaths. Riboflavin is found in whole-grain products, milk, meat, eggs, cheese and peas.

Deficiency of Vitamin B2
A deficiency of riboflavin can cause skin disorders, anemia, light-sensitive eyes, and inflammation of the soft tissue lining around the mouth and nose.

Vitamin B3
Vitamin B3, also called niacin, is needed for the metabolism of food, the maintenance of healthy skin, nerves and the gastrointestinal tract Niacin is found in protein-rich foods. The most common protein rich foods are: meats, fish, brewer's yeast, milk, eggs, legumes, potatoes and peanuts. If too much niacin is consumed, itching, headaches, cramps, nausea and skin eruptions may occur. Vitamin B3 is also called nicotinic acid and nicotinamide.

Deficiency of Vitamin B3

A deficiency of niacin causes the disease, pellagra. Too much Vitamin B3

More than 100mg of vitamin B3 can cause flushing, tingling, itching, headaches, nausea, diarrhea and ulcers.

Vitamin B6
Vitamin B6, also called pyridoxine, is essential in the breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Pyridoxine is also used in the production of red blood cells. Pyridoxine can be found in many foods. Some of the foods that contain it are: liver, meat, brown rice, fish, butter, wheat germ, whole grain cereals, and soybeans.

Too much Vitamin B6

More than 500mg can cause irreversible nerve damage. The nerve damage can cause impaired walking, numbness, tingling and poor sense of touch.

Deficiency of Vitamin B6
Deficiency of pyridoxine is rare. However, pyridoxine deficiency often occurs in alcoholics. Deficiency causes skin disorders, disruption of the nervous system, confusion, poor coordination andinsomnia. Pyridoxine is also called pyridoxal phosphate and pyridoxamine.

Vitamin B12
Vitamin B12 is necessary for processing carbohydrates, proteins and fats and to help make all of the blood cells in our bodies. Vitamin B12 is stored in the liver.

Deficiency of Vitamin B12

Deficiency of vitamin B12 causes mouth irritation, and a disease called pernicious anemia. Vitamin B12 can be found in liver, meat, egg yolk, poultry and milk.

Vitamin B9
Vitamin B9, also called folic acid, interacts with vitamin B12 for the synthesis of DNA. Folic acid is also necessary for the breakdown of proteins and the formation of hemoglobin. Folic acid is produced by bacteria in the stomach and intestines. Folic acid is found in many foods, including yeast, liver, green vegetables, and whole grain cereals. Women who are pregnant have an increased need for folic acid. High doses of folic acid can cause convulsions, and disrupt zinc absorption.

Deficiency of Vitamin B9
Deficiency of folic acid causes anemia, poor growth, and irritation of the mouth. Deficiency of folic acid is common in alcoholics, the elderly, and people who are malnourished. Folic Acid is also called folacin and pteroylglutamic acid.

Vitamin K Sources
spinach, Brussels sprouts, Swiss chard, green beans, asparagus, broccoli, kale and mustard greens. Very good sources include green peas and carrots.

Vitamin K Deficiency
Vitamin K is known to be needed to coagulate blood and to maintain proper bone density. It plays a key role in proper development of the fetus. Deficiencies of vitamin K have been linked to: Heavy menstrual bleeding* Gastrointestinal bleeding Hematuria (blood in the urine) Nosebleeds Eye hemorrhages Anemia Gum bleeding Prolonged clotting times Hematomas

Hemorrhaging Ovarian Hemorrhaging Easy bruising Purpura Osteopenia Osteoporosis Fractures Hypercalciuria Liver Cancer

Folic Acid Sources

Leafy vegetables such as spinach, asparagus, turnip greens Legumes such as dried or fresh beans, peas and lentils Egg yolks. Baker's yeast Fortified grain products (pasta, cereal, bread); some breakfast cereals (ready-to-eat and others) are fortified with 25% to 100% of the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for folic acid

Sunflower seeds Liver and liver products

Folic Deficiency
Loss of appetite, and weight loss can occur. Additional signs are weakness, sore tongue, headaches, heart palpitations, irritability, and behavioural disorders

Niacin Sources
Animal products:

liver, heart and kidney chicken beef fish: tuna, salmon milk eggs

Fruits and vegetables:

avocados dates tomatoes leaf vegetables broccoli carrots

sweet potatoes asparagus

Seeds:

nuts whole grain products legumes saltbush seeds

Fungi:

mushrooms brewer's yeast

Niacin Deficiency
Skin lesions Pain in the mouth Swollen tongue Ulcers in the mouth Distended abdomen Diarrhea Nausea Confusion Memory loss Depression Paranoia Dementia

Vitamin D Sources
Very few foods in nature contain vitamin D. The flesh of fatty fish (such as salmon, tuna, and mackerel) and fish liver oils are among the best sources. Small amounts of vitamin D are found in beef liver, cheese, and egg yolks. Vitamin D in these foods is primarily in the form of vitamin D3 and its metabolite 25(OH)D3. Some mushrooms provide vitamin D2 in variable amounts. Mushrooms with enhanced levels of vitamin D2 from being exposed to ultraviolet light under controlled conditions are also available.

Vitamin D Deficiency

depression chronic fatigue weight loss diabetes heart disease stroke osteoporosis

Source Pituitary gland

Hormone Produced Antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin) Corticotropin (ACTH) Human growth hormone

Target/Functions Helps kidneys to retain water and in presence of aldosterone it helps control blood pressure. Controls production and secretion of hormones of the adrenal glands. Controls growth and development and promotes protein production. Controls reproductive functions that includes the production of sperm and semen, egg maturation, and menstruation. It also controls male and female sexual characteristics that includes hair distribution, muscle formation, skin texture and thickness, voice, and may even control personality traits. It causes muscles of the uterus and milk ducts in the breast to contract. It starts and maintains milk production in the mammary glands. It causes stimulation, production and secretion of hormones of the thyroid gland. It controls formation of bones and the excretion of calcium and phosphorus. It regulates metabolic rate of the body. The function of calcitonin in humans is still unclear but in other species, it regulates calcium balance. It helps in regulation of salt and water balance by retention of salt and water and excretion of potassium. Read more on functions of adrenal gland. It has widespread effects in the whole body. It mainly has anti-inflammatory action, maintaining blood sugar level, blood pressure, and muscle strength. It also helps control salt and water balance. It affects the bones, mood, and the immune system Stimulates the heart, lungs, blood vessels, and nervous system. It helps in raising the blood sugar level. It helps in lowering the blood sugar level, affects the metabolism of sugar, protein, and fat throughout the body. Stimulates red blood cell production. It controls blood pressure. It controls the development of female sex characteristics and the reproductive system. Prepares the lining of the uterus for implantation of a fertilized egg and readies the mammary glands to secrete milk.

Luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone

Oxytocin Prolactin Thyroid-stimulating hormone Parathyroid glands Thyroid gland Parathyroid hormone Thyroid hormone Calcitonin Adrenal glands Aldosterone

Cortisol Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) Epinephrine and norepinephrine Pancreas Glucagon Insulin Kidneys Erythropoietin Renin Ovaries Estrogen Progesterone

Testes Digestive tract

Testosterone Cholecystokinin Glucagon-like peptide Ghrelin

It controls the development of sexual characteristics in men and the reproductive system. It controls the gallbladder contractions that cause bile to enter the intestine and stimulates release of digestive enzymes from the pancreas. it increases insulin release from the pancreas. It controls the growth hormone release from the pituitary gland and causes sensation of hunger. It blocks the effects of insulin on muscle. It controls appetite. Stimulates the ovaries to continue releasing progesterone during early pregnancy. It helps keep the uterus receptive to the fetus and placenta during pregnancy.

Adipose (fat) tissue

Resistin Leptin

Placenta

Chorionic gonadotropin Estrogen and progesterone