IIT PHYS 770 LAB #1: BASICS

Eric J. Mikowski I present a written summary of the PHYS-770 Lab #1: Basics. The purpose of this laboratory exercise is to gain familiarity with the principles of a scintillation counter for radiation detection and to determine the fundamental properties of radiation.

I.

INTRODUCTION

beta, and gamma. The modes of operation depend on the specific type of scintillation detector used. 3. INITIAL MEASUREMENTS To begin the experiment, we set the detector up so that the detector surface was oriented perpendicular to the table and facing a ruler along which we would place the various disk sources. The first measurements were taken at one-quarter inch away from the detector. Ideally, tongs should have been used to keep the fingers as far away as possible from the disk sources that we needed to hold in place for a few seconds at a time. We used our fingers for this instead. The use of tongs would have conformed better to the As Low As Reasonably Achievable (ALARA) principle that is so important in health physics. However, we did not have tongs available, and since we were using small, relatively weak disk sources, we did conform to ALARA given the experimental circumstances. 3.1 Initial Measurements at Background Background measurements were taken with the detector set on all settings; alpha, beta/gamma, and alpha/beta/gamma. Figure 1 shows the results of the background counts.

This laboratory exercise used a scintillation detector that is sensitive to alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. A scintillation detector is a detector that measures the light output of a scintillator to detect ionizing radiation, and it is among the most primitive of radiation measuring devices [1]. In fact, it dates back to when Wilhelm Roentgen first discovered his x-rays by observing the fluorescence of a screen [4]. It should be noted that the scintillation counter was first developed by Sir Samuel Curran in 1944 [10]. He was working on the Manhattan Project at the time at the University of California at Berkeley and discovered this method of measuring radiation while examining the phosphorescence of uranium salts [10]. One of the critical aspects of using a scintillation detector is related to how efficient they are in capturing and recording the light emissions [1]. As radiation loses energy in a luminescent material certain electronic transitions occur and excited states are created [4]. When the excited states return to their normal configuration, photons are emitted. These photons in turn can be used to determine what type of radiation caused their genesis by measuring their energy. The terminology used in describing this emission of photons depends upon the time it takes the excited states to return to their original energy level. If the decay occurs on the order of a nanosecond, the process is termed fluorescence. If the process takes a longer time period, it is termed phosphorescence [4]. This luminescent material can either be called a phosphor or a scintillator [4]. To capture as much of the photon energy as possible from the luminescent material, some type of reflecting material is used to trap this energy and guide it to a photomultiplier tube so that an electrical signal can be generated [4]. 2. VARIOUS MODES OF THE DETECTOR In this lab, we used a scintillation detector that had three modes of operation. The first mode detected alpha, the second beta and gamma, and the third alpha,

Setting Counts (CPM) Alpha/Beta/Gamma 200 Alpha 3.8 Beta/Gamma 220

FIG. 1: Background Counts on All Detector Settings It should be noted here that the minimum resolution of the detector was 3.8 counts. We determined this by taking various measurements and noting that the minimum counts at the very bottom of the scale, for example when we used the beta setting to detect alpha particles, was 3.8 counts per minute (CPM). Detectors based on the principles of semiconducting, such as Germanium detectors, have much better resolution than detectors based on simple scintillating materials [10].

We also noted some minor light sensitivity of the scintillation counter. The orientation of the laboratory made it difficult to eliminate this issue because we were performing this lab in front of a small window, approximately eight inches by eight inches in size. A lab partner placed his notebook in front of this window for the duration of the laboratory experiment, and this proved to be a reliable way of minimizing the distortion to the detector from the ambient light. 3.2. Initial Measurements of Alpha Disk Source on All Detector Settings Initial measurements were taken with the Po-210 alpha source at a distance of 3 centimeters. Figure 2 shows the results.

3.4. Initial Measurements of Gamma Disk Source on All Detector Settings Measurements taken with the gamma emitter Cs-137 gave rise to the results in Figure 4.

Setting Source Alpha/Beta/Gamma Gamma (Cs-137) Alpha Gamma (Cs-137) Beta/Gamma Gamma (Cs-137)

Counts (CPM) 67000 3.8 64000

FIG. 4: Gamma Source (Cs-137) Counts on All Detector Settings Cs-137 decays to Ba-137m and this isotope is responsible for the 662 KeV gamma ray for which Cs137 is known. If we eliminate the spurious 3.8 CPM from the alpha setting which is probably due to signal noise, we have a fair representation of what the counts per minute for a cesium sample should be, at least in proportion to the alpha counts, of which there should be zero. 4. INVERSE SQUARE LAW

Setting Source Alpha/Beta/Gamma Alpha (Po-210) Alpha Alpha (Po-210) Beta/Gamma Alpha (Po-210)

Counts (CPM) 25700 24200 1800

FIG. 2: Alpha Source (Po-210) Counts on All Detector Settings The results from Figure 2 clearly indicate that the alpha setting is appropriate to this decay sequence for this radionuclide. The counts indicated when the detector was in the beta/gamma mode are probably due to the fact that about one in 100,000 alpha emissions lead to an excited nucleus of Po-210 that will emit a gamma ray when it transitions and loses energy [11]. 3.3. Initial Measurements of Beta Disk Source on All Detector Settings Measurements were then taken with the Sr-90 beta source, and results are indicated in Figure 3.

The energy of a photon is characterized in terms of Plancks constant multiplied by the frequency in Hertz of the wave, as shown in Equation 1 [1,2,3]. (1) Through derivation of the intensity of the radiation and the isotropic nature in which the photons emit from a point source of a radiation, the equation for the inverse square law for electromagnetic radiation becomes Equation 2 [12,4,5].

Setting Source Alpha/Beta/Gamma Beta (Sr-90) Alpha Beta (Sr-90) Beta/Gamma Beta (Sr-90)

Counts (CPM) 90000 100 90000

(2)

FIG. 3: Beta Source (Sr-90) Counts on All Detector Settings The beta disk source of Sr-90 was most accurately counted on the setting that included the beta/gamma component. Sr-90 is a beta emitter that decays to a daughter beta emitter, Y-90 [11]. Our results show that Sr-90 is a strong beta emitter with a negligible alpha component (in fact no alpha component).

I is the intensity of the radiation, k is a constant that we are going to measure in this laboratory experiment, and x, is the distance from the source of radiation. 4.1. Calculation of the Inverse Square Law Constant for Alpha Disk Source Measurements were taken with the alpha source placed at various distances from the detector as shown in Figure 5. The rate was determined for 100 cm^2, and then corrected for 1 cm^2. The constant used in Equation 2 was found for each measurement, and then

the average was taken for the measurements that would produce the most useful estimation of C. The values of the constant for measurements taken at 2.5 and 3 centimeters were excluded from the average because they were at the very limit that alpha particles could travel and the information may be unreliable.
Distance Rate per Corrected Rate (cm) 100 cm^2 per 1 cm^2 1 22000 220 1.5 16000 160 2 11000 110 2.5 2000 20 3 0 0 C 220 360 440 125 0 Avg Deviation -35.3% 5.9% 29.4% N/A N/A

4.2. Calculation of the Inverse Square Law Constant for Beta Disk Source The inverse square law constant calculation for beta was more easily achieved as compared to that of the alpha disk source because measurements could be taken over a greater total distance, due to the longer range of the beta particle in air and through material [2]. Figure 7 shows the results of the beta disk source and the average of the constant for the inverse square law calculation. We can see that the constant increases and then seems to reach a plateau around the 30000 CPM mark. This is in contrast to the alpha disk source data in Figure 5, that clearly showed a marked drop off at the 2.5 centimeter distance, and then a value of 0 CPM at the 3 centimeter distance.
Distance Rate per Corrected Rate (cm) 100 cm^2 per 1 cm^2 1 105000 1050 2 85000 850 3 72000 720 4 67000 670 5 58000 580 6 48000 480 7 39000 390 8 33000 330 9 27000 270 10 24000 240 12 18000 180 15 13000 130 18 9000 90 20 7000 70 25 5000 50 30 3500 35 C Avg Deviation -94.7% -82.7% -67.0% -45.5% -26.3% -12.1% -2.8% 7.4% 11.2% 22.1% 31.8% 48.8% 48.3% 42.4% 58.9% 60.2%

340 N/A N/A

FIG. 5: Inverse Square Law Data for Alpha Disk Source (Po-210). The inverse square law is not a linear relationship, and as a result the farther away something is from a source of a radiation, the less a change in distance will affect the intensity. The closer one is to a source of radiation, the more evident a change in distance is, and the more it will result in a grossly noticeable change in intensity. Just a few meters, or even feet make an enormous difference in the amount of perceived radiation intensity to the detector or subject at close range. Measuring the constant for the inverse square law may be difficult for an alpha disk source because of the lack of consequential and accurate data points due to the short range of the alpha particle in general.

1050 3400 6480 10720 14500 17280 19110 21120 19663.1 21870 24000 25920 29250 29160 28000 31250 31500

FIG. 7: Inverse Square Law Data for Beta Disk Source (Sr-90) The data set in Figure 7 shows how the constant appears to increase and then reach a plateau around the 30,000 CPM mark. However, the average is about 30% below this observed plateau at 19663.1 CPM. Figure 8 shows the corrected rate as a function of distance for the Sr-90 disk source.

FIG. 6: Corrected Rare Versus Distance of Alpha Disk Source (Po-210).

FIG. 8: Corrected Rare Versus Distance of Beta Disk Source (Sr-90). Clearly, with more data points, the measurement of the inverse square law is better accomplished with a beta source than an alpha, and the data presented fits nicely with Equation 2. 4.3. Calculation of the Inverse Square Law Constant for Second Beta Disk Source Figure 9 below shows the data gathered with a second beta source, that of Tl-204.
Distance Rate per Corrected Rate (cm) 100 cm^2 per 1 cm^2 1 65000 650 2 58000 580 3 50000 500 4 45000 450 5 38000 380 6 33000 330 7 28000 280 8 25000 250 9 21000 210 10 19000 190 12 14000 140 15 10000 100 18 7000 70 20 6000 60 25 3700 37 30 2000 20 C Avg Deviation

FIG. 10: Corrected Rare Versus Distance of Second Beta Disk Source (Tl-204). 4.4. Calculation of the Inverse Square Law Constant for Gamma Disk Source The calculation of the inverse square law constant for the gamma disk source should result in the most theoretically appropriate data because gamma radiation is affected much less than alpha or beta as it traverses air. We see in the data set for the gamma disk source in Figure 11, that the constant increases to a maximum around 27000 CPM, and the average is around 18000, quite similar to the data achieved with the two beta disk sources as shown in Figures 6 and 7.
Distance Rate per Corrected Rate (cm) 100 cm^2 per 1 cm^2 1 78000 780 2 74000 740 3 65000 650 4 56000 560 5 49000 490 6 42000 420 7 35000 350 8 30000 300 9 26000 260 10 23000 230 12 17000 170 15 12000 120 18 8000 80 20 7000 70 25 4000 40 30 3500 35 C Avg Deviation

650 -95.5% 2320 -84.0% 4500 -69.0% 7200 -50.4% 9500 -34.6% 11880 -18.2% 13720 -5.5% 16000 10.2% 14515 17010 17.2% 19000 30.9% 20160 38.9% 22500 55.0% 22680 56.3% 24000 65.3% 23125 59.3% 18000 24.0%

780 -95.7% 2960 -83.6% 5850 -67.5% 8960 -50.3% 12250 -32.0% 15120 -16.1% 17150 -4.8% 19200 6.6% 18014 21060 16.9% 23000 27.7% 24480 35.9% 27000 49.9% 25920 43.9% 28000 55.4% 25000 38.8% 31500 74.9%

FIG. 9: Inverse Square Law Data for Second Beta Disk Source (Tl-204) Tl-204 has a 763 KeV beta ray that is of higher energy than the 546 KeV from the Sr-90 daughter, Y-90 [11]. The Tl-204 beta particles are more energetic than the Sr-90, and as a result a smoother, more theoretically true line is achieved as shown in Figure 10.

FIG. 11: Inverse Square Law Data for Gamma Disk Source (Cs-137) As the distance increases, the intensity of the radiation decreases as a function of the square of the distance. Figure 12 shows the graph of the data in Figure 11.

Density-Thickness Rate per Corrected Rate mg/cm^2 100 cm^2 per 1 cm^2 19.9 700 7 16.1 1100 11 14.45 1200 12 10.8 2100 21 5.3 3400 34 3.65 4200 42 1.85 5000 50 1.49 6100 61 0.89 7000 70 0.6 7500 75 0 63000 630

LN(I/Io) -4.5 -4.048 -3.961 -3.401 -2.919 -2.708 -2.534 -2.335 -2.197 -2.128 0

FIG. 12: Corrected Rare Versus Distance of Gamma Disk Source (Cs-137). It appears that the first value is actually a bit below the trend-line, and should he closer to the 800 CPM level. 5. LINEAR ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT When photons pass through matter, they interact through various processes. The three most important are Compton scattering, photoelectric effect, and pairproduction. The intensity of the initial photon beam is reduced by these absorption processes according to the linear attenuation coefficient as depicted by Equation 3 [5],

FIG. 13: Linear Attenuation Coefficient Data for Gamma Disk Source (Cs-137) through Lead Figure 14 below shows the natural logarithm of the ratio of the intensities versus the density-thickness of the lead absorber.

(3)

where I is the intensity of photons transmitted across a distance x, and is the linear attenuation coefficient. All measurements were taken with the disk source at a distance of 3 centimeters from the detector face. 5.1. Calculation of the Linear Attenuation Coefficient for Gamma Disk Source through Lead Figure 8 shows the count per minute rate and the natural logarithm of the ratio of the observed intensity to the original intensity of the radiation. The area of the detector is approximately 10 square centimeters. The corrected rate per 1 square centimeter allows us to more accurately remove the contribution of scattering to the calculation of the linear attenuation coefficient.

FIG. 14: Corrected Rate Versus Density thickness of Gamma Disk Source (Cs-137) through Lead. Figure 14 shows the corrected rate versus density thickness of lead. We can see that this is a near straight line, if we ignore the first probably spurious data point. A straight line on a natural log plot indicates that the underlying function is an exponential, and this agrees well with Equation 3. We can see the half value thickness from this data is approximately 4.41 mg/cm^2 of lead. 5.2. Calculation of the Linear Attenuation Coefficient for Beta Disk Source through Aluminum Figure 15 shows the data for the calculation of the linear attenuation coefficient for aluminum with a Sr-90 emitter.

Density-Thickness Rate per Corrected Rate mg/cm^2 100 cm^2 per 1 cm^2 849 345 3.45 645 1100 11 590 1950 19.5 516 3100 31 419 6600 66 328 18000 180 258 16800 168 206 24500 245 161 31000 310 129 37000 370 0 84000 840

LN(I/Io) -5.495 -4.336 -3.763 -3.299 -2.544 -1.54 -1.609 -1.232 -0.997 -0.82 0

Although we ended up with nice graphs that did show a excellent correlation with a theoretical log plot of the ratio of the intensities to the density-thickness, we did not have enough data points taken through thin enough absorber materials, both through the lead and the aluminum. This resulted in us having to make a measurement of the linear attenuation coefficient at a location on the graph other than where I/Io = 0.5. As stated earlier, the calculation of the linear absorption coefficient from the data gathered in this laboratory experiment was difficult because we did not have enough data points from which to locate accurately the distance at which the ratio of the initial intensity to the attenuated intensity was 0.5. If we were to perform this laboratory again, it would be wise to take more data points with a much thinner absorber, or to use a higher energy source or one with more activity. Using a higher energy source would allow us to gather more data points with the same thickness of absorber, and this would probably be the best choice leaving all other factors the same. Visual inspection would result in the more accurate measurement of the ratio of initial intensity to attenuated intensity around a ratio of 0.5 because of the lack of data points in this area of the curve. For lead, the slope of the graph is quite steep at first, and then tapers off. For aluminum, the slope is fairly constant, and so reading the ratio of the intensities should result in a more accurate linear attenuation coefficient than that for lead. Using the densities of lead and aluminum, which are 11340 kg/m^3 and 2700 kg/m^3, respectively, we were able to calculate the value of the linear attenuation coefficient for both lead and aluminum for the energies used in the lab. Using Equation 4 [7],

FIG. 15: Linear Attenuation Coefficient Data for Beta Disk Source (Sr-90) through Aluminum Figure 16 shows a nice representation of the straight line in the log plot of the ratio of the intensities to the density-thickness.

FIG. 16: Corrected Rare Versus Density-Thickness of Gamma Disk Source (Cs-137) through Aluminum. If we had done this experiment with a beta emitter of lower energy, for example with C-14 that decays to N-14 by emission of a beta particle wit ha maximum energy of 156 KeV, I believe our results we not have been as comparable to that of the theoretical result. [9] The lower energy beta would not have penetrated as well, and would not have created such a smooth graph as we achieved with Figures 14 and 16. We can see the half value thickness from this data is approximately 199 mg/cm^2 of aluminum. 5.3. Comparison of the Calculation of the Linear Attenuation Coefficient for Beta Disk Source through Aluminum and Gamma Disk Source through Lead

(4) the linear attenuation coefficient is show in Figure 17.

Energy Absorber HVL Measured Density Measured u 662 KeV (Cs-137) Lead 4.41 mg/cm^2 11340 kg/m^3 .158 mg/cm^2 546 KeV (Sr-90) Al 199 mg/cm^2 2700 kg/m^3 .00348 mg/cm^2

FIG. 17: Calculation of Linear Attenuation Coefficient of Lead and Aluminum. The calculated values of the linear attenuation coefficient for lead and aluminum of .158 mg/cm^2 and .00348 mg/cm^2, respectively are off considerably from

the generally accepted values. Our linear attenuation coefficient is found from Equation 5, where m = 1/ (5)

m is the mass attenuation coefficient, 1 is the linear attenuation coefficient, and is the density of the absorber. The purpose of this laboratory exercise was fulfilled however, as we observed how radiation interacts with matter and proved to ourselves how the log plot and calculation of the linear and mass attenuation coefficient can be accomplished. REFERENCES [1] Knoll, G.F. Radiation Detection and Measurement. 2000. [2] Attix, F.H. Introduction to Radiological Physics and Radiation Dosimetry. 2004. [3] Bevelaqua, J.J. Basic Health Physics. 2004. [4] Turner, J.E. Atoms, Radiation, and Radiation Protection. 1995. [5] Cember, H. and Johnson, T.E. Introduction to Health Physics. 2009. [6] NCRP Report No. 56. Radiation Exposure From Consumer Products and Miscellaneous Sources. National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. 1977. [7] NCRP Report No. 57. Instrumentation and Monitoring Methods for Radiation Protection. National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. 1978. [8] NCRP Report No. 58. A Handbook of Radioactivity Measurements Procedures. National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. 1978. [9] NCRP Report No. 81. Carbon-14 in the Environment. National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. 1985. [10] Curran, S.C. Counting tubes, theory and applications, Academic Press, 1949. [11] Lockheed Martin, Trilinear Chart of the Nuclides, 2011. [12] PHYS 770 Lab Manual. Illinois Institute of Technology. 2011. ABOUT AUTHOR Eric Mikowski is currently a student in the PHYS 770 class in the Illinois Institute of Technology Master of Health Physics program.