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The traffic light weighs 146.7 lb. Cable A is 17.49 from the horizontal. Cable B is 11.46 from the horizontal.
Questions
What is the tension in both cables using four significant digits and two significant digits? Does rounding numbers to only two digits still provide an accurate answer?
Approach
Solve the problem using the basic steps in engineering problem solving: 1) read 2) draw diagrams 3) write equations 4) solve and 5) check. For step 3, use the summation of forces in both the x and y directions:
Fx = 0 Fy = 0 Solve twice, once with four significant digits and once with two significant digits.
Force Diagram
F = 0
and
M = 0
Another way to think about these two main equations is that all forces (F) and moments (M) acting on a object must be in equilibrium. If this was not the case, then the object would move. In Statics it is assumed that nothing moves, but in Dynamics (the following course) this restriction is removed. Before solving actual statics problems, units, solution methods and significant digits need to be discussed.
Example problem solved with solution steps Click to view movie (114k)
Fundamental Concepts
As the name implies, Statics refers to the static equilibrium of all forces and moments acting on a body. This condition can be written in mathematical form as
F = 0 M = 0
Forces Moments
While not all problems have both forces and moments in all three directions, both equations need to be satisfied in all three directions for the object to be in static equilibrium. Even though these two equations are simply, applying them to a particular structure can be difficult. Where are the forces, what are their directions, what is known, etc. become the main issues in the most Static problems.
Significant Digits
In most engineering problems, there will be numerous intermediate steps and results. When writing down these intermediate results, it is important to use enough digits to minimize rounding errors. However, if too many digits are used, it takes a long time to write out the equations, and errors are easily made in keeping track of all numerical values. In general, numerical values can be rounded to four significant digits without loss of accuracy. Even using three digits is usually safe for most problems. However, round all numbers the same. If even one number is rounded to 2 significant digits and all the rest have four significant digits, the problem can still be off by a large amount (over 2%). Please note, significant digits is not quite the same as the just rounding decimal places. Significant digits are applicable to numbers both large and small whether nor not they have decimals. The table below shows a number of examples that illustrate that all numbers can be rounded to a given number of significant digits. Every number in the calculator should not be round just for the sake of rounding. Let the calculator keep all digits. Actual Number 5234.4567 0.003452 98.2384 23000 Significant Digits 1 5000 0.003 100 20000 2 5200 0.00345 98 23000 3 5230 0.00345 98.2 23000 4 5234 0.003452 98.24 23000
729.5 0.0239
700 0.02
730 0.024
730 0.0239
729.5 0.0239
Fx = 0 Fy = 0
Sum the forces in both directions gives: -FA cos + FB cos = 0 FA sin + FB sin - W = 0
The numerical values in each step are also rounded to two significant digits:
FA = 520 - 0.64 FA FA = 320 lb FB = 320 lb Notice the value of FA is 23 lb, or 7.7% higher, than when four significant digits were used. The percentage of error will vary from problem to problem, but when only two significant digits are used, the answer will generally be off by more than 1 percent. Therefore, rounding to only two significant digits should be avoided.
CHAPTER 1- B-UNITS:
STATICS - CASE STUDY Introduction
Jimmy has a choice between two remote-control cars, a 1967 Ford Mustang and a 1976 Ford Pinto. He would like to have the faster one, but the models are manufactured in different countries and thus have a different maximum speed printed in the specifications. What is known:
Toy Cars on Kitchen Click to view movie (440k)
The maximum speed of the remote-control 1967 Mustang model is 29 ft/s. The maximum speed of the remote-control 1976 Pinto model is 10 m/s.
Question
What is the maximum speed of the 1967 Mustang and the 1976 Pinto remote-control model in both mi/hr (mph) and km/hr? Which car is faster?
Approach
Convert the speed of both cars to a common set of units, mph and km/hr, and then compare the speeds.
Question
What is the position of Mars relative to Earth on the launch day?
Approach
Draw a diagram and label the key points and known position vectors. Determine the relationship between the unknown position vector and those that are given. Using geometry, solve for the length and angle of the unknown vector.
Problem Diagram
Any quantity that is represented by a positive or negative number is called a scalar. Mass, volume, and distance are examples of scalars. Scalars are generally represented by letters in plain type such as A = 5 kg. Mathematical operations on scalars follow the laws of elementary mathematics and algebra.
Position Vectors Click to view movie (55k)
A vector represents a quantity that has both magnitude and direction. Examples of vectors include position, force, moment (torque) and velocity. Mathematical operations involving vectors follow the rules of vector algebra, which is discussed below. Vectors are generally represented graphically by an arrow. The length of the arrow represents the magnitude, and the direction is defined by the angle between the vector and some reference axis. Vectors are represented symbolically by a boldface letter such as B = 10 km north. The magnitude of a vector is a positive quantity and is written as a scalar such as B = |B|. In the next section, 2-D Vectors, vector notation will be presented which makes working with vectors easier.
= 150 10 km 0
6
= 207 10 km 30
6
The difference between re and rm is the vector from Earth to Mars. Using the head-to-tail method gives, rm = re + rem This equation can be rearranged to give the unknown position vector rem, rem = rm - re 6 o 6 o = 207 10 km 30 - 150 10 km 180
Click to view movie (26k)
The vector calculator on the simulation page can be used to add the vectors, which gives rem = 107.56 10 km 74.21
6 o
Geometric Solution
The problem can also be solved using pure geometry. First, define the position vector from Earth to Mars using the equation rm = rem Next, form a triangle with the three vectors and use the Law of the Cosine, rem = (re + rm - 2re rm cos )
2 2 0.5
= 107.56 10 km (scalar only, not vector) Then the internal angle , can be determined using the Law of the Sine, rem / sin = rem / sin
= 180o - = 74.21o
The position vector from Earth to Mars is rem = 107.56 10 km 74.21
6 o
Comments
This problem could also be solved using standard vector notation with unit vectors, i and j. Vector notation is introduced in the next several sections and is used extensively throughout Statics.
The forces on the pulley at failure are as follows: (1) F1 = 500 lb downward (2) F2 = 500 lb, 30 from downward
Question
What is the total force on the pulley and in what direction does it act?
Approach
Pulley Force Diagram
Solve for the rectangular components of the two forces on the pulley. Combine the two forces using vector addition to find the total force exerted on the pulley. Solve for the magnitude and direction of the total force.
F = F x + Fy If two vectors, i and j, have a magnitude of one and are in the x and y direction respectively, then F can be written as F = Fxi + Fyj
X-Y Axis Orientation
The vectors i and j are called Cartesian unit vectors, and Fx and Fy are the scalar components of the vector
F. This configuration is the most common to describe a vector and allows vectors to be added and subtracted quickly and easily. If the angle is measured from the x axis counterclockwise, then the scalar components are Fx = F cos Fy = F sin
Note, Fn-x and Fn-y are the components of each individual vector where n is the numbering of each vector being added. The magnitude and direction of the resultant vector, FR, can be determined just like any individual vector by, FR = (FRx + FRy)
0.5
= tan-1 (FRy/FRx)
Choose an axis system as shown and write the two vectors in Cartesian notation. It is important that the correct sign is used. F1 = 0i - 500j lb F2 = 500 sin30i - 500 cos30j lb = 250i - 433j lb
Addition of Forces
Now that the two vectors are described using the unit vectors, i and j, they can been easily added. Adding the two forces will give the total force in Cartesian notation, FR = F1 + F2 = 250i - (500 + 433)j = 250i - 933j lb The magnitude of the total force can be determined by squaring the i and j magnitudes, and then taking the square root, FR = (250 + 933 )
2 2 0.5
= 965.9 lb
Question
What is the total thrust (force) on the boat in Cartesian components after the driveshaft was bent?
Approach
Draw a diagram labeling all known angles. Using geometr y, solve for the Cartesia n compon ents of the two propelle r forces. Combin e the compon ents to get the total thrust (force) on the boat.
F = Fxi + Fyj + Fzk The new component, k is the unit vector in the z direction. The components Fx, Fy, and Fz can be determined from the magnitude and direction of F, Fx = F cosx Fy = F cosy Fz = F cosz The angle i is the angle that F makes with the i axis as shown in the diagram at the top left.
Vector Addition
Addition of 3-D vectors is the same as for 2-D except that three components must be added instead of two. If two vectors F1 and F2 exist, then the addition of F1 and F2 is, F R = F 1+ F 2 FR = (F1x + F2x)i + (F1y + F2y)j + (F1z + F2z)k The magnitude of the resultant vector is determined by applying the Pythagorean theorem,
Direction Cosines Click to view movie (55k)
2 0.5
The direction cosines are useful in some problems to identify each direction component. They are given as, cosx = FRx /FR cosy = FRy /FR cosz = FRz /FR
3D Unit Vector
General unit vectors can be determined in 3D using the definition of unit vectors, as uF = F/F Substituting vector notation and magnitude for F, gives
Position Vectors
In statics, force and moment vectors are the most commonly but many times a position vector is needed to help determine the direction of the force or moment vector. Position vectors are the same as all vectors, but they describe direction and distance, r = xi + yj + zk where x, y, and z are distances (scalars). Generally, position vectors are determined by its two end points, giving r = (xB - xA)i + (yB - yA)j + (zB - zA)k
Position Vector
= cos-1 FRz /FR = sin-1 FRy /(FR sin) -1 = cos FRx /(FR sin)
1 = 175o 1 = 90o
The magnitude is F1 = 1000 lbs. The cartesian components can be calculated by,
Normal Propeller Force Components Click to view movie (54k)
F1x = F sin1 cos1 = 1000 sin90 cos175 = -996.2 lb F1y = F sin1 sin1 = 1000 sin90 sin175 = 87.2 lb F1z = F cos1 = 1000 cos90 = 0 lb Vector F1 can be written in Cartesian notation as F1 =-996.2i + 87.2j + 0k lb
2 = 200o 2 = 80.59o
Bent Propeller Force Components Click to view movie (111k)
F2x = F sin2 cos2 = -927.0 lb F2y = F sin2 sin2 = -337.4 lb F2z = F cos2 = 163.5 lb Vector F2 can be written in Cartesian notation as F2 =-927.0i - 337.4j + 163.5k lb Next, add F1 and F2 to get the total force on the boat.
Summing Components
Angles for F2
equipment from point A on the ground to point B on the platform they are working on. The trolley is pulled by two cables at the base of the tower. What is known: With an axis system oriented as shown, the position vectors of points A and B are rA = 175i + 0j + 0k m rB = 39i + 70j + 29k m When the trolley is halfway between points A and B, the forces exerted on the trolley by the cables are F1 = -943.7i - 221.7j + 245.4k m F2 = -919.4i - 216.0j - 328.6k m
Displacement Vectors
Question
What is the component of the force exerted on the trolley that is parallel to the line AB?
Approach
Find the unit vector in the direction of the line AB. Find the total force exerted on the trolley by the two cables. Solve for the component of the total force that is parallel to the unit vector for line AB.
Dot Product
The dot product of two vectors A and B is defined as the product of the magnitudes A and B and the cosine of the angle between them: A B = |A| |B| cos The dot product can also be calculated by A B = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz
Dot Product Angle Click to view movie (45k)
If the direction of a line is defined by the unit vector u, then the scalar component of the vector A parallel to that line is given by
Component Parallel to a Line Click to view movie (74k)
A|| = A u The vector component parallel to that line is given by A|| = (A u) u Using the properties of vector addition, or the Pythagorean theorem, we can also determine the scalar and vector components of A perpendicular to the line:
The direction of line AB is defined by the position vector rAB, which can be found from vector addition, rA + rAB = rB rAB = rB - rA = (39 - 175)i + (70 - 0)j + (29 - 0)k = -136i + 70j + 29k The unit vector in the direction of rAB can be determined by dividing rAB by its magnitude rAB, rAB = (-1,36 + 70 + 29 ) uAB = rAB/rAB = -0.8736i + 0.4496j + 0.1863k
2 2 2 0.5
= 155.7 m
The magnitude or FT|| has not changed but is now represented as a vector.
The cable car is symmetric about its own vertical axis, and the supports connecting it to the cable are separated by 60. The cable to the right of the joint is angled at 20, and the cable to the left is angled at 5, with respect to the horizon.
Questions
Using a free-body diagram, how would we represent the forces acting on the point at which the cable car supports are connected to the cable?
Approach
Angle Diagram
Isolate the point at which the forces are acting and draw a simple sketch of the object. Then draw vector approximations of the forces acting on the point.
A Free-body diagram (FBD) is an essential tool when the forces on an object need to be determined using equilibrium equations. They help focus attention on the object of interest in order to determine the forces acting on it. Creating FBD's is a straightforward process:
1. Identify the object that will be isolated. 2. Make an approximate sketch of the object removed from the surroundings and include its relative dimensions and angles. 3. Draw vector approximations of the external forces and body forces, and label them. 4. Choose an appropriate coordinate system.
Coordinate System
The coordinate system is arbitrary when constructing a free-body diagrams. However, it is best to choose a coordinate system that will simplify future calculations. This may be done before or after making the diagram.
Equilibrium
An object is in equilibrium when each point inside the object has the same constant velocity (generally, velocity is zero for static's problems). Therefore, an object in equilibrium is not experiencing any accelerations, so Newton's 2nd Law can be written as
F = ma = 0
Forces Due to Rope/Cables Click to view movie (95k)
The vector sum of the external forces acting on an object in equilibrium is zero.
Representation of Forces
A force acts through a line of action, which is a vector representation of a force's magnitude and direction. On a rigid body, the force can be applied to any point on the object along the line of action of the force. Forces may be either internal (such as the force of a piston in an engine) or external (such as the force of a baseball bat against the ball). They may also act across the object's surface or at any point in its body. The force of gravity is an important factor when
significant masses are involved. The weight of an object in a gravitational field can be expressed |W| = mg where m is the object's mass and g is the gravitational 2 2 constant (g = 9.81 m/s = 32.2 ft/s on Earth's surface). Ropes and cables exert tension forces that only pull on an object and are therefore always represented as forces that are directed away from the object. Unless stated otherwise, we will always assume that ropes and cables are straight and their force is constant along the length. A pulley serves to change the direction of the force of a rope/cable, but the tension will be the same on both sides if we assume a mass-less pulley (not true in dynamic problems). Contact forces result from contact between the surfaces of two objects. A contact force can usually be split into two components: a normal force perpendicular to the plane of contact and a frictional force parallel to the plane of contact. Frictional forces, however, can be neglected if the surface is smooth. Springs exert contact forces in a mechanical device. The force can be represented as
Planar Surface Contact Forces Click to view movie (245k)
|F| = k |L - Lo| where, k is the spring constant, L is the length after deflection, and Lo is the length before deflection. The use of springs when modeling complicated real-world structures is a useful tool.
It is best to choose a coordinate system that will simplify future calculations. In this case, there is no preferable system to choose, so we will keep the original coordinate system with the x axis parallel to the horizon, and the y axis vertical. Next, isolate the object or point through which the forces act. This occurs on the cable where the car is connected. To complete the Free-Body Diagram (FBD) all the forces need to be drawn. The tension forces in the cable are labeled T1 and T2 because they are not in the same direction nor are they equal. In addition, the cable car is symmetric about the y axis, and therefore the support forces will be equal in magnitude. These forces are labeled FS. Now the angles need to be specified. But since the axis has not been altered, they will be exactly the same as before.
Solution
a. As with all statics problem, a free-body diagram will assist in solving the problem. In this example, all forces acting on the elevator cabin is first analyzed. The 5000 lb weight is divided evenly between the cables due to symmetry. Consequently the force of each cable will be P = 5000 / 2 = 2,500 lb
Next, assume the cable force in each motor is F. The diagram on the left shows the pulley system with the external forces and with the elevator forces.
The free-body diagram for pulley number 2 is shown on the left. Note that the free-body diagram for the pulley number 4 would be similar. Summing the forces in the vertical direction gives,
Fy = 0
0 = 2 T2 - 2,500 lb T2 = 1,250 lb Since the cable is continuous, T2 = F = 1,250 lb
b. If one of the electro-motors is removed, then the cable is directly attached to the wall. The free-body diagram and the solution procedure would be the same. In this case the reaction force at the wall is equal to 1,250 lb. Therefore removing one of the motors will not affect the final answer. Also, by removing one of the electro-motors, both cost and energy will be saved for the consumer and manufacturer.
When the pulley system is used and a 75 lb counterweight is attached to the end of the rope, the scale registers the bull's apparent weight as 980 lb.
Questions
a) What is the bull's actual weight? b) If the bull's actual weight is 1368 lb, what magnitude counterweight will cause the scale to read 1000 lb?
Approach
Start with the right end of the rope and work backward to determine the tension in each segment using free-body diagrams for each pulley. Apply equations of equilibrium, Fy = 0, for each pulley. Consider all forces acting on the bull, including the scale.
STATICS - THEORY
2D Equilibrium
Forces acting on a object can be approximated as vectors with a magnitude and direction. When there are unknowns in the system, the equations of equilibrium can be used to find those unknowns. Recall in the previous section, the equation for equilibrium is
F = 0
This equation can be expanded for each direction (only x- and y-direction is examined in this section, the next section includes the z-direction)
F = Fxi + Fyj = 0
For the expanded equation, each direction must be in equilibrium, or
Fx = 0 Fy = 0
This means that when an object is in equilibrium, the components of forces acting along the arbitrary coordinate system will cancel each other out. These relationships can be used to determine the unknown forces using simple algebra.
Pulleys
A pulley redirects the force of ropes and cables. If no mass is given for the pulley (mass-less pulley), then the tension forces in a rope will be the same on either side of the pulley.
Rope Force Remains Constant in a Pulley System
A good place to start for all statics problems is a freebody diagram (FBD). However, in this problem, because there are numerous objects, it can be confusing which object (or objects) to use in a FBD. Since the bull seems to be central to the problem, it would be a good place to start (note, there is no "wrong" place to start). The FBD of the bull is shown at the left. Summing forces in the y-direction gives,
Problem Layout with Given Information
However, you will notice that there are still two unknowns, Tch and W bull. More information is needed. The next logical object to examine is pulley C since it is connected to the bull. Its FBD is shown at the left along with the rope connected to the counterweight. Summing forces on pulley C gives,
TBC = TDC = F = 75 lb The rope tension TCH can be calculated as, TCH = 150 lb Substitute TEG and TCH into Eq. 1 to find the weight of the bull, W bull = 1280 lb
Part b) - Counterweight
In part a), the bull's weight was found. Now, the problem is reversed, the bull weight is known, 1,368 lb, and the counterweight needs to be determined to make the scale register 1000 lb.
This time it is easier to start with the bull and work though the pulleys to find the counterweight. The FBD for the bull is shown at the left. Summing forces in the y-direction gives the tension in the ropes TEG and TCH,
TBC = 184/2 = 92 lb Since the rope has the same tension as it goes from pulley C to the counterweight, F = TFA = TAB = TBC The magnitude of the counterweight needed to just register 1000 lb on the scale is F = 92 lb
Solution
In this example, there are two different loads that interact through a system of cables. Since all ropes are connected to at least one ring, it would seem reasonable to focus on the ring objects and make sure they are in static equilibrium.
Drawing a free-body diagram of ring E, identifies two rope forces, FDE and FEC, that are not known. The direction of the loads are known since the force must act in the direction of the rope. The rope forces can be determined by applying force equilibrium in the x and y directions.
Fx = 0
FDE cos30 + FEC cos55 = 0 FDE = 0.6623 FEC
Fy = 0
-10 + FDE sin30 + FEC sin 55 = 0 0.6623 FEC (0.5) + FEC (0.8192) = 10 Solving the two equations give, FEC = 8.693 lb FDE = 5.757 lb Now that the force in rope EC is know, ring C can be analyzed. Again, drawing a free-body diagram of ring C identifies two unknown forces, FAC and FCB. Applying the equilibrium equations gives,
Fx = 0
Free-body Diagrams of Ring C
Fy = 0
FAC + 7.051 sin45 - 8 - 8.693 sin 55 = 0 FAC = 10.14 lb Maximum force occurs in rope AC, Fmax = 10.14 lb
The radio antenna for station WEML sits on a nearby hill for better transmission. The support cables have been pre-tensioned to keep the antenna stable, which causes a known force on the antenna. In addition, a storm with high winds is adding a significant lateral load on the antenna. The storm could cause problems because the cable anchors were not placed to provide maximum support. What is known:
Radio Tower
The locations of the cable anchors on the ground (in reference to point O) are A(x,y,z) = (66.5 m, -86.5 m, 0 m) B(x,y,z) = (-26.3 m, -86.5 m, -63.0 m) C(x,y,z) = (-68.0 m, -86.5 m, 42.8 m) The wind exerts a 1 kN force, Fwind, on the antenna in the negative z direction, Fwind. The antenna experiences a 5.2 kN compression force, Ftower, due to the pretensioning in the cables. The cables will fail at tensions greater than 4 kN.
Questions
Will any of the cables break due to the force of the wind on the antenna?
Approach
Use Cartesian coordinates to define cable forces. Apply the equilibrium equations to solve for the cable tensions. (This will involve 3 equations and 3 unknowns.) Remember, cables experience only tension forces.
Force Diagram
The theory behind solving for three-dimensional forces is closely related to that of solving for twodimensional forces. The equation for equilibrium is
F = 0
For three dimensions, this can be expanded to
Fx = 0 Fy = 0 Fz = 0
The equilibrium equation has been separated into three components corresponding to the x, y, and z axes. Since each equation is independent of the others, the equations can be used to determine up to three unknowns.
Fo = Fwind + Ftower + FA + FB + FC = 0
In order to sum all the vectors, it is easier to convert each force into Cartesian vector. Then each direction, i, j, and k, must equate to zero.
3D Tower View Click to view 3D movie (18k)
FW = -1.0k kN FT = 5.2j kN
Problem Diagram
plank depends on the man's weight, his location, and the angle of the boat. What is known: The man has a weight of W lb and is standing a distance of x ft from the base of the plank. The boat is tilted an angle of , measured in degrees.
Question
What is the moment generated about point A, which is located at the base of the plank?
Approach
Determine the perpendicular distance from point A to the line of action of the force as a function of x and . Calculate the moment about point A by multiplying the force times the perpendicular distance.
Here F is the magnitude of the force and r is the perpendicular distance to the line of action of the force. The orientation of the moment is in the same direction as the rotation of the body if the body were allowed to rotate. A moment can be symbolized as a curved
vector around the rotation point. If a force is applied at the point O or the line of action of the force passes through point O, then the moment about point O is zero, and the force has no tendency to rotate the body about that point.
Principle of Moments
The principle of moments, which is also referred to as Varignon's theorem, states that the moment of a force about a point is equal to the sum of the moments of the force's components about the point. Therefore, if the components of a force are known, it may be simpler to determine the moment of each component and then add them.
The moment is then just the distance D times the force, W, giving MA = W d = Wx cos ft-lb
Solution
Example Graphic
Like most static problems, the first step in solving any problem is to construct a free-body diagram. From the free body diagram at the left, there are three unknown forces, W, Ax and Ay. The wall reaction is known since the maximum wall force is 200 lb. The unknown forces can be found by applying the force and moment equilibrium equations,
F = 0 M = 0
W can be found by writing the moment equation about the pivot point, A. In this case the moment due to the reaction force of 200 lb must cancel out the moment of W about point A. Before the moment can be solved, the distance D needs to be found.
MA = 0
200 (6) - W (3.464) = 0 W = 346.4 lb Is the length of the upper arm important in the design calculations? How?
After designing an elaborate plumbing system, a plumber's apprentice uses a pipe wrench to tighten the connections. Unknown to him, he is placing unnecessary moments on other parts of the structure that could bend the pipes and lead to leaks or failures. What is known:
Problem Description Click to view movie (226k)
The plumber exerts a force of 80 N on the pipe wrench as shown. All of the necessary dimensions are shown
determining angles and distances in 3-D space can be very difficult. The next section will introduce a vector approach to calculating moments that greatly simplifies the process and reduces the number of steps necessary in calculating a moment vector.
Joint B
The distance from joint B to the line of action of F is found from the Pythagorean theorem: dB = (30 + 45 )
2 2 0.5
= 54.08 cm
Substitute and solve for the magnitude of the moment: MB = (80 N) (54.08 cm) = 4,327 N-cm
Joint C
Calculate the moment arm and the moment at joint C in the same manner as for joint B: dC = (15 + 45 )
2 2 0.5
= 47.43 cm
Joint D and E
Calculate the moment of F at joints D and E in the same manner as for joints B and C: dD = (15 + 15 )
2 2 0.5
= 21.21 cm
= 33.54 cm
Maximum Moment
The joint with the largest moment is joint B, which has a moment of 4,327 N cm, or in more common units 43.27 N-m.
Solution
To find moment about a point, the position vector from the point of interest to any point on the force line of action is crossed with the force vector. In equation form this is
Fixed Bracket with Force
MA = r F For this problem, the position vector is drawn from point A to point E giving rAE = 6i - k Another position could be used, such from A to D. The force vector can be determined by multiply its magnitude with its unit directional vector. The location of point D and E is (8,8,2) and (6,0,5) respectively. The force vector is F = F uDE
Known information
Questions
What is the maximum moment generated at joint B as the wrench rotates from = 0 to = 90?
Approach
Pipe Layout Click to view 3D movie (13k)
Determine the position vector from joint B to point Q for any angle . Determine the Cartesian components of F as a function of the angle . Solve for the moment of F at joint B using the vector description of moment.
STATICS - THEORY
Here is the angle between the vectors A and B. The vector C is perpendicular to the plane defined by the vectors A and B, and the direction is determined from the right-hand rule.
perpendicular to M ( = r F)
Mo = r F Here r is the position vector of any point on the line of action of F with respect to point O. Expanding the determinant form of the cross product, gives Mo = (ry Fz - rz Fy)i + (rz Fx - rx Fz)j + (rx Fy - ry Fx)k From this equation, the Cartesian components of the moment vector Mo are readily found.
The position vector of point Q (location of applied force F) can be determined when the wrench is rotated at an angle of as rQ = rQxi + rQyj + rQzk
= 0i + 30 cosj + (60 + 30 sin)k From vector addition, the position vector from joint B to point Q is rB + rBQ = rQ or rBQ = rQ - rB = -45i + 30 cosj + (45 + 30 sin)k
Force Vector
The system of two forces can be replaced by an equivalent system consisting of a force FR and couple MR applied at point O. The force FR is found by summing the individual forces, F = Fxi + Fyj + Fzk
Known Information
= 0i - 80 sinj + 80 cosk
Moment Vector
The moment of the force about joint B is given by MB = rBQ > F The cross product in determinant form is
Expanding the equation gives MB = (rBQy Fz - rBQz Fy)i + (rBQz Fx - rBQx Fz)j + (rBQx Fy - rBQy Fx)k Substituting the appropriate values and simplifing to determine the moment at joint B gives MB = (2,400 + 3,600 sin)i + (3,600 cos)j + (3,600 sin)k If the magnitude of MB is plotted as a function of the angle , then the moment is a maximum at = 90,
with a value of 6,997 N-cm or about 70 N-m. This is approximately 62% greater than the moment at = 0.
Each rocket has a thrust of T = 0.5 lb. One of the engines is misaligned by = 10. The necessary dimensions are shown.
Questions
1. What is the equivalent force-couple system at point O? 2. If one is possible, what is the force resultant?
Approach
Use a vector approach to determine the equivalent force and moment at point O. Solve for the position of the force resultant, if one is possible.
A couple is defined as a pair of forces having equal magnitude and opposite direction with different but parallel lines of action. Since the total force in any direction is zero, the net effect of a couple is a pure moment, or torque. The magnitude of this moment is the magnitude of one of the forces times the perpendicular distance between the forces, M=Fd The moment vector is perpendicular to the plane containing the lines of action of the two forces. Using a vector approach, the moment of a couple is defined as
Couple Definition Click to view movie (551k)
M=rF Here r is the position vector from one force to the other, and F is the force to which r is directed.
Equivalent Systems
Two systems are equivalent if and only if the sum of forces for the two systems is equal and the sum of moments about an arbitrary point in both systems is equal: (F)1 = (F)2 (Mp)1 = (Mp)2
(1) (2)
MP = rPF F
(3)
If the force and couple of an equivalent force-couple system are perpendicular to one another, we have the equation FR MRP = 0 The system can be reduced to a single force FR located at a point Q. The moments of the two systems can be equated about the point P giving,
Single Force Resultant Click to view movie (235k)
MRP = rPQ FR
(4)
By substituting Eqs. 1, 2, and 3 into Eq. 4; performing the cross products; and equating the i, j, and k components; the three scalar equation are,
(rPFy Fz - rPFz Fy ) = rPQy Fz - rPQz Fy (rPFz Fx - rPFx Fz ) = rPQz Fx - rPQx Fz (rPFx Fy - rPFy Fx ) = rPQx Fy - rPQy Fx
Solving this system of three equations for the three unknowns rPQx, rPQy, and rPQz gives the position vector rPQ of the force FR, rPQ = rPQxi + rPQyj + rPQzk FR = F
Direction of Forces
Solution of a)
The system of two forces can be replaced by an equivalent system consisting of a force FR and couple MR applied at point O. The force FR is found by summing the individual forces. FR = F = F1 + F2 = -Tsini + T(cos - 1)j + 0k Substituting the known values, = 10 and T = 0.5 lb, gives
o
FR = -0.08682i - 0.007596j + 0k lb The moment MR is the sum of the individual moments. MRo = Mo = r1 F1 + r2 F2 The cross products can be written as determinants, giving,
= 0i - 0j + 3T(1 + cos)k Substituting the known values gives MRo = 0i - 0j + 2.977k in-lb
Solution of b)
Since all the forces act in the same plane, there is a single force resultant for this problem. The resultant force is the same FR as before but it is located at a different point Q, which must satisfy the equation MRo = rOQ FR Writing this equation in determinant form and substituting known vectors gives,
- [0 - rOQz (-0.08682)]j + + [(rOQx (-0.007596) - rOQy(-0.08682)]k From the i and j terms, rOQz must be zero. However, the k term gives 2.977 = -0.007596 rOQx + 0.08682 rOQy From inspecting the diagram, it is noted that point Q was chosen to be directly vertical from O. Thus, the rOQx must be zero. This gives, 2.977 = 0.08682 rOQy Therefore rOQ = 0i + 34.29j + 0k in Applying the single force FR at the point Q has the same effect as the two original forces F1 and F2.
The wind load can be modeled as a linear distributed load. The wind load has a magnitude of 40 lb/ft at the base of the building. The wind load has a magnitude of 120 lb/ft at the top of the building. The building is 500 ft tall.
Question
What is the force resultant of the wind load and where
is it located?
Approach
Break the distributed load into its simpler composite parts. Determine the single force resultants for each of the composite parts. Combine the two resultants into a single force resultant.
STATICS - THEORY
In many static problems, applied loads are given as distributed force loads. This is similar to stacking sand bags on a beam so that the load is distributed across the beam instead of at one location (point load). To help make the problem easier to solve, it is convenient to convert the distributed load into equivalent point loads.
If the forces are further restricted so that they all lie in the x-y plane, then z' = 0 and only the second equation applies.
Composite Loading
A load of the type shown is said to be a composite load since it can be generated with a combination of simpler loads such as a uniform and a triangular line load. Loads of this nature can be converted to force resultants by splitting the load into its composite parts, solving for the force resultant of each part, and then combining the forces into a force resultant for the entire load. As an example, the diagram at the left can be splitting to a triangular and rectangular distributed load. The two separate loadings can be combined as, FR = F 1 + F2
Distributed Load Simplification
x R FR = x 1 F1 + x 2 F2
= 125.0 + 166.7
= 291.7 ft
y1 = 250 ft The force resultant of the triangular load is F2 = 0.5 (80) (500) = 20,000 lb Its location is two-thirds of the distance from the vertex to the peak value y2 = 2/3 (500) = 333.3 ft Nest, combine these two forces into a single force FR located at the position y'. FR = F = F1 + F2 = 40,000 lb Its location is given by
Substituting F1, y1, F2, and y2 and simplifying the equation gives y' = 1.166 x 10 / 40,000 = 291.7 ft
7
A new 10 kN tri-axle truck is designed to carry sand but the design engineer notes that if it is loaded incorrectly the truck can tip. Thus, it is necessary for the truck to be stable even with both of the rear wheels on 3rd axle go flat. The center of gravity (cg) of just the truck is located at 0.5 m from the front edge of the sand. The distributed load of the sand can be modeled as a third order equation, 3 2 -0.17 x + 0.38 x + 0.77 x + h kN/m. The center of gravity (cg) of just the sand is not known. What will be the maximum allowable h before the load will be unsafe when the back rear wheels are flat?
Solution
When both rear wheels become flat, there will be no vertical force acting on them and the truck may become unstable. Additionally, when the truck starts tipping, the force on the front wheel will go to zero because at that time the moment about the middle wheels wants to rotate the truck. The model can be simplified as a beam with a pinned support at the location of the 2nd axle and two forces (weight of the truck and the weight of the sand pile). Notice the back rear wheels and front wheels do not exert a reaction force. Previously, it was determined that the resultant force F S for a distributed load over a line is,
It was also shown that the location of the line of action of FS is given by
The sand pile is distributed from 0 to 3 meters. The resulting point force is,
The moment of this force about the rear wheel should cancel with the moment of the weight
M = 0
The equation can be simplified to 1.5 h = 2.079 This gives a maximum value of h as 1.386 m.
What is known: The trap door is supported by a hinge and a bearing with a circular shaft on one side. The other side is supported by a sliding bolt, which is equivalent to a bearing with a square shaft.
Questions
What type of reaction forces and moments does each of the supports exert on the trap door?
Approach
Analyze the conventional methods by which rigid bodies are held stationary, or are held together. Determine the type of forces and moments that these supports exert on a rigid body in reaction to externally applied loads. There is not enough data to determine the exact magnitude of each reaction. Only determine the type of reaction.
Hinge Diagram
STATICS - THEORY
Before the equilibrium of rigid bodies can be investigated, the supports that hold them in place, or hold them to other objects, must be first analyzed. Supports that are commonly found in statics can be represented by stylized models called support conventions. An actual support may be a close approximation of a model. The forces and moments exerted on a rigid body by its supports are called reactions. These forces and moments are reacting to external loads that are applied to the rigid body. In general, if a support prevents translation in a given direction, then the support exerts a force in that direction. If rotation is prevented, then the support exerts a couple, or moment, in the direction of the rotation.
Basic 2D Boundary Conditions
Supports can be broken down into two categories: 2-D supports and 3-D supports. The table to the left shows common 2-D support conventions.
To better understand the relationship between support conventions and support reactions, detailed explanation of three of the more commonly used support conventions are presented below. They are the pin support, the roller support, and the fixed support.
Pin Support
With a pin support, a bracket and an object are connected by means of a smooth pin passing through the object and connected to the bracket. The pin prevents translation but permits rotation. Thus, the pin support exerts forces in any direction, but it cannot exert a moment about the axis of the pin. In 2-D, the reaction force of a pin can be broken down into two component forces parallel to the x and y axes.
Pin Support
Roller Support
The roller support is similar to a pin support but mounted on wheels. It cannot exert a couple about any axis, nor can it exert a force parallel to the surface on which the roller support rests. It can, however, exert a force perpendicular to the surface on which it rests. The roller permits rotation about any axis. It also permits translation in any direction parallel to the surface. It prohibits translation towards the surface. In 2-D, the reaction force of the roller support can be represented by one force perpendicular to the surface.
Roller Support
Fixed Support
The fixed support prevents both translation and rotation about any axis. Thus, the fixed support prevents translation and rotation in any direction. In 2-D, the fixed support can be represented by component forces parallel to the x and y axes, and a couple that is perpendicular to the x-y plane. The table below includes a more comprehensive presentation of both 2D and 3D support conventions and their reactions. Click on any graphic to view a detailed animation of the support mechanism. 3D
Fixed Support
2D
Smooth Surface
(movie 36k)
Smooth Surface
(movie 474k)
One collinear force acting along the axis of the rope or cable. Link
(movie 48k)
One collinear force acting along the axis of the rope or cable. Roller
(movie 504k)
One collinear force acting along the axis of the link. Roller
(movie 41k)
One force acting normal to the surface on which the roller rests. Fixed Collar
(movie 33k)
Two force components acting parallel to the coordinate axes, and two moments perpendicular to the axis of the bearing. Hinge
(movie 344k)
One force acting perpendicular to the sleeve, and one moment. Pin
(movie 28k)
Three force components acting parallel to the coordinate axes, and two moments perpendicular to the axis of the bearing. Fixed
(movie 116k)
Three force components acting parallel to the coordinate axes, and three moments perpendicular to the axis of the bearing.
Two force components acting parallel to the coordinate axes, and one moment.
Support 1
The first support appears to be a standard hinge at a quick glance. Upon further examination, it becomes clear that this support is actually a bearing with a circular shaft that can slide along the z-axis (standard hinges cannot). This type of support has two unknown reaction forces and two unknown reaction moments along the coordinate axes that are perpendicular to the axis of the bearing. There are, however, no reaction forces or moments along the axis of the bearing. Thus, the bearing can both translate and rotate along this axis.
Support 1: Sliding Hinge Click to view movie (342k)
Reaction at Support 1
Support 2
The second support is a standard hinge. A hinge has two unknown reaction forces and two unknown reaction moments along the coordinate axes that are perpendicular to the axis of the hinge. There is also a reaction force along the axis of the hinge (i.e. does not slide along the z-axis). There is, however, no reaction moment along the axis of the hinge. Thus, the hinge may only rotate about this axis.
Reaction at Support 2
Support 3
The third support is the bolt. This support does not permit any rotation around any axis. It has two unknown reaction forces and two unknown reaction moments along the coordinate axes that are perpendicular to the axis of the bearing. There is also a reaction moment along the axis of the bolt. Thus, the bolt only permits translation along the axis of the bolt.
Reaction at Support 3
CHAPTER-5-B-Equilibrium in 2-D
STATICS - CASE STUDY Introduction
A utility truck uses an extendible arm to raise and lower supplies and equipment. If the arm is raised and then rotated perpendicular to the length of the truck, it will affect the equilibrium of the truck. What is known: The initial length of the arm is 8 m. The arm is raised 30 above the horizontal. The mass of the truck is 2,000 kg. The arm is hoisting a 400 kg load of bricks. The mass of the arm and the length of the truck can be neglected.
Question
When the arm reaches a stable position perpendicular to the length of the truck and 30 up from the horizontal, what are the normal forces exerted on the right and left wheels by the ground?
Approach
Assume that the normal forces acting on the wheels, the center of mass of the truck, and the center of mass of the bricks all lie in the same plane. Make a free-body diagram. Sum the forces and moments acting on the truck. Solve for the normal forces acting on the wheels.
Dimension Diagram
STATICS - THEORY
For a rigid body in equilibrium, the sum of all the forces and the sum of all the moments must be zero,
F = 0
M = 0
Fx = 0 M x = 0
Fy = 0 My = 0
Fz = 0 M z = 0
The equilibrium equation has been separated into three components corresponding to the x, y, and z axes for both the forces and moments. Since each equation is independent of the others, the equations can be used to determine up to six unknowns for a full 3D problem.
Equilibrium Equations
"Two-dimensional" is used to describe problems in which the forces reside in a particular plane (x-y for example), and the axes of all moments are perpendicular to the plane. Because there is no force in the z direction, and no moments about the x- or y-axis, three of the six independent scalar equations are automatically satisfied. The remaining equations for a rigid body in 2-D equilibrium are
Fx = 0
Fy = 0
Fz = 0
Since there is a maximum of three independent equations for a rigid body in two-dimensional equilibrium, only three unknown forces or couples can be solved.
Use the support conventions presented in previous section to make a free-body diagram of the truck and bricks. Assume that the normal forces acting on the wheels, the center of mass of the truck, and the center of mass of the bricks all lie in the x-y plane. Summing the forces in both the x and y direction, and the moments about point the center of gravity of the truck, point A, gives,
The first equation shows that there is no force exerted on the wheels by the ground in the horizontal direction. Using the third equation, solve for N2, N2 = N1 + L2/L1 m2g cos and then substitute into the second equation, N1 + N1 + L2/L1 m2g cos = g(m1 + m2) N1 = g/2 (m1 + m2) - L2/L1 m2g/2 cos Solving
Before Brickes are Raised Click to view movie (40k)
N1 = 9.81/2 (2,000 + 400) - (8/1.4) (400)(9.81)/2 cos30 N1 = 2,063 N Substituting back into the second equation gives N2 as, N2 = g(m1 + m2) + N1 N2 = 9.81 (2,000 + 400) - 2,063 N2 = 21,480 N
STATICS - EXAMPLE
Example
Calculate the reaction forces acting at A and B on the beam.
Solution
Beam with Distributed Load
First convert the distributed loads into point loads and find their locations. For a rectangular uniform distributed load, the magnitude of the resultant force will be the product of the length of the rectangle and value of the distributed load. The location of the force resultant is always the center point (centroid) of the distributed load. The magnitude of the resultant force will be (200 N/m) (4 m) = 800 N and it will be at 2 m away from support A. For a triangular line load, the force resultant is one half of the peak value of the distributed load multiplied by the distance over which it acts. The location of the force resultant is two-thirds of the distance from the vertex to the peak value of the load. The magnitude of the resultant force will be (1/2) (2) (500 - 200) = 300 N and it is at 1.33 m from left vertex. The actual reactions can be found by applying equilibrium equations There will be three possible reactions at A and B namely Ax, Ay and By. which can be found by applying the equilibrium equations.
MA = 0
By (6) - 800 (2) - 300 (3.33) - 150 (5.8) = 0 By = 578.2 N Equating forces give,
Fy = 0
Ay + By - 800 - 300 - 150 = 0 Ay = 671.8 N
CHAPTER-5-C-Equilibrium in 3-D
STATICS - CASE STUDY Introduction
As Louis the Lamp is making his great escape from the lonely attic, he must jump onto the trap door that will set him free. Before he leaps, however, he must know the tension he will place on the rope that supports the door. What is known:
Problem Description Animation Click to view movie (165k)
Louis has a mass of 0.2 slugs and is located in the center of the door. The trap door is supported by a ball and socket and a bearing with a circular shaft on one side. The other side is supported by a rope that is attached to the wall. The trap door and the rope have the dimensions shown. Assume that the bearing does not exert any moments on the door, and neglect the mass of the door.
Questions
What are the reaction components at each of the supports? What is the tension in the rope?
Approach
Draw a free-body diagram. Force diagrams for each joint is shown below. Apply the equilibrium equations for a rigid body in equilibrium under a threedimensional system of forces. Solve the six equations for the six unknowns.
STATICS - THEORY
In the 2D equilibrium section, it was shown that the sum of all forces and the sum of all moments acting on a rigid body in equilibrium must be equal to zero,
F = 0
M = 0
Fx = 0 M x = 0
Fy = 0 My = 0
Fz = 0 M z = 0
Note that the sum of the moments can be evaluated about any point. Further equations can be obtained by summing the moments about other points, but they will not be independent of the first moment equations. Because there are not more than six independent scalar equations, it is not possible to solve for more than six unknowns.
= (1i + 1j + 0k) - (2i + 0j + 1k) rDE = -1i + 1j - 1k Divide rDE by its magnitude to get a unit vector that is parallel to the axis of the rope.
uDE = -0.5774i + 0.5774j - 0.5774k Use this unit vector to express the tension in the rope in terms of rectangular components: T = T uDE = T ( -0.5774i + 0.5774j - 0.5774k) Using the equilibrium equations, sum the forces,
(1)
2
(2) (3)
Next, sum the moments about point A. This will will give a vector equation representing moments around all three axis that go through A, x-axis, y-axis, and zaxis.
MA = rAB FB + rAD T
Solving Eqs. 1-6 simultaneously gives the components of reaction in each support, and the tension in the rope. FAx = 4.830 lb FAy = 1.610 lb FAz = 3.220 lb FBx = -1.610 lb FBy = 1.610 lb T = 5.577 lb
Introduction
In the lesser-known tale of the Trojan Cow, the would-be invaders of a castle attempt to cross the moat while hidden in the belly of a giant, wooden giftcow. To cross the moat, an engineer wedges a wooden bridge between the walls of the moat. What is known:
Problem Description Click to view movie (668k)
The cow exerts a resultant vertical force at a distance d from the left edge of the bridge. There are three ways the bridge can be wedged against the walls of the moat: 1) The bridge is in contact with the rough surface of the walls on each end. 2) The bridge has smooth surface on both ends which allows slipping (similar to a roller). 3) The bridge is in contact with the rough surface of the walls on one end, and has a smooth surface on the other.
Question
Which method of laying the bridge will enable the engineer to determine the reactions at the supports?
Approach
When the bridge is in contact with the rough surface of the moat wall, a support force is exerted with components parallel and perpendicular to the surface of the wall. When the bridge has a smooth surface (similar to a roller) on the end, a support force is exerted only perpendicular to the wall. Evaluate the problem in 2-D.
STATICS - THEORY
With a statically indeterminate object, the reactions exerted on the object by its supports cannot be found using only the equilibrium equations. There are two types of static indeterminacy.
FAy
MA
FBy
supplementing the equilibrium equations with additional equations that relate the reactions to the deformation of the rigid body. This is the subject of Mechanics of Materials.
Note that if the line of action of the external load intersects the same point as the reaction forces, there will be no moment about the point of intersection, and the beam will be in equilibrium.
Method 1
Begin with a free-body diagram. With Method 1, the bridge is (in essence) supported at each end by pin supports. Thus, each support exerts two components of force; one parallel and one perpendicular to the moat wall. There are four unknowns, FAx FAy FBx FBy
Method 1
There are only three independent equilibrium equations for a 2-D system. Since the number of unknowns is one greater than the total number of equilibrium equations, this method of laying the bridge leads to a statically indeterminate system with a degree of redundancy of one. The engineer is unable to solve for the reaction forces using only the equilibrium equations.
Method 2
Begin with a free-body diagram. With Method 2, each support exerts a force that is perpendicular to the moat wall. These reactions are concurrent, as the lines of action of each reaction force intersect at point P. The weight of the cow creates an unbalanced moment about point P. Thus, the bridge is unstable due to improper supports and will not remain in equilibrium under the weight of the cow. There are only two unknowns, FAy
Method 2
FBx
Even thought there are three independent equilibrium equations, there are infinite solutions for the two unknowns. The engineer is unable to determine a unique solution for the reactions using the equilibrium equations.
Method 3
Begin with a free-body diagram. With Method 3, there are three unknowns, FAy FBx FBy
Method 3
There are three independent equilibrium equations. The reaction forces are neither parallel nor concurrent, and this system is statically determinate. The engineer can solve for the reactions using the equilibrium equations.
The entire weight of the air conditioner is resting on one section of the frame. The section of frame consists of a quartercircular arch with a radius of 12 ft, and a beam with a length of 24 ft. The arch is connected to the beam with a pin. The frame is supported at points A and C with pin supports. The air conditioning unit weighs 200 lb, and is resting on the beam.
Question
Problem Diagram
Where should the air conditioner be placed so that pins A, B, and C all have the same force magnitude acting at their respective joints?
Approach
Knowing that the frame is composed of a two-force and a three-force member, determine the geometry of the support reactions at A, B, and C. Use equilibrium equations to find equations for the reaction forces at B and C. Use geometry and the equations for the reaction forces at B and C to determine the position of the air conditioner which produces equal reaction force magnitudes at A, B, and C.
STATICS - THEORY
The analysis of some equilibrium problems can be facilitated if one or more of the members is subjected to only two or three forces. Knowing what structural members are two forces generally makes solving the problem easier.
Two-Force Members
A two-force member is a rigid body with no force couples, acted upon by a system of forces composed of, or reducible to, two forces at different locations.
Member BD is a Two-Force Member
The most common example of the a two force member is a structural brace where each end is pinned to other members as shown at the left. In the diagram, notice that member BD is pinned at only two locations and thus only two forces will be acting on the member (not considering components, just the total force at the pinned joint). Two-force members are special since the two forces must be co-linear and equal. This can be proven by taking a two force member with forces at arbitrary angles as shown at the left. If moments are summed at point B then force FD cannot not have any horizontal component. This requires FD to be vertical. Then the forces are summed in both directions, it shows FB must also be vertical. Furthermore, the two forces must be equal. There are three criteria for a two-force member: 1. The forces are directed along a line that intersects their points of application. 2. The forces are equal in magnitude. 3. The forces are opposite in direction.
Three-Force Members
A three-force member is a rigid body with no force couples, acted upon by a system of forces composed of, or reducible to, three forces at three different locations. Because all three forces act at different locations on the member, their direction and magnitude are not known. There are two criteria for a three-force member: 1. The three forces must be coplanar. 2. The forces must be either concurrent or parallel.
The free-body diagram of the beam shows that it is a three-force member. Thus, the forces acting on it must be concurrent at point P. Note that the force acting on the beam at point B is equal and opposite the force acting on point B of the arch. Using geometry, you know that the angle of the reaction force at C is a function of the distance x:
= tan-1 (x/(24-x))
Three Force Member BC
Equilibrium Equations
Applying the equilibrium equations to the beam BC gives
FC = 200/(cos + sin) Setting the expression for FB equal to the expression for FC, solve to obtain the value of for which FB is equal to FC, FB = FC ==> cos/cos45 = 1
= 45o
Substitute = 45 into the equation for to determine the value of x for which FB is equal to FC, 45 = tan (x/(24-x)) x = 12 ft Substitute = 45 into FB or FC to obtain the value of FB and FC, FB = FC = 200/(cos45 + sin45) = 141.4 lb Since the arch is a two-force member, FA = FB = 141.4 lb
o -1
Questions
Which member will have the largest tension force and the largest compression force? What is the magnitude of those member forces?
Approach
Use the method of joints to analyze each pin joint using the basic statics equations,
Fx = 0 Fy = 0
Each joint must be in equilibrium. Only two unknown member forces can be determined per joint. Each member is a two-force member.
Method of Joints
One of the basic methods to determine loads in individual truss members is called the Method of Joints. Like the name states, the analysis is based on joints. Each joint is treated as a separate object and a free-body diagram is constructed for the joint. Because each and every joint must be in equilibrium, the basic force equations can be applied to each joint,
Fx = 0 Fy = 0
Each joint will only have two equations to solve for member forces since there is no moment at the joint. The means only two unknown member forces can be solved at a single joint and the order in which the joints are solved is important. Care must be taken in drawing force vectors. A compression member will 'push' the joint, but a tension member will 'pull' the joint.
Method of Sections
A second method to solve complex trusses is called the Method of Sections. This method analyzes whole sections of a truss, instead of joints. This method is described in detail in the following section, 2-D Trusses: Sections.
When solving any truss, the reaction forces at each support should be determined before trying to calculate individual member loads. Starting with a FBD of the entire truss, the basic moment equilibrium equation gives,
M1 = 0
2.5(4/3 + 4) + 5(4/3 + 4) + 7.5(4/3 + 4) - 10R = 0 R = 8.0 kips Due to symmetry, the reaction forces at both the left and right wall are equal, RL = RR = R = 8 kips
Joint 1
With the reactions known, it is now possible to analyze joint 1. Note that both F31 and F21 are drawn away from the joint, representing tension. The two unknowns forces, F31 and F21, can be found using the two force equilibrium equations,
Fx = 0
- F21 - F31 cos40 = 0
Fy = 0
Joint 1
F31 sin40 + R = 0 Substituting known values and solving gives, F31 = -8/sin40 = -12.45 kips F21 = -F31 cos40 = 9.534 kips
Joint 2
The value of F21, 9.534 kips, was determined at joint 1 and can now be used at joint 2. The force in member F32 is easy to determine since all members and loads are perpendicular. Summing the forces in the vertical gives,
Fy = 0
F32 = 1.333 kips
Joint 2
Since there are only two horizontal member forces, they must be equal,
Fx = 0
F21 = F42 = 9.534 kips
Joint 3
The value of F31, -12.45 kips, and F32, 1.333 kips, were determined from joint 1 and joint 2, respectively. It is now possible to determine forces, F53 and F43, at joint 3,
0 = -2F43 - 4/sin40 - 1.333/sin40 F43 = -4.148 kips and F53 = 4.148 - 12.45 = -8.302 kips
Joint 4
Now that F42, 9.534 kips, and F43, -4.148 kips, are known, joint 4 can be analyzed. Due to symmetry, the left member forces are the same as the right member forces. There is only one unknown force, F54. UsingFy = 0 gives,
Joint 4
Summary
As shown by the force diagram, the largest tensile force is 9.534 kips and the largest compressive force is -12.45 kips. The best truss angle, , that minimizes the member loads can be determined by using the truss simulationin this section. The best angle is the largest angle possible in the simulator, 65 degrees. Thus a steep truss reduces the load. However, the cost is high and buckling problems will also need to be considered.
Determine the force in each member due to the weight of the truss. Assume the weight of the members are uniform along their length and have a mass density of 9 kg/m. (g 2 = 9.81 m/s )
Solution
The only loading on the truss is the weight of each member. Since all loads on a truss must act at the joints, the distributed weight of each member must be split between the two joints. Assume the weight of each member is a vertical force, half of which is placed at each end of the member as shown in the diagram on the left.
Equivalent Loading for Truss Member
The weight of each member is W AB = gLAB = 9 (9.81) 2 = 176.6 N W BD = W ED = W AB = 176.6 N W EB = gLEB 2 2 0.5 = 9 (9.81)(2 + 2 ) = 9 (9.81)(2.828) = 249.7 N W BC = gLBC 2 2 0.5 = 9 (9.81)(1 + 2 ) = 9 (9.81)(2.236) = 197.4 N W DC = gLDC = 9 (9.81) (1) = 88.29 N The weight of each member is considered as an external force on the end points. The external force at each joint is half of the weight of the bar. The table below summarizes how the weight of each member is distributed to its own joints. The table also gives the total force at each joint.
Member AB BC DB BE CD ED total Joint C 0 98.70 0 0 44.14 0 142.8
A 88.29 0 0 0 0 0 88.29
Now that the total load for all the joints are know, each joint can be analyzed. Joint C is a good point to start with, since there are only two unknown member forces, FBC and FCD. The summation of forces in y direction for the joint C gives,
Joint C
Fy = 0
(W BC+ W DC) / 2 - FBC (LDB / LBC) = 0 (197.4 + 88.29) / 2 - FBC (2 / 2.236) = 0 FBC = 159.7 N The summation of the forces in x direction gives,
Fx = 0
FBC (LCD / LBC) + FCD = 0 159.7 (1 / 2.236) + FCD = 0 FCD = -71.41 N Joint D
Fx = 0
FDE - FCD = 0 FDE = - 71.41 N
Fy=0
Joint D
Fy= 0
400.1 + FBD+ FBE (LDB / LEB) + FBC (LDB / LBC) = 0 400.12 + 220.73 + FBE (2 / 2.828) + 159.7 (2 / 2.236) = 0 FBE = -1,080 N
Joint D
Fx=0
FAB + FBE (LDE / LEB) - FBC (LDC / LBC) = 0 FAB - 1,080 (2 / 2.828) - 159.7 (1 / 2.236) = 0 FAB = 835.2 N Notice, the boundary reactions at A and E were not needed. This is unusual and is due to the structure being cantilevered. Generally, reactions need to be determined first, then member forces.
Question
When the car is over joint 2, what is the force in member 6-7?
Dimension Diagram
Approach
First, solve for the support reactions. Next, section off part of the truss and apply the three equilibrium equations:
Fx = 0 Fy = 0 M = 0
Car Driving Over a Bridge Click to view movie 55k)
Recall, for all plane truss structures, the following three conditions are assumed: 1. All members are in the same plane. 2. All loading is at the joints. 3. All joints are pinned (free rotation). These conditions require all member forces to act in the direction of the member, and there are no moment loads in the truss members (assuming straight members). In the previous Method of Joints, each joint was independently analyzed which resulted in numerous joint calculations. If only one member force is desired it does not make sense to solve for many joints. The Method of Sections is an alternative method to solve for interior member forces that is simpler than the Method of Joints. In the Method of Sections, the truss is cut into two sections. The removed section is replace with unknown member forces acting in the direction of the cut member. They can be pointing in either direction, but generally, they are drawn away from the section to represent tension. The unknown member forces at the section cut can be solved using the equilibrium equations, Fx = 0, Fy = 0, and M = 0. Since there are only three equilibrium equations, the truss section cut should be located where there are only three unknown member forces.
Mid-Span Loads
It was previously stated that all external loads on a truss must be at the joints. If there is load at a location that is not a joint, the load needs to be split and applied to the nearest joints. Distributing the mid-span load to the adjacent joints is only an approximate solution so that the structure can be analyzed as a truss. If there is large mid-span loads, the structure should be analyzed as a frame with possible bending moments in the members. Frame analysis is beyond this course and is not addressed in statics courses.
M1 = 0
-4 (14.72) + 16 R5 = 0 R5 = 3.68 kN
Force Diagram
Fy = 0
R1 + R5 - 14.72 = 0 R1 = 11.04 kN
Fy = 0
11.04 - 14.72 - F63 cos45 = 0 F63 = -5.204 kN
Cut 1 Diagram
M1 = 0
-4 (14.72) - 4cos45 F63 - 4sin45 F63 - 4 F67 = 0 -58.88 - 2 [(4) (0.7071) ( -5.204)] = 4 F67 F67 = -7.360 kN compression For this cut location, you need to use at least two of the three equilibrium equations. The number of equations may be reduced by other cut locations.
Alternate Cut
By carefully choosing where the cut is made, the number of calculations can be reduced. For example, if a cut is made through members 6-7, 3-7, 3-8, and 3-4 it is possible to solve for the member force F67 with one equilibrium equation even though four members are cut. Since all unknowns, except F67, go through joint 3, the moment about joint 3 has only one unknown.
Cut 2 Diagram
M3 = 0
-8 (11.04) - 4 F67 + 4 (14.72) = 0 F67 = -7.360 kN compression The solution is identical to the solution for the previous cut.
Solution
The first step is to find the support reaction forces. Vertical reaction force at F can be found by taking the moment about L.
ML= 0
= - 6Fy + 5Gy + 4Hy + 3Iy + 2Jy = - 6Fy + 5(2) + 4(3) + 3(5) + 2(2) = - 6Fy + 41 = 0 Fy = 6.833 kN
Reaction Forces at End Supports
F= 0
Fy + Ly - (Gy + Hy + Iy + Jy) = 0 6.833 + Ly - (2 + 3 + 5 + 2) = 0
Ly = 5.167 kN Another method to find Ly is to take the moment about F. It is a good way to check to see if the previous value for Ly was found correctly.
MF = 0
= 6Ly - ( Gy + 2Hy + 3Iy + 4Jy ) = 6Ly - ( 2 + 2(3) + 3(5) + 4(2) ) = 6Ly - 31 = 0 Ly = 5.167 kN To find the value of the forces it is easier to use method of sections. Since the problem asks for four member forces, BE, BJ, DJ, and IJ, the problem needs to be solved taking two cuts. The first cut , shown at the left, will be used to solve for member force in member BE. Then another cut will be used to find the other three member forces. Moments about J can be taken to find the value of the FBE (notation EJ represents the length of the member EJ).
Method of Section (Cut 1) to Determine FBE
MJ = 0
= 2L + FBE(EJ) JBE is a right triangle and BE is perpendicular to EJ. The length of KE and JK is 1. Based on Pythagorean theorem, EJ is the square root of 2. (EJ = 1.414). 2L + FBE(1.414) = 0 2(5.167) + FBE(1.414) = 0 FEB = -7.308 kN Now that FBE is known, another cut can be made to find FJB, FJD, and FIJ. To find FJD and FJB, moment about L can be used with the sum of the vertical forces (notation JL mean length of JL)
ML = 0
= JL (2kN) - FJD(BD) - FJB(JL) = 2(2) - FJD(1.414) - FJB(2)
Fy = 0
Method of Section (Cut 2) to Determine FJB, FJD, and FIJ
= FJD + FJB + 5.167 - 2 -7.308(sin45) FJD and FJB can be found by solving the above system of equations to give
-3
(very small)
FJD is found to be 0.8 newton which is negligible and is because of the rounding errors. Summation of forces in x direction can be written in order to find the value of FIJ
Fx = 0
= FEB(cos45) + FJD(cos45) + FIJ = -7.308 (0.707) + 0 (0.707) + FIJ FIJ = 5.167 kN FIJ can also be found by taking the moment about joint B
MB = 0
= L(JL) - FJD(BD) - FIJ(BJ) = 5.167(2) + 0 (1.414) - FIJ(2) FIJ = 5.167 kN
The base ring radius is 1 m. The top ring radius is 0.75 m. The base and top ring are 1 m apart. The total thrust of the first-stage main engine is 2,400 kN (300 kN per joint).
Dimension Diagram
Question
What is the force in each of the truss members of the truss structure between the second- and third-stage rockets when the first-stage main engine is firing?
Approach
Sum all forces at a joint (method of joints).
F = 0
Space Shuttle (US) Click to view movie (122k)
Find the 3D unit vectors for all forces at the joint. Find the unknown magnitudes of the member forces.
STATICS - THEORY
Similar to 2-D trusses, 3-D trusses (space trusses) require all members to have a pin joint at each end.
Also, all loads must act at the joints. The above two conditions insure that member forces act in the direction of the members. Without knowing the direction of the load, truss problems could not be solved using just static equilibrium equations.
Method of Joints
Space truss problems can be solved by choosing a joint with only three unknown member forces and one or more known load forces. The forces at the joint are summed in all three directions which will produce three equations and three unknowns.
Fx = 0
Fy = 0
Fz = 0
The method of joints is usually the easiest method since the moment equilibrium equations are difficult to apply in 3D.
Method of Joints Click to view movie (451k)
Vector notation should be used with 3-D problems because of the complexity of 3-D geometry.
Method of Sections
If only a single-member load is needed, then the method of sections can be used, just like with 2D planar trusses. However, with 3D trusses, the section that is cut will have three moment equations in addition to the three force equations to find the unknowns.
Fx = 0 M x = 0
Method of Sections Click to view movie (446k)
Fy = 0 My = 0
Fz = 0 M z = 0
Since all members are symmetrical around the interstage structure, all members will have the same load. Using the method of joints, the forces at joint B on the bottom ring is analyzed by summing the forces,
FB = 0
The free-body diagram includes the external thrust load and all member forces acting at joint B. Since Joint B is in static equilibrium, the summation of all force vectors must equal zero. Since this is a 3D problem, all forces will be represented in the vector i, j, k format.
The total thrust load of 2,400 kN is evenly distributed around the inter-stage structure so each joint will have to withstand a vertical load of 300 kN. FT = 300 k
Truss Diagram
Use the location of points B and E to define the unit directional vector of FBE. Ex = 0.75 sin22.5 = 0.2870 m Ey = -0.75 cos22.5 = -0.6929 m Ez = 1.0 m
The member force FBD is similar to FBE except the x component is reversed. The magnitudes will be the same: FBD = FBE (-0.2645i + 0.2830j + 0.9217k) If forces are summed in the z direction, Fz = 0, only one unknown remains, FBE. Solving for FBE gives 2 FBE 0.9217 + 300 = 0 FBE = -162.7 kN compression
Solution
First, the co-ordinates of joints A, B, C and D need to be found. From the figure it can be seen that ABC is an equilateral triangle with each side of 5 feet. The height o of the equilateral triangle will be equal to 5 cos30 , or 4.330 feet. Thus, the coordinates each joint will be, A = [0, 0, 0] C = [-2.5, 0, 4.33] B = [-5, 0, 0] D = [-2.5, 5, 4.33]
Since, there are only three unknown forces at joint D, the force analysis of the truss will begin at joint D. Recall, with 3D trusses, three equations can be used at each joint. Let the force in member AD, BD and CD be labeled as FAD, FBD and FCD respectively. Expressing each force acting at joint D in the vector notation gives, W = -250 k FAD = FAD (-2.5i + 5 j + 4.33k) / 7.071 FBD = FBD (2.5i + 5j + 4.33k) / 7.071 FCD = FCD 5j / 5 All forces have to be in equilibrium, giving
F = 0
W + FAD + FBD + FCD = 0 Equating the i, j and k components gives,
Fy = 0
0.7071 FAD + 0.7071 FBD + FCD = 0 FCD = -288.6 lb Members AD and BD are in tension and member CD is in compression.
Bolt-Cutter Dimensions
Question
If 45 lb of pressure on each handle is required to cut the lock, what is the total force exerted at point Q?
Approach
Use symmetry to simplify the problem. Disassemble the tool and label the known and unknown forces acting on each segment. Identify two-force members Identify joints common to multiple members. Solve using the equations of equilibrium.
STATICS - THEORY
Frames and machines are structures similar to trusses except that they have at least one member that is a multi-force member. A multi-force member is an independent piece of the system that has three or more forces acting on it. Frames are designed to support loads and are
generally stationary. Machines contain moving parts that transmit or alter applied forces.
Equilibrium
Begin by isolating each segment of the frame and labeling the known and unknown forces. This is usually done by choosing free-body diagrams that provide the simplest path to a solution. These diagrams may consist of single members, sections, or entire structures. Next, identify two-force members and represent the forces with two equal and opposite vectors that act along the line of action.
Frame Example Click to view movie (91k)
Determine which forces are shared by more than one member. It is important that the forces are represented correctly on each member. This means that the forces represented on one member will be opposite in direction on another. Verify that the number of unknowns does not exceed the equilibrium equations. There are three equilibrium equations that can be used per member,
Fx = 0
Fy = 0
Fz = 0
Fx = 0 = B x
If force Bx is equal to zero, the diagram for the handle section shows that
Fx = A x - B x = 0
Solving for Bx gives Bx = Ax = 0 Now, the y component of force B needs to be determined. To do this, take the moment about point A for the handle,
MA = By (1.25") - 45 lb (7") = 0
Solving for By gives By = 252 LB Now, find the force at Q by summing the moments about point C for the cutter section,
Qtop = 840 LB Therefore, the total amount of force required to cut the lock is the sum of the top and bottom resultants at Q. This yields Qtotal = 1,680 LB If the same force is applied to machines such as pliers or metal snips, the resultant force will vary due to the different configurations. The approximate magnitude for the metal snips is comparable to the bolt-cutters, but the pliers' magnitude is much smaller. Thus each tool's design plays a major role in its function. In this problem, only the total force exerted at point Q was needed. In reality, it is the stress applied to the lock that will cause it to break. Using bolt-cutters and metal snips, the force is applied over a small area due to the cutting edges. However, with pliers, the force is applied over a larger area and therefore produces less stress. In this respect, many different factors are important in tool design.
Geometry Diagram
Question
As a first approximation, assume the nose code is a simple cone shape (D = 1 in the above equation). Where is the centroid, center of mass, and center of gravity?
Approach
Submarine Path Animation Click to view movie (746k)
Use symmetry to determine the y and z locations of the centroid, center of mass, and center of gravity. Solve for the x location by integrating the appropriate quantities from the base to the tip of the nose cone.
STATICS - THEORY
Recall, the moment of a force about a point is given by the magnitude of the force times the perpendicular
distance from the point to the force. Using the same definition, the moment of an area about a point is the magnitude of the area times the perpendicular distance to the point. When the moment of an area about a point is zero, that point is called the centroid of the area. The same method can be used to determine the centroid of a line or the centroid of a volume by taking the moment of the line or the moment of the volume. Finding the location of a centroid is very similar to finding the location of the force resultant of a distributed force as covered in the moment chapter.
Centroid of a Line
The coordinates for the centroid of a line can be determined by using three scalar equations,
Centroid of an Area
The centroid of an area can be determined by using three similar equations:
Centroid of a Volume
Use of Symmetry
Finding the centroid of a body is greatly simplified when the body has planes of symmetry. If a body has a single plane of symmetry, then the centroid is located somewhere on that plane. If a body has more than one plane of symmetry, then the centroid is located at the intersection of the planes.
Center of Mass
The centroid of a volume defines the point at which the total moment of volume is zero. Similarly, the center of mass of a body is the point at which the total moment of the body's mass about that point is zero. The location of a body's center of mass can be determined by using the following equations,
Here is the density of the body. If is constant throughout the body, then the center of mass is exactly the same as the centroid.
Center of Gravity
The center of gravity of a body is the point at which the total moment of the force of gravity is zero. The coordinates for the center of gravity of an object can be determined with
Here g is the acceleration of gravity (9.81m/s or 32.2 2 ft/s ). If g is constant throughout the body, then the center of gravity is exactly the same as the center of mass.
To perform the integrations, a slice of the nose cone that is perpendicular to the x axis can be used. For any slice, the area is
Integrating the Volume Click to view movie (123k)
A(x) = r(x)
The volume will be the area times the slice thickness, dx, giving V(x) = r(x) dx
2
Here L is the length of the nose cone. Expand the numerator and denominator and integrate gives
Center of Mass
Since the density varies from 1 slug/ft at the base to 2 3 slug/ft at the tip, the density is given by the equation
Substitute the density and area equations into the center of mass equation gives
Notice the distance is slightly larger than the centroid, which corresponds to the increasing density toward the front.
Center of Gravity
Since the nose cone is relatively small, variation of gravity over its volume can be neglected. Thus, the center of gravity and the center of mass are the same point.
Question
Where is the centroid of the cross section?
Approach
Rail Cross Section
Break the beam cross section into simpler, component parts. Determine the centroid and area of each component part. Use the method of composite parts to calculate the x and y locations of the centroid of the cross section.
where Q is a line, area, or volume, depending on the centroid that is required. The same equation can also be used for the other two directions by just substituting y or z for x. If there are several objects, then the centroid of the entire system is given by
where n is the number of objects in the system. This equation can be simplify as
where is the centroid location of the i object, and Qi is the length, area, or volume of the ith object, depending on the type of centroid.
th
Here and are the centroid coordinates of the ith line, and Li is the length of the ith line.
centroid are
Here and are the area centroid coordinates of the ith object, and Ai is the area of the ith object.
Here and are the volume centroid coordinates of the ith volume, and Vi is the volume of the ith object.
Rail Dimensions
Composite Part 1
Part 1 is a rectangle with an area of A1 = (2)(3) = 6 cm
2
The centroid of a rectangle lies at half its width and half its height, so for part 1
Part 1
Composite Part 2
Part 2
Composite Part 3
Part 3 is a rectangle with an area of A3 = (2)(10) = 20 cm
2
Part 3
Composite Part 4
Part 4 is a triangle with an area of A4 = (0.5)(4)(4) = 8 cm
2
The centroid of a right triangle is located two-thirds of the distance from the vertex to the other end; therefore, for part 4
Part 4
Substituting the areas and centroid locations for each of the individual parts into the first two equations gives
Total System
CHAPTER-7-C-Distributed Loads
STATICS - CASE STUDY Introduction
An underwater archway is being added to a large aquarium so that visitors can view the fish up close. The water in the aquarium will exert a tremendous force downward onto the transparent arch. This force needs to be calculated accurately so that a safe design can be developed. What is known: The tunnel radius, a, of the glass arch is 9 ft. The water depth, b, is 20 ft. The length of the arch, L, is 30 ft. 3 The water density is 1.94 slug/ft .
Question
What is the resultant force exerted on the glass arch?
Approach
Dimension Diagram
Determine the pressure exerted by the water on the surface of the arch. Integrate the x and y components of the pressure over the surface area of the transparent arch to get the resultant force in the x and the y directions respectively.
It was also shown that the location of the line of action of FR is given by
Similarly, if the load is distributed over an area as shown, then the resultant is found by
When a body is submerged in a fluid, either a liquid or a gas, then the fluid exerts a pressure normal or perpendicular to the surface. This pressure, called hydrostatic pressure, depends on the depth and density of the fluid, the acceleration of gravity, and the pressure at the surface of the liquid. The pressure at any point is p = po + gd Here po is the pressure at the surface of the liquid, is the density of the fluid, g is the acceleration of gravity, and d is the depth at that point.
Pressure on a Submerged Surface Click to view movie (295k)
Generally, devices that measure pressure actually measure the amount above some reference pressure; this is called gage pressure. If the reference pressure is the pressure at the surface of the liquid, then the gage pressure at a point is simply p = gd
y = a sin and p = g(b - a sin) The pressure at any angle can be broken into x and y components as px = -p cos = g(a sin - b) cos
Resultant Force
The resultant force is found by integrating the pressure over the arch surface, S, which means integrating from 0 to and multiplying by the length of the arch.
Integrating and evaluating for Ry Ry = 270g [a/2 (-cos sin + ) b cos]0 Ry = 270g (a/2 - 2b) lb Finally, substitute for the known density, water depth, and arch radius to give Ry = -436,200 lb = -436 kips Therefore, in vector form, the resultant force is R = 0i - 436j + 0k kips
The centroid is located at x = 10.62 cm and y = 4.218 cm (calculated previously). The dimensions of the cross section are as shown.
Question
What are the moments of inertia for the entire cross section with respect to the centroidal axis?
Approach
Determine the moments of inertia for each individual part with respect to its centroid. Use the parallel axis theorem and the method of composite parts to determine the moments of inertia for the centroidal axis of the cross section.
STATICS - THEORY
are called first moments of the area. Accordingly, integrals of the form
Moments of inertia that are calculated about the centroid of the area are denoted
Polar Moment of Inertia Click to view movie (101k)
Ix'
Iy'
The moments of inertia for basic shapes are tabulated in Sections Appendix.
The moment of inertia for an area that lies in the x-y plane can also be calculated about the z axis, which is known as the polar moment of inertia. The polar moment of inertia of the area A is calculated as
If the polar moment of inertia is calculated at the centroid of the area, it is denoted
Polar Moment of Inertia for a Plane Area Click to view movie (56k)
Jx' = Ix' + Iy' The polar moment of inertia is commonly used when calculating the torsion of shafts.
Parallel Axis Theorem (Polar Moment of Inertia) Click to view movie (24k)
Just as the centroid of an area can be calculated by breaking the area into simpler composite parts, the moments of inertia of a complicated area can be calculated by breaking the area into simpler composite parts. For an arbitrary axis, the moments of inertia for an area made of composite parts are given by
x1 = 1 cm
y1 = 3.5 cm
A1 = 6 cm
Ix'1 = 1/12 2(3) = 54/12 cm Iy'1 = 1/12 3(2) = 24/12 cm The properties for part 2 are, x2 = 8 cm y2 = 1 cm
3 3
A2 = 32 cm
4
Iy'2 = 1/12 2(16) = 8192/12 cm And the properties for part 3 are, x3 = 15 cm y3 = 7 cm
3
A3 = 20 cm
4
y4 = 10.67 cm
4
A4 = 8cm
These can be used with the following equations to find the moments of inertia of the entire cross section with respect to the centroid of the cross section.
Here dxi and dyi are the distances from the centroid of the cross section (global centroid) to the centroid of any part i. These distances are given by the equations:
Distances from Global Centroid
Part 1 2 3
x 1 8 15
y 3.5 1 7
Substituting x, y and the results of the above equations give, dx1 = 10.616 - 1 = 9.616 cm dy1 = 4.218 - 3.5 = 0.718 cm
4 17.33 10.67 combined 10.616 4.218 Centroids for Each Part and Total (from Centroid: Composite Parts)
dx2 = 10.616 - 1 = 2.616 cm dy2 = 4.218 - 1 = 3.218 cm dx3 = 10.616 - 15 = -4.384 cm dy3 = 4.218 - 7 = -2.782 cm dx4 = 10.616 - 17.33 = -6.714 cm dy4 = 4.218 - 10.67 = -6.452 cm Substituting each dxi, dyi, Ix'i, and Iy'i into the basic summation equations give Ix = 1,011 cm Iy = 2,217 cm
4
In the theory page, the polar moment of inertia was show to be equal to Jz = Ix + Iy Substituting for Ix and Iy gives the polar moment, Jz = 3,228 cm
4
Since this is not a symmetrical cross section, the product of inertia, Ixy is not zero. The produce of inertia is used for un-symmetrical bending which is not covered in this statics eBook.
Solution (a)
Area Between Curve and x and y-axis
Recall, the moment of inertia is the second moment of the area about a given axis or line.
the x-axis. The differential element, dA, is usually broken into two parts, dx and dy (dA = dx dy), which makes integration easier. This also requires the integral be split into integration along the x direction (dx) and along the y direction (dy). The order of integration, dx or dy, is optional, but usually there is an easy way, and a more difficult way. For this problem, the integration will be done first along the y direction, and then along the x direction. This order is easier since the curve function is given as y is equal to a function of x. The diagram at the left shows the dy going from 0 to the curve, or just y. Thus the limits of integration is 0 to y. The next integration along the x direction goes from 0 to 4. The final integration from is
Cross-section Area
Solution (b)
Similar to the previous solution is part a), the moment of inertia is the second moment of the area about a given axis
The integral is still split into integration along the x direction (dx) and along the y direction (dy). Again, the integration will be done first along the y direction, and then along the x direction. The diagram at the left shows the dy going from 0 to the curve, or just y. Thus the limits of integration is 0 to y. The next integration along the x direction goes from 0 to 4. The final integration from is
Cross-section Area
Comment
The area is more closely distributed about the y-axis than x-axis. Thus, the moment of inertia of the shaded region is less about the y-axis as compared to x-axis.
Example 2
Determine the moment of inertia of y = 2 - 2x about the x axis. Calculate the moment of inertia in two different ways. First, (a) by taking a differential element, having a thickness dx and second, (b) by using a horizontal element with a thickness, dy.
2
Solution
a) The area of the differential element parallel to y axis is dA = ydx. The distance from x axis to the center of the element is named y. y = y/2 Using the parallel axis theorem, the moment of inertia of this element about x axis is
(b) First, the function should be rewritten in terms of y as 2 the independent variable. Due to the x term, there is a positive and negative form and it can be expressed as two similar functions mirrored about y axis. The function on the right side of the axis can be expressed as
Performing a numerical integration on calculator or by taking t = 2(2 - y) the above integration can be found as,
As expected, both methods (a) and (b) provide the same answer.
The beam length L is 8 ft. The tire is connected at the mid-span of the beam. The design load, F, for the swing is 300 lb.
Question
What are the internal loads present in the beam at a location just to the left of the swing when the design load is applied? Assume the beam to be a pinnedroller configuration.
Approach
Solve for the external reactions. Cut the beam at the point of interest to reveal the internal loads as equivalent external loads. Form a free-body diagram with the appropriate sign convention for the two pieces. Solve for the internal loads on either diagram.
Force Diagram
STATICS - THEORY
Internal loads in a structural member are the result of externally applied loads. The external loads are transmitted to different parts of the structure through these internal loads. The internal loads can be determined by the method of sections. A member is cut at the point of interest, and the internal loads are revealed as equivalent external loads.
3D Internal Forces and Moments Click to view movie (118k)
Since the member was in equilibrium before being cut, these equivalent external loads must keep the member in equilibrium. In general 3D, internal loads have three force components (one normal and two shear) and three moment components (one twisting and two bending). For the common 2D case, there are two forces, an axial force and a shear force, plus one moment. These forces and moments are shown in the diagram below.
Unknown Internal Loads, V, A, and M Replace Deleted 2D Structure Section to Maintain Equilibrium
Sign Convention
After the member is cut, a free-body diagram can be drawn for either section, but unknown equivalent external loads must be included to maintain equilibrium. A correct and consistent sign convention for the internal loads must be used when we draw the free-body diagram. The sign convention shown at the left describes what is meant by a positive force or moment. This convention is the most common sign convention for forces and moments. Forces and moments acting in the direction shown are considered to be positive.
Standard Positive Sign Convention for Internal Shear, Moment and Axial Force
Cut Location
must be identical since they are actually the same location. In the following example, the internal forces at the cut location are found by cutting the beam and solving for either the piece to the left of the cut or the piece to the right of the cut.
Fy = 0
Ay - V1 = 0 ==> V1 = Ay Next, summing the moments about the cut, the bending moment, M1, can be determined,
Mcut = 0
M1 - a Ay = 0 ==> M1 = a Ay Recall, the reaction force Ay is determined before the cut is made and is considered a known quantity.
Fy = 0
Right Section
Mcut = 0
c By - b F - M2 = 0 M2 = c By - b F Since both methods calculate the shear and moment at cut, the results must be the same.
MA = 0
L By - F L/2 = 0 By = F/2 = 300/2 = 150 lb
Fy = 0
Ay + By - F = 0 Ay = 300 - 150 = 150 lb
Free Body Diagram
Fy = 0
Left Section
Ay - V = 0 V = Ay = 150 lb
MA = 0
M - V L/2 = 0 M = LV/2 = 8 (150) / 2 = 600 lb-ft The problem can also be solved by using the right section after making the cut. The free-body diagram for the right side section is as shown at the left. Summing the forces and moments give,
Right Section
Fy = 0
V + By - F = 0 V = 300 - 150 = 150 lb
MB = 0
-V L/2 + F L/2 - M = 0 M = -150 (8/2) + 300 (8/2) = 600 lb-ft As expected, both methods obtain the same results, a shear force of 150 lb and a bending moment of 600 lb-ft.
The ladder length L is 20 ft. The ladder angle is 70. The overhang height h is 12 ft. The painter's weight W is 200 lb. The painter is 3 ft from the top of the ladder.
Questions
1. If the ladder were to fail due to the shear force, where would it fail? 2. If it were to fail due to the bending moment, where would it fail? Assume the ladder is pinned at its base.
Approach
Problem DImensions
Solve for the external reactions. Cut the ladder at an arbitrary point. Form a free-body diagram with the appropriate sign convention. Solve for the internal loads as a function of position along the length of the ladder. Repeat steps 2-4 for each section of the ladder to get a complete shear force diagram and bending moment diagram.
STATICS - THEORY
From a design point of view, it is often necessary to know the maximum and minimum internal loads in a structure and where they are located. If the shear force and bending moment are calculated and graphed, then the maximum and minimum of each are easily identified and located. For the simply-supported beam with only one point force load, the reactions can be found as Ay = F/3 By = 2F/3
The section of the beam to the left of the applied load will have an expression for the shear force and bending moment that will differ from the section to the right of the applied load. Therefore, the sections must be evaluated separately. In other words, there is not a single function that will model shear or moment from A to B.
Section 1
Cutting the beam at an arbitrary location x in section 1 and forming free-body diagrams for the piece to the left and to the right of the cut will result in the diagrams shown. Either side of the cut beam can be used to solve for the internal shear force and internal bending moment. Generally, the simpler side is used. In this case, if the left side is used, internal shear load is
Section 1 Cut and Analysis
Fy = 0
If right side of the cut is used, then summing the forces give, By + V1 - F = 0 V1 = F - By = F/3 Summing the moments about the left edge gives the bending moment as -F(2/3L - x) + By(L - x) - M1 = 0 M1 = By(L - x) - F(2/3L - x) = xF/3 As expected, both methods give the same results. Ay - V1 = 0 V1 = Ay = F/3 Summing the moments about the right edge give,
Mcut = 0
M1 - x (F/3) = 0 M1 = xF/3 For any location x between x = 0 and x = 2/3 L, the shear and moment are given by V1 = F/3 M1 = 2F/3 0 x 2/3 L 0 x 2/3 L (1) (2)
Section 2
If the piece to the left of the cut is used, then the vertical forces are Ay - F - V2 = 0 V2 = F/3 - F = -2F/3 Summing the moments about the right edge gives the bending moment as -(F/3) x + F(x - 2L/3) + M2 = 0 M2 = 2F(L - x)/3 Again, both methods produce the same results.
This process can be repeated for for the section to the right of the load. The free-body diagrams for the two pieces are shown at the left. For this section, it is easier to solve for the piece to the right of the cut.
Fy = 0
2F/3 + V2 = 0 V2 = -2F/3 The moments about the left edge can be used to determine the bending moment.
Mcut = 0
(2F/3) (L - x) - M2 = 0 M2 = 2F(L - x)/3 Thus, for any location x between x = 2/3 L and x = L, the shear and moment are given by V2 = -2F/3 M2 = 2F(L - x)/3 2/3 L x L 2/3 L x L (3) (4)
Number of Sections
The number of sections required for complete shear and moment diagrams depends on the beam configuration and loading. The beam must be sectioned at each point that loading or support conditions change. A cut must be made in each section of the beam so that the shear and moment can be evaluated over that section. Multiple sections are required since shear and moment is not a continuous function over changing supports and loads.
Number of Sections
The ladder can be considered as a beam, and oriented in the horizontal position. This will make it easier to plot the shear and moment as a function of x. The free-body diagram for the ladder in the horizontal position is shown at the left. As with most static problem, the reaction forces, Ax, Ay, and By, should be determined first. To find By, sum the moments about the left end to solve for the overhang reaction.
Fx = Ax - 187.9 = 0
Ax = 187.9 lb
Fy = Ay + By - 68.40 = 0
= Ay + 91.06 - 68.40 = 0 Ay = -22.66 lb Immediately, there is reason for concern since the reaction at A is negative, which indicates the ladder will lift off the ground. However, assume that the ladder is anchored to the ground and proceed with the problem. Since the ladder has forces acting at three locations, the shear and moment needs to be analyzed in three different sections. The shear and moment may not be continuous across a load or support.
Section 1
Each section needs to be cut and analyzed for shear and moment as a function of x from the left edge. The results can then be plotted and the maximum shear and moment can be easily identified. First, cut the beam at the arbitrary point x and then a draw a free-body diagram the left side as shown. Either the left or the right side can be used but generally, the simpler section is used. Next, sum the forces to give,
Fx = 0
A1 = -187.9 lb
Fy = 0
V1 = -22.66 lb
Section 1
Mcut = 0
M1 - (-22.66)x = 0 M1 = -22.66 x lb-ft It should be noted that these three results are only good for section 1 (0 x 12.77 ft).
Section 2
Section 2 is between the weight of the person and the corner of the roof overhand, point B. Again, cut the ladder at an arbitrary point in section 2 and draw a free-body diagram for the left side of the ladder, as shown. Sum the forces and moments to find repeat the process using the piece to the right of the cut:
Fx = 0
A2 = -187.9 lb
Fy = 0
-V2 - 22.66 + 91.06 = 0 V2 = 68.40 lb
Mcut = 0
Section 2
M2 - (-22.66)x - 91.06 (x - 12.77) = 0 M2 = 68.4 x - 1,163 lb-ft These three results are only good for section 1 (12.77 x 17 ft).
Section 3
The final cut is at the far right section of the ladder. For this cut, it is easier to analyzes the right side of the cut. Since there are no loads on this part of the ladder, all forces and moments are zero. A3 = 0 V3 = 0 M3 = 0 These three results are only good for section 1 (17 x 20 ft).
Section 3
Failure in Shear
If the ladder were to fail in shear, one would expect it to fail somewhere in section 2 because the shear force, with a magnitude of 68.4 lb, is a maximum in
that section.
Failure in Bending
If the ladder were to fail in bending, the failure should occur at the point of contact with the wall, where the bending moment magnitude is a maximum of 290 lbft.
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Solution
Before the shear and moment can be determined at any internal location, the boundary conditions need to be calculated. There will be three possible reactions at A and B namely Ax, Ay and By. To calculate them, the distributed load is converted into an equivalent point load of (3 kN/m) (3 m) = 9 kN which is located 3 m from support A as shown in the diagram.
Beam Free-body Diagram
The unknown reactions can be found by applying the three standard equilibrium equations. Taking moments about support A and assuming counter clockwise (CCW) moment as positive gives,
MA = 0
By (6) - (5) (3) - (9) (3) = 0 By = 7 kN Equating vertical forces gives,
Fy = 0
Ay + By - 5 - 9 = 0 Ay = 7 kN Since there is no horizontal applied load, Ax will be zero. (Reaction forces can also be calculated by dividing sum of forces acting on the beam by 2, since the beam and loading are symmetrical.)
Since the beam has forces acting at four locations, the shear and moment needs to be analyzed in four different sections. The shear and moment may not be continuous across a load or support. Each section needs to be cut and analyzed for shear and moment as a function of x from the left edge. The results can then be plotted and the maximum shear and moment can be easily identified.
Beam Sections
Section 1
To find the shear and moment in section 1, cut the beam at an arbitrary point x in section 1 and then draw a free-body diagram as shown on the left. Next, sum the forces to give,
Fy = 0
Section 1
Mcut = 0
M1 - 7x = 0 M1 = 7x kN-m It should be noted that these results are only good for section 1 (0 x 1.5 m).
Section 2
Section 2 is between the start of distributed load and the point load. Again, cut the beam at an arbitrary point x in section 2 and then draw a free-body diagram as shown on the left. Sum the forces to give,
Fy = 0
Section 2
7 - 3 (x - 1.5) - V2 = 0 V2 = 11.5 - 3x kN Summing the moments about the cut edge gives,
Mcut = 0
M2 + 3(x - 1.5)(x - 1.5) / 2 - 7x = 0 2 M2 = 7x - 1.5(x - 1.5) kN-m These results are only good for section 2 (1.5 x 3m). To assist in graphing the shear and moment equations, the exact values can be calculated at each end of the beam section. When x = 1.5, the shear force will be, V2 = 11.5 - (3)1.5 = 7 kN
and the moment will be, 2 M3 = (7)1.5 - 1.5(1.5 - 1.5) = 10.5 kN-m When x = 3, the shear force will be, V2 = 11.5 - (3)3 = 2.5 kN and the moment will be, 2 M3 = (7)3 - 1.5(3 - 1.5) = 17.625 kN-m
Section 3
Section 3 is between point load of 5 kN and end of universal distributed load. The free-body diagram for the beam will be as shown on the left. Sum of the forces gives,
Fy = 0
7 - 5 - 3(x - 1.5) - V3 = 0 V3 = 6.5 - (3)x kN
Section 3
Mcut = 0
M3 - (7)x + 5(x - 3) + 3(x - 1.5)(x - 1.5) / 2 = 0 2 M3 = 2x + 15 - 1.5(x - 1.5) kN-m
These results are only good for section 3 (3 x 4.5m). When x = 3, the shear force will be, V3 = 6.5 - (3)3 = -2.5 kN the moment will be, 2 M3 = (2)3 + 15 - 1.5(3 - 1.5) = 17.625 kN-m When x = 4.5, the shear force will be, V3 = 6.5 - (3)4.5 = -7 kN the moment will be, 2 M3 = (2)4.5 + 15 - 1.5(4.5 - 1.5) = 10.5 kN-m
Section 4
The final cut is at the far right section of the beam. The free-body diagram for the beam will be as shown on the left. Sum of the forces gives,
Fy = 0
7 - 5 - 3(3) - V4 = 0 V4 = -7 kN
Section 4
Mcut = 0
M4 - (7)x + 5(x - 3) + 3(3)(x - 3) = 0 M4 = (7)x - 14(x-3) kN-m
These results are only good for section 3 (4.5 x < 6m). When x = 4.5, the shear force will be, V4 = -7 kN the moment will be, M4 = (7)4.5 - 14(4.5 - 3 ) = 10.5 kN-m When x = 6, the shear force will be, V4 = -7 kN the moment will be, M4 = (7)6 - 14(6 - 3) = 0 kN-m
Engineers need to test the wing of a new aircraft before actual flight testing. To simulate the lift force during flight, a hydraulic jack applies a force of 4,500 lb at on the wing. What is known:
Problem Animation Click to view movie (735k)
The wing weight is 165 lb/ft. The wing length is 54 ft. The hydraulic point load is 4,500 lb, and is located 49 ft from the wing root.
Force Diagram
Question
What is the maximum shear and bending moment for this loading condition?
Approach
Replace the distributed wing weight load with an equivalent point load. Determine the reactions for the equivalent system. Develop the shear and moment diagrams with the distributed load in place.
STATICS - THEORY
To find reactions, a distributed force can be replaced with an equivalent point load. For a general distributed load f(x) as shown, the equivalent point load Fr is found by integrating the distributed load over its length.
For the point load, FT, to be equivalent, the moment generated about any point must also be equivalent. Thus,
= (54 ft)/2 = 27 ft With a free-body diagram (shown at left) the reaction force and moment can be determined.
Fy = 0
Ay - 8,910 + 4,500 = 0 Ay = 4,410 lb
Wing Free Body Diagram
MA = 0
Mr - 8,910 (27) + 4,500 (49) = 0 Mr = 20,070 lb-ft There will be two sets of shear and moment equations, one to the left of F and one to the right.
Section 1 (0 x 49)
After making the section cut, and developing a freebody diagram for the left side of the wing, sum the forces to get the shear equation.
Fy = 0
4,410 - 165x - V1 = 0 V1 = 4,410 - 165x Summing the moments give the moment equation,
Section 1 FBD
Mcut = 0
M1 + (165x) (x/2) + 20,070 - 4,410x = 0 2 M1 = -82.5x + 4,410x - 20,070
Once again, first make a cut in section 2 (left of point B). Next, construct a free-body diagram and then sum forces to get the shear equation.
Fy = 0
4,410 - 165x + 4,500 - V2 = 0 V2 = 8,910 - 165x Summing the moments give the moment equation,
Mcut = 0
Section 2 FBD
Problem Graphic
Question
What are the internal loads in the wing structure of the airplane during a 5g maneuver? Due to symmetry, only one wing needs to be calculated.
Approach
Develop shear and moment diagrams for the aerodynamic lift, engine mass, and engine torque separately using the relationships between load, shear, and moment. Using the principle of superposition, combine the three diagrams to get the shear and moment diagrams for the complete structure.
Force Diagram
STATICS - THEORY
In the previous two sections, methods where presented to construct shear and moment diagrams. However, there are some important relationships between loading, shear and moment which can aid in the construction of the diagrams.
Fy = V - (V + V) - q x = 0
This can be rearrange to give,
V/x = -q
If the limit of both sides is taken as x goes to zero, then the relationship between shear force and distributed loads becomes
Example of Loading Function "q" equaling the Slope of the Shear Diagram
M/x = V + V + q (x/2)
Two examples using the above equations are shown at the left.
Fy = V - (V + V) - F = 0
Beam Element with Point Load
V = -F
This represents that point loading will cause a jump in the shear diagram equal to the point load. The moment will not jump with a point load.
M = M - (V + V)x - T = 0
If the limit as x goes to zero is taken, then it becomes
M = -T
Principle of Superposition
Principle of Superposition
For beams with several different loads, it is often easier to solve for the shear and moment diagrams for the individual loads and then combine them to find the total shear and moment diagrams. This is known as the method, or principle, of superposition. For the cantilevered beam shown, shear and moment diagrams can be constructed for the two point loads and for the distributed load, separately; they can then be combined to form the full shear and moment diagrams.
1. Distributed Lift
The more difficult loading is the linear distribution loading due to the lift on the wing. The shear force distribution on the wing can be calculated by integrating the loading function, the lift distribution, from the left free end to any point, x, on the wing,
The integration constant, C1, can be determined by using the boundary condition that the shear force on the wing tip (x = -b) must be zero. Thus,
Similarly, the bending moment can be found by integrating the shear force distribution, as
Distributed Lift Load Click to view movie (30k)
The bending moment force on the wing tip must be zero which is used to determine the integration constant. The moment function becomes,
2. Engine Mass
Next, consider the shear and moment diagrams for the engine point force load. The shear force is zero up to the engine location, so V2A(x) = 0 -b x -d
At the engine location, there is a jump in shear force due to the weight of the engine, giving V2B(x) = -Fe = -me g G -d x 0
The bending moment distribution is found by integrating the shear force distribution in both sections, giving: M2A(x) = 0
Engine Mass as Point Load Click to view movie (43k)
-b x -d
M2A(x) = -me g G x + C3 The integration constant can be determined by noting that the moment at x = -d must be zero (engine locations). This gives the final moment equation as M2A(x) = -me g G (x + d) -b x -d
3. Engine Torque
The engine torque has no effect on the shear force so the shear equation is simply zero. V3(x) = 0 The bending moment is zero up to the engine location: M3A(x) = 0 At the engine location, there is a jump in bending moment due to the engine torque, giving
Engine Torque Load Click to view movie (29k)
M3B(x) = -T
Total Solution
The complete shear and moment diagrams can be constructed by adding the individual shear and moment equations. From x = -b to x = -d, this gives
Total Solution from all Three Loaded Click to view movie (38k)
The critical points for the shear force and bending moment can now easily be located and evaluated.
CHAPTER-9-A- Friction I
STATICS - CASE STUDY Introduction
Crazy Al has just acquired a 1967 Ford Mustang and wants to do a thorough checkup on it before he gives it a price. Since the hydraulic jack is broken, he has decided that in order to get a good look at the underside of the car, he must drive it up a jury-rigged ramp that rests against a large wooden crate. What is known:
Problem Animation Click to view movie (961k)
The tires create a 1,000 N force perpendicular to the ramp. Assume that the box cannot move. The length of the ramp is 3 m. The distance from the start of the ramp, point A, to the front wheels is 2 m. The ramp is elevated at a 25 angle. The coefficient of static friction at point B is 0.2.
Question
What is the minimum value for the coefficient of static friction at point A that will prevent the ramp from moving?
Approach
Known Information
Find the normal force at point B. Use the normal force to find the friction force at B. Use the equilibrium equations to solve for the reaction forces at point A, and then find the coefficient of friction.
STATICS - THEORY
In previous sections, it was assumed that objects were frictionless. Consequently, the only reaction forces were normal to the surface. This ideal approximation always involves relative errors because no surface is perfectly frictionless. There are several types of frictional forces used in mechanics. However, dry friction will be the primary form considered in this section.
Dry Friction
Dry friction, also known as Coulomb friction, occurs between two rough, solid surfaces. Frictional forces always oppose the tendency towards motion and act tangential to the surfaces in contact. Static friction describes surfaces that are in contact but not moving. The maximum static friction is represented by fmax = s N
Mechanics of Friction Click to view movie (120k)
Here, s is a proportionality constant called the coefficient of static friction. This equation only gives the force of friction when motion is impending. If motion is not impending, then the friction force, f s, will be less than the maximum, or fs s N
Thus, only when motion is just starting to take place will the friction force be a maximum. On the other hand, if motion has started, then kinetic friction is used, or fk = k N Here, k is the coefficient of kinetic friction. This equation only applies when an object is in motion. It is generally true that k is less than s and may vary slightly with velocity. In general, friction simply written as f=N It is also helpful to consider the resultant of the frictional and normal forces. The angle from the normal force to the resultant can be calculated as tan = f/N = As the static friction approaches fmax, reaches a maximum angle s. tans = s Likewise, a similar equation for kinetic friction can be written as tank = fk/N = k The angles s and k define the limiting positions of the reactions between surfaces. There are typically three types of friction problems.
equilibrium. b. f = (fmax = s N) Motion is impending. c. f > (fmax = s N) This condition would violate equilibrium and therefore is impossible. Instead, it indicates that the system is in motion and maximum friction is kN.
MA = NB (3 m) - FC (2 m) = 0
NB = (100 N) (2 m) / (3 m) = 666.7 N Since motion is impending at each point and the normal force at point B is known, the friction at point B is fB = B NB = (0.2)(666.7 N) = 133.3 N The equilibrium equations can now be used to find the normal and frictional forces at point A.
Free Body Diagram
Fx = 0
fA = FC sin - NB sin - fB cos = (1000 - 666.7) sin25 - 133.3 cos25 = 20.0 N
Fy = 0
NA = FC cos - NB cos - fB sin
= (1000 - 666.7) cos25 - 133.3 sin25 = 358.4 N Now that the normal and frictional forces are known, the coefficient of friction can be determined as
A = fA/NA = 0.056
This is the lowest value of A needed to prevent motion. For lower values of A, the ramp is in motion, and for higher values, the ramp is in equilibrium.
Solution
The problem can be simplified as a box slide down a hill as shown in the figure on the left. The center of gravity is 3 feet from the bottom. There are three possible forces acting on the box, its weight, reaction force due to the ground and the friction force. The location and direction of these forces are shown on the free-body diagram of the box on the left. Let the resultant normal force, N be acting at point A. There are two unknowns, N and Fs. Note that the co-ordinate system is rotated by 22.5 in clockwise direction to simplify the calculations. For equilibrium,
o
Fy = 0
Free-body Diagram of the System
Fx = 0
w sin 22.5 - Fs = 0 Fs = N = w cos 22.5
Putting back Fs in Fx equation gives, w sin 22.5 = w cos 22.5 = tan 22.5 = 0.4142 Notice from the calculation that static coefficient of friction, , is independent of the weight of a box. Also, knowing the inclination angle of the bed is a convenient way of measuring the coefficient of static friction. To check whether box will tip or slide first, let the resultant normal force, N be acting at point B which is at distance x as shown in the figure on the left. Taking moments about point 'B' and assuming counter clockwise (CCW) moment as positive gives,
MB = 0
w (cos 22.5) x - w (sin 22.5) 3 = 0 w (cos 22.5) x = w (sin 22.5) 3 x = (tan 22.5) 3 x = 1.243 'x' is less than 2 ft which means the box will slide before it can tip. Also notice from the calculation that distance 'x' is independent of the weight of a box but it does depend on the inclination angle and the distance between the center of gravity and the base.
CHAPTER-9-B-Friction II
STATICS - CASE STUDY Introduction
King Ignoramus Maximus has established a lowest bid construction policy for the building of new temples. As a result, a column erected in the temple of Apollo was several inches too short. In order to raise the column, engineers will use two small marble wedges. What is known:
Problem Animation Click to view movie (977k)
The weight of the column is 1000 lb. The weight of each wedge is 100 lb. The coefficient of friction is 0.3.
The angle of the wedge is 15. The column and top wedge are constrained against movement to the left.
Questions
1. What is the smallest horizontally applied force that will start the column moving upward? 2. If the applied force and lateral constraints are removed, will the system remain in equilibrium?
Approach
Force Diagram
Determine the forces acting on each wedge. Use any special properties of friction that could be helpful to simplify the problem.
STATICS - THEORY
A wedge is a block with two flat faces that make a small angle with each other. Depending on the angle and the coefficients of friction acting on the wedge, the weight lifted can be many times the applied force P. Wedge problems can be often solved by using a semi-graphical approach that involves drawing the known vectors and using the laws of sines and cosines to find the unknown forces.
Forces Acting on Wedge Click to view movie (810k)
Wedges are usually constrained against rotation. Therefore, only force equilibrium needs to be considered. Transferring forces by using wedges can often be considered in terms of mechanical advantage (M.A.) as M.A. = direct force / wedge force
In this formula, the numerator is the amount of direct force needed to accomplish the task normally, and the denominator is the force applied to the wedge to do the same task. A well-designed wedge would have a mechanical advantage greater than one. However, wedges are often designed to remain in place after an applied load is removed. This type of wedge is called selflocking. Self-locking wedges often have a mechanical advantage less than one but are still viable designs.
Semi-Graphical Approach Click to view movie (368k)
Fx = 0
N1 - f2 cos15 - N2 sin15 = 0
Fy = 0
N2 cos15 - f1 - W col - W A - f2 sin15 = 0 N2 cos15 - f1 - 1,000 - 100 - f2 sin15 = 0
Solution a) Click to view movie (159k)
Since motion is impending, the friction forces are f1 = N1 = 0.3 N1 f2 = N2 = 0.3 N2 If these two friction equations are used, the four equations can be reduced to two equations and two unknowns, N1 and N2.
N1 - 0.3 N2 cos15 - N2 sin15 = 0 N2 cos15 - 0.3 N1 - 0.3 N2 sin15 = 1,100 N1 = 0.5486 N2 0.8883 N2 - 0.3 N1 = 1,100 Solving gives N2 = 1,520 lb and N1 = 833.3 lb
Now that the forces on the bottom surface of Wedge A are known, wedge B can be analyzed. First, sum the forces in the vertical direction, to give,
Fy = 0
f2 sin15 + N3 - W B - N2 cos15 = 0 (456) sin15 + N3 - 100 - (1,520) cos15 = 0
Free Body Diagram for Wedge B
N3 = 1,450 lb and
f3 = 435 lb
Fx = 0
f3 + f2 cos15 + N2 sin15 - P = 0 (435) + (456) cos15 + (1,520) sin15 - P = 0 Solving for P gives, P = 1,269 lb
Solution of b)
The applied force and lateral constraints have been removed. As a result, the direction of potential motion has changed, and the frictional forces will reverse direction. The equations of equilibrium on wedge A will produce
Fx = 0
f2 cos15 - N2 sin15 = 0 f2 = 0.2679 N2
Solution b) Click to view movie (453k)
Fy = 0
N2 cos15 + f2 sin15 - W col - W A = 0 N2 cos15 + (0.2679 N2) sin15 - 1,000 - 100 = 0 Since the status of the wedge is being analyzed, it cannot be assumed that f2 = N2. The resulting forces are N2 = 1,063 lb and f2 = 285 lb
equilibrium, wedge A must be in equilibrium. The minimum coefficient of friction value required to maintain equilibrium is 0.268. Since the top wedge is not moving, it is impossible for the bottom wedge to move. This can be verified with a free-body diagram of wedge B. Also, if the column force were to increase due to the weight from the ceiling, the wedge would still not move. Feel free to experiment with this and other factors in the simulation.
Fx = 0
N1 - f2 cos 12 - N2 sin 12 = 0 N1 - (0.3) (0.9781) N2 - 0.2079 N2 = 0 N1 = 0.5013 N2
Fy = 0
N2 cos 12 - f1 - 1,500 - f 2 sin 12 = 0 0.9781 N2 - 0.3 N1 - 1,500 - (0.3)(0.2079) N2 = 0 0.9158 N2 - 0.3 N1 = 1,500 Solving above two equations gives, N2 = 1,959.8 lb N1 = 982.4 lb and the frictional forces are, f2 = 587.9 lb f1 = 294.7 lb Now that the forces on the bottom surface of block A are known, wedge B can be analyzed. First, sum the forces in the vertical direction, to give,
Fy = 0
N3 + f2 sin 12 - N2 cos 12 = 0 N3 + (587.9) (0.2079) - (1,959.8) (0.9781) = 0 N3 = 1,794.7 lb and f3 = 538.5 lb Finally, P can be determined by summing forces on wedge B in the horizontal,
Fx = 0
N2 sin 12 + f3 + f2 cos 12 - P = 0 (1,959.8) (0.2079) + 538.5 + (587.9) (0.9781) = P P = 1,521 lb
Since force P is acting in the opposite direction than in the previous solution, the forces acting on block A will be in opposite directions. The new forces acting on the block A are shown in the free-body diagram on the left. Frictional forces are given by, f1 = N1 = 0.3 N1 f2 = N2 = 0.3 N2 Applying the equilibrium equations gives,
Free-body Diagram of Block A
Fx = 0
f2 cos 12 - N2 sin 12 - N1= 0 (0.3) (0.9781) N2 - 0.2079 N2 - N1 = 0 N1 = 0.0855 N2
Fy = 0
N2 cos 12 - f1 - 1500 + f2 sin 12 = 0 (0.9781) N2 - 0.3N 1 - 1500 - (0.3)(0.2079) N2 = 0 0.9157 N2 - 0.3N1 = 1500 Solving above two equations gives, N2 = 1,685.3 lb N1 = 144.1 lb and the frictional forces are, f2 = 505.6 lb f1 = 43.23 lb Now that the forces on the bottom surface of Wedge A are known, wedge B can be analyzed. First, sum the forces in the vertical direction, to give,
Fy = 0
N3 - f2 sin 12 - N2 cos 12 = 0 N3 - (505.6) (0.2079) - (1,685.3) (0.9781) = 0
Free-body Diagram of Block B
N3 = 1,753.5 lb and f3 = 526.1 lb Finally, P can be determined by summing forces on wedge B in the horizontal,
Fx = 0
N2 sin 12 - f3 - f2 cos 12 + P = 0 (1,685.3) (0.2079) - 526.1 - (505.6) (0.9781) - P = 0 P = - 670.2 lb = 670.2 lb
Comments
To keep the machine in equilibrium one should apply a force of magnitude greater then 670.2 lb in direction but less than 1521 lb in the same direction. If the applied force is more than 1521 lb, the machine will be raised and if applied force is less than 670.2 lb then the machine will be lowered due to it's own weight.
The members of the jack are pinned together at points A, B, C, and D. The length of each member is 0.2 m. The weight of the automobile exerts a force of 1,960 N on the jack. The threaded shaft is pinned to the jack at points C and D. Under normal conditions, the jack is designed to support weight when the bottom members are at an angle between = 30 and = 60.
Questions
At what angle is the tension in the shaft greatest o o under normal conditions (30 60 )? At what angle is the tension in the shaft least?
Approach
Determine the virtual work performed by the weight of the automobile and the tension in the shaft. Knowing that the total virtual work must
Force Diagram
be equal to zero, derive an equation for the tension T as a function of the angle . Use graphic analysis to determine the maximum and minimum values of T under normal operating conditions.
Work of a Couple
A couple, or moment, does work when it undergoes a rotation in the plane of the couple. If the couple rotates a small angle d, then the work done by the couple is given by dU = M = d If the rotation takes place in the plane of the couple, then the scalar equation is dU = M d
Work of a Couple Click to view movie (24k)
Virtual Work
The virtual work of a force or couple is defined as the work done by an imaginary or virtual displacement. In scalar notation, the virtual work of a force is given by
U = F s cos
In x and y components,
U = Fx x + Fy y
Here Fx and Fy are the forces in the x and y directions, and x and y are the virtual displacements in the x and y directions. The virtual work of a couple, or moment, is
U = M
U = 0
From this equation, the equilibrium position or equilibrium forces can be determined.
U = 2T x - F y
Notice that the equation for the virtual work is expressed in terms of the virtual displacements. To solve, express the virtual displacements in terms of a common variable. The vertical displacement of point B can be expressed in terms of the angle , y = 2L sin y = 2L cos
The horizontal displacement of points C and D can also be expressed in terms of the angle : x = 2L cos x = -L sin Substitute the expressions for x and y into U:
Generally, the mechanism consists of two rigid links and a piston that are connected by frictionless joints and constrained to move in a single plane. The link AC is called a "crank-shaft" and the link CB is called a "connecting rod". The slider-crank mechanism has only one degree of freedom since the location of both links can be specified by the single independent coordinate In this case, the crank-shaft, AC, weighs 20 N and connecting rod, CB, weighs 35 N. The weight of the links pushes the piston towards right. To keep this system in equilibrium, a force, F, of 70 N pushes in the opposite direction. Determine angle for the equilibrium of the slider-crank mechanism.
Solution
To solve for the equilibrium angle , the principle of virtual work can be used.
Begin with a free-body diagram of the slider-crank mechanism as shown at the left. If the origin is established at the fixed support A, the location of F and center of gravity for each link can be specified by the position coordinates xB, yW1, and yW2, respectively. Let point B undergoes a virtual displacement xB in the negative x direction. The deflection is assumed to be small even though it is shown large in the diagram. Because point A is fixed, the reaction forces at A perform no work and By does not move in the direction of the force so no work is performed by By. Expressing the position coordinates of point B and center of gravity of links in terms of the independent coordinate and taking the derivatives to find virtual displacements yields, xB = 0.5 cos + 0.5 cos = 1 cos xB = -sin yW1 = 0.25 sin yW1 = 0.25 cos yW2 = 0.25 sin yW2 = 0.25 cos As shown in the free-body diagram, an increase in (i.e. ) causes a decrease in xB and an increase in yW1 and yW2 The total virtual work performed during the virtual displacement is the sum of the virtual work performed by the force F, and the virtual work performed by the weight of the connecting rod and crank-shaft,
The catapult and spring have the dimensions shown. The spring constant k is 160 lb/ft, and the spring is in a relaxed position when the catapult is vertical (i.e. the relaxed length is 5 ft). The collar of the spring is attached to a frictionless bearing. The center of mass of the catapult (without the watermelon) is located at 2L/3.
Questions
After the watermelon has been launched, at what angles can the catapult come to a rest? Are these equilibrium positions stable?
Dimensions
Approach
If the system is conservative, we can find an equation for the potential energy of the catapult in terms of . The values of that yield zero for the derivative of the potential energy indicate the equilibrium positions for the catapult. Use the second derivative of the potential energy to determine which positions are stable, and which are unstable.
If the total work of a force is independent of the path s, then the force is said to be a conservative force. Gravity and spring forces are examples of conservative forces, but friction is nonconservative
horizontal reference line, Vg = Wy = mgy If the body is below the reference line, it will have a negative potential energy.
Here k is the spring constant and s is the distance the spring is stretched or compressed from its unstretched length.
A body in equilibrium is said to be in one of three states: stable, neutrally stable, or unstable. After we determine the equilibrium condition, we can determine the stability of that condition from the second derivative of the potential function. If the second derivative of the potential function V is greater than zero, the body is in a stable equilibrium:
If the second derivative is less than zero, the body is in an unstable equilibrium:
If the second derivative is zero, higher-order derivatives must be used to determine the stability. Only if all derivatives of V are zero is the body neutrally stable:
The potential energy associated with the force of gravity can be determined as Vg = (2/3 L cos) mg Next, the potential energy associated with the spring can be calculated as VL = 1/2 k s = 1/2 k (1/2 L sin)
2 2
Equilibrium
The equilibrium positions for the catapult can be found by taking the first derivative of the potential energy, dV/d = -2/3 mgL sin + 1/4 L k sin cos = L sin (1/4 Lk cos - 2/3 mg)
2
When the catapult is in equilibrium, the derivative of the potential energy is zero. dV/d = 0 There are three values of for which the catapult is in equilibrium. The first is relatively easy to determine as L sin = 0 = 0o The second and third values can be found by setting the expression in parenthesis equal to zero. 1/4 Lk cos - 2/3 mg = 0 = cos-1 (8 mg/(3Lk) ) -1 = cos ( 8(100)/(3 (5)(160) ) = 70.5o
Stability
To determine the stability of the three equilibrium positions, take the second derivative of the potential energy.
Next, substitute = 0 into the equation for the second derivative of the potential energy which gives, d V/d = L (1/4 Lk - 2/3 mg) > 0
2 2
Because the second derivative of the potential energy is greater than zero, = 0 is a stable equilibrium position. Now, substitute = 70.5 into the equation for the second derivative of the potential energy. d V/d = L cos70.5 (1/4 Lk cos70.5 - 2/3 mg) 2 2 + 1/4 L k sin 70.5
2 2
d V/d < 0
2 2
Because the second derivative of the potential energy is less than zero, = 70.5 are unstable equilibrium positions.