The Component of an IP Address Every Client Computer on a Network has a Media Acess Control, or MAC ,address.

A MAC Adress is a unique address that each Ethernet Adapter receives when they a re manufactured. To rely on the MAC addrewss of network devices would be a very inefficient way t o make connections,particularly on large netwroks. The client computer would potentially need to query thousands of other computers to find out the one it wants. Ip describes an adressing system for networks that is similar to postal addresse s. A network or sub network is assigned a number ,which is similar to the city and country in a postal address. An IP is made of four groups of numbers called octets, because each one holds an eight bit number. They are usually referred to by the letters w,x,y and z.The octets can be groupe d in different ways,depending on the size of the network that they describe. On a small network with less than 255 client computers,the z octet can represent the host address for the clients and the w,x and y octets can be used for the n wtwork address. A medium sized network requires more numbers to represent all of its clients,so the y and z octets can be grouped together to represent the host and the w and x octets can represent the network. On a very large network with millions of clients, the x,y and z octets can repre sent the host and the w octet can represent the network. Together the network ID and the host ID make up the IP address. How IP Addresses Are Wasted Class A Address Class Number of Networks = 127 and can cover 16,000,000 Hosts Class B Address Class Number of Networks = 16,000 Number of Hosts = 65,000 Hosts Class C Adress Class Number of Networks = 2,000,000 Number of Hosts = 254 Hosts Over the years,two factors have combined to bring us close to the edge of the IP address space. One factor is that the designers of the IP did not anticipate the incredible gro wth of the Internet and the number of hosts requiring IP addressess. The other is that there are so many possible IP addresses that there has been no compelling need to use them efficiently.This has led to many addresses being wa sted through the inefficient use of addess classes and subnet masks. For example, to connect all of the clients on a small network directly to the in ternet ,we must apply to the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority(IANA) to get a range of IP addresses registered to our organization. The control the distribution of IP addresses to ensure that the duplicat address es do not exist on the Internet. If our network has 3 subnets with 200 clients,50 clients, and 10 clients,we can assign 3 class c addresses. This is where the inefficiecy of the system become apparent. 200 clients using subnet 255.255.255.0 gives 254 Reserved Host Addresses hence is efficient. 50 clients using 255.255.255.0 gives 254 too which is inefficient 10 clients using 255.255.255.0 gives 254 too which is inefficient which implies that a total of 260 clients are using 762 addresses. Thi can resul t up to five hundred and 2 IP addresses being wasted

We can employ several strategies to use the IP addresses registered to our organ ization as efficiently as possible. Methods : Creating Private Networks : Creating Private Networks that are isolated from the internet.Private addresses are not registered,we can allocate the addresses in any way that fits our organization ,as long as the hosts with our private addresses are not accessible from the internet.This reduces the number of registered IP addresses required for an organization to only enough to cover the ir hosts directly connected to the Internet, regardless of how many clients they have on their network. Implementing Supernetting : We can avoid the need of larger capacity class B add ress in a medium organization by supernetting several contigous groups of class C addresses. This is alos called as classless inter-domain routing or CIDR.Combining the smal ler class C addresses makes it possible to closely match the needs of the medium sized organizationz.This reduces the waste that would come from the unallocated class B addresses. SUpernetting can also make routing tables small which makes routers more efficie nt. Using varibale length subnet naskes : We can use variable length subnet maskes t o allocate a range of IP addresses much closer to the actual number of hosts on a subnet. This greatly reduces the number of addresses that are wasted by over - allocatio n The Strategies for conserving IP addresses will become obsolete when the next ve rsion of IP,Internet Protocol version 9,IPv6 becomes widely implemented. It used 128-bit addresses instead of the 32 bit addresses used in the present ve rsion of hte IP. This larger space provides enough addresses to assign 1,564 addresses to every s quare meter of the Earth's surface. IPv6 is already implemented in a smaller scale but it is the future.. How Subnet Masks Work An IP address is composed of a network identifier and a host identifier,but beca use the lenghths of these vary ,we cannot determine where the network identifier ends and the host identifier begins just by looking at the address. The purpose of the subnet mask is to define the seperation between the two ident ifiers. To understand how subnet masks work, we need to look an IP address in its binary form. An IP address such as 192.168.2.5 consists of four bytes expressed as decimal nu mbers,seperated by periods,and each of those decimal numbers can also be express es as an 8 bit binary number. The same process applies to the subnet mask for any address like 255.255.255.0 When the bits are compared with each other that is the IP and the subnet mask ad dress,we can see how the first part of the IP address aligns with the one bits i n the subnet mask, and the last part alings with the zero bits. The ones in the mask define the part of the IP address that contains the network bits and the zeros represent the host bits.We can see that first 3 bytes of the IP address,192.168.2 are the network identifier and the last byte 5 is the host

identifier The divison between the network identifer and the host identifier can be configu red to match the format of a network's IP addresses by changing the numbers in t he subnet mask. The Role of DHCP in the Network Infrastr ucture Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol(DHCP) in the Network structure. In Transmission Protocol/Internet Protocol,or TCP/IP,networks ,many components a re used to ensure that each TCP/IP host can communicate with the other TCp/IP ho sts and access network resources. DHCP is a TCP/IP protocol that provides a way to dynamically allocate IP address es to computers in a network. All TCP/IP hosts,such as client computers or network devices require TCP/IP addr ess and configuration data. System administrators can manually configure and maintain IP configuration for c lients or they can use DHCP to dynamically assign,configure, and maintain the TC P/IP configuration data for each host. Because DHCP centrally manages address allocation,DHCP helps prevent address con flicts, and reduces administrative effort. DHCP also helps conserve the use of IP addresses by providing IP configuration d ata for a specific period of time,called a lease period. In addition to configuring a DHCP server to provide a TCP/IP address in the conf iguration data,we can also configure it to provide clients with additional IP in formation. This information can be information about the router ,or default gateway,domain name system,or DNS and windows Internet Name Service and Winodws Name Service,or WINS,servers.Example useful go through again. We have to enable routers to forward DHCP broadcast packets.The TCP/IP configura tion data can be obtained by passing or forwarding the DHCP data which retrieves the TCP/IP data from the client or another DHCP server. The Layers of the OSI Model (Open System s Interconnection) The OSI model is divided into seven layers.Each layer represents a different sta ge in the process of preparing data for transmission over anetwork. The process starts at the application layer on the sending host, where the appli cations are connected to the networking software. The data to be sent is put into a packet that passes down through each layer ,ac cumulating routing and tracking information until it reaches the physical layer, where it is sent over the network to the destination. Application Layer : Connection between an application and the network software i s made here. Presentation Layer : The Source and Destination clients choose a common communic ation syntax at this layer. Session Layer : Conection is made between the sending and receving mails. Transport Layer : Reilable or unreliable protocol is chosen here. Network Layer : Destination address is added to this packet. Data Link : Packet is put into correct Format for transmission. Physical Layer : Putting the packet onto the network cable at the physical layer of the OSI model. Application layer : Provides the interface for applications to access a network. Presntation Layer : Enables clients to use a common syntax. Session Layer : Ensures good communication between client. Transport Layer : Provides the appropriate type of connection. Network : Adds the address and ensures delivery on reliable connection

Data-Link Layer : Prepares the packet for transmission. Pyhsical Layer : Sends the packet to the networking hardware. At the receiver side it is vice versa. Way to remember : All People Seem To Need Data Processing How an IP Packet Moves Through the Suite of TCP/IP Protocols OSI Layer has 7 layers , six of which are consolidated into the TCP/IP Model. The 4 Layers of the TCP/IP Model are : Application,Transport ,Internet and link. Software to interface with the specific network topologies is not part of TCP/IP . Each of the 1st three layers of TCP/IP contains one ore more protocols that perf orm different functions with the TCP/IP. Six of the most commonly used Application layer Protocols are HTTP : HyperText Transfer Protocol : Used to access the world wide web. FTP : File Transfer Protocol : Can be used to copy files over a network. SMTP : Simple Mail Transfer Protocol : makes it possible for us to send e-mail o ver a network. DNS : Domain Name System : Responsible for looking up a host's address so that y ou can connect to it. RIP : Routing Information Protocol : Used by routers to exchange information wi th each otehr. SNMP : Simple Network Management Protocol : Enables us to manage servers and ot her devices over a network. There are two protocols at the Transport Layer. TCP : Transmission Control Protocol : It is coonection - oriented,which means t hat it negotiates and maintains a connection between two hosts. It uses the connection to ensure that a recipient is ready to receive a packet,t o acknowledge to a sender that it has accpeted a packet, and to retransmit the packets that have not been acknowledged by the recipient. TCP is called a reilable protocol because it ensures that data is transmitted ac curately. UDP : User DataGram Protocol : It is a connectionless protocl.When it sends a pa cket to a host it does not check the recipient is ready and when it receives a packet it does not acknowledge it.Used to transmit short messages such as name queries and responses. Because it does not send the larger number of messages that TCP uses to ensure t hat packets are delivered ,it requires much lessse Bandwidth than TCP. Like TCP,UDP rejects corrupted packets.Because UDP cannot gurantee packet deilve ry,it is often called unreliable protocol. Streaming media often uses UDP because of its low overhead.Most media players bu ffer enough of the arriving data to be able to request a new copy of a bad packet from the sender and receive it before it is needed. The main protocol at the Internet Layer is IP, the Internet Protocol, which mana ges the movement of packets between sending and receiving hosts. It is responsible for routing packets to their destination,dividing them into si zes that will fit through the routers along their route,and addressing packets.An IP address is a series of numbers that is assigned to the physical ha rdware address of a host.

The internet layer includes several other protocols : ARP : Address Resolution P rotocol : looks up the physical address linked to an IP address. IGMP : Internet Group management Protocol : is used by routers to tack group mem bership in a subnet. ICMP : Internet Control Message Protocl : Carries error messages and provides si mple diagonstics capabilities. TCP/IP does not require a specific topology,it uses fucntions at the link layer to create frames and send them over the netwrok. The Hardware Interface is managed by the networking operating system. Link Layer : Ethernet,TOken Ring,Frame Relay,ATM Example : When a co-worker has emailed me a link to a dcoument that is on a diff erent host,when i click on the link,My application uses the DNS client software to request that the DNS server send the IP address of the destination host to me.The DNS cl ient software uses UDP and IP to build DNS name query message to request the IP address of the host i want to connect to.Link layer functions build an Ethernet Frame and pass it to the network operating system to be sent to the DNS server. The DNS server sends back a DNS name query responcse message with the target hos t's IP address.It comes in through the link layer,goes through the IP layer wher e the addressing information is stripped off,goes back through UDP where the packet's integrity i s checked, and then up to the DNS client software. The DNS client software passe d the IP address of the target host on the application. The application instructs the TCP to create a common connection.After the TCP co nnection is established,the application requests the file from the target host. The target host uses TCP to segment the file we want into packets and is sent to our client. Each packet comes in through the link layer ,through IP,and passes up to TCp whi ch verifies the segments integrity and holds it until all of the file segments h ave arrived. It also acknowledges receipt of the packet to the sender.This cycle reppeats unt il the whole file is reassembled. If a packet arrives that does not pass the integrity check,TCP discards it and d oes not send an acknowledgment to the sender. Because the last packet was not acknowlegged within the alloted time,the sender retransmits it.When the last packet arrives, the file is reassmebled and acknowledged to the sender.Then the client closes th e TCP connection. The completed file is passed up to the application where we can access it. The Role of DNS in the Network Infrastr ucture