Chapter 1: Functions

A function is like a free Snack Vending Machine.

input function output

L2

But in mathematics, a function can work with any kind of inputs and outputs.

Like the Car Crusher Function.

In mathematics theres no need to be constrained by reality, so we can even dene the Car UnCrusher Function.

UnCrusher Function

Most mathematical functions deal with numbers: both the inputs and the outputs are usually numbers. 5 function 17 Functions are usually given single-letter nicknames, like f , H, or . To represent the output of a function, the input is wrapped in parenthesis and placed to the right of the functions name. f (5) = output of f when the input is 5 So in the case above, f (5) = 17.

There are dierent ways to explain what a function does, that is, to dene it. You can give examples. f (1) = 3 f (2) = 7 f (3) = 13 For this tables are helpful. input x 1 2 3 output f (x) 3 7 -13

But what happens on other inputs?

There are dierent ways to explain what a function does, that is, to dene it. You can draw the graph.

Pretty, but not 100% accurate.

There are dierent ways to explain what a function does, that is, to dene it. You can give the mathematical formula. f (x) = 13 3 (x 2) (x 3) 7 (x 1) (x 3) (x 1) (x 2) 2 2

Ugly, but precise. For example, what happens if we input 2.7? f (2.7) = 3 (2.7 2) (2.7 3) 2 7 (2.7 1) (2.7 3) 13 (2.7 1) (2.7 2) 2 = 4.48

Another example; f (x) = (x 1) x+ 1 2 (x + 2)2

1 Can you tell what f (1), f ( ), and f (2) are? 2 1 f (1) = 0 = f ( ) = f (2) 2 These inputs are called the zeros of the function f .

Heres the graph of f .

The zeros are at 2, 0.5, and 1. Notice that theres one point on the curve where it crosses the vertical axis. Thats where the input is 0. f (0) = (0 1) 0 + 1 (0 + 2)2 = 2 2 That point on the graph is called the vertical intercept. The zeros can be called horizontal intercepts.

The simplest kind of function is the constant function: whatever inputs you plug in, you always get the same answer. f (1) = 37, f (2) = 37, f (3) = 37, etc.

In this case we can just say that f (x) = 37 for any x. The second simplest function is the linear function. Example: f (1) = 5 f (2) = 8, f (3) = 11, f (5) = 17.

Still very predictable. Its easy, for this function, to predict every value. f (4) = ? f (1.5) = ? 14 6.5 f (0) = ? 2

Because linear functions have nice predictable growth patterns, the graph is a straight line.

Hence linear function. All you need to know about this function: It starts at 2; it increases by 3s.

More precisely: 1. The vertical intercept is 2, i.e. f (0) = 2; 2. The slope is 3, i.e. whenever you move right 1, you go up 3. Slope will be extremely important for us. In fact its the foundation of all of Calculus. Slope measures steepness when reading the graph from left to right. (Note that steepness is reversed when reading from right to left.) Numerically we dene slope as the ratio of upward movement to rightward movement.

Jack and Jill have a date on a hill.

Jack is climbing up the line from (1,5) to Jills picnic site at (4,14). Jacks path; 1. Straight line; use Pythagorean Theorem to nd distance; 2. Horizontal and vertical components.
2.1 Horizontal: 4 1 = 3 2.2 Vertical: 14 5 = 9

Slope is the ratio rise/run: m= 9 14 5 = = 3. 41 3

In general, Slope = m = y2 y1 x2 x1

Whats the formula for this function? 1. The vertical intercept is 2, i.e. f (0) = 2; 2. The slope is 3. Fact 2 means that f grows like 3x. So f (x) = 3x + ?. To nd the value of ?, use Fact 1: 2 = f (0) = 3 0 + ?. So ? has a value of 2. f (x) = 3x + 2 In general, the equation of a linear function is f (x) = mx + b (Slope-Intercept Form)

where m is the slope and b is the vertical intercept.

Heres another form of the linear equation: Start with the denition of slope: Slope = m = y2 y1 . x2 x1

Now rearrange terms to get rid of the fraction: m(x2 x1 ) = y2 y1 . Since this holds for any (x2 , y2 ) on the line, we can think of it as the dening equation of the line: m(x x1 ) = y y1 . This is called point-slope form. Both forms have their strengths and weaknesses for problem solving.

Types of problems: 1. Given information about a line, gure out its equation.

Point-Slope form is usually best. 2. Given the equation of a line, determine facts about it.

Slope-Intercept form is usually best.

Example: 1.2 #4 Given the equation 4y + 2x + 8 = 0, nd the slope and y -intercept.

Slope-Intercept form is usually best. Solution Rewrite in Slope-Intercept form: 4y = 2x 8 1 y = x + 2. 2 Now we can read o the info we need: m= 1 2 b=2

Example: 1.2 #8 A line passes through the points (4, 5) and (2, 1). What is the equation of the line?

Point-Slope form is usually best. Solution: First nd the slope. m= 1 5 6 y2 y1 = = =3 x2 x1 24 2

Now apply the point-slope form. y 5 = 3(x 4)

There are exceptions. Example: 1.2 #12 The 1. 2. 3. population was 30,700 and grew at a rate of 850 per year. Give the formula for P as a function of t (years since 2000). f (2010) = ? f (?) = 45, 000

Solution 1. P = 850t + 30, 700. Note that P = f (t) where f (t) = 850t + 30,700. Ill usually just write P(t) = 850t + 30,700. 2. Plug in t = 10. P(2010) = 850 10 + 30,700 = 39,200 3. Plug in P = 45,000. 45,000 = 850t + 30,700 14,300 = 850t t 16.8

Example: 1.2 #24 Latitude 11 44 (a) First nd the slope: m= N2 N1 34 26 8 = = . l2 l1 11 44 33 # Species 34 26

Now apply point-slope form: N 26 = 8 (l 44). 33

8 (l 44). 33 (b) Lets rst rewrite the equation in slope-intercept form: N 26 = N= Now we can say:
8 m = 33 species per degree; 110 b = 3 species at the equator.

8 8 8 110 l + 44 + 26 = l + . 33 33 33 3

(c)

What if a function isnt linear?

This function is sometimes steep, sometimes shallow, sometimes rising, sometimes falling.

Even in this case we can talk about average slope.

average slope = Note that

3 1 8 = 0.5 (1) 3

increasing = slope is + decreasing = slope is

Lets play Jeopardy... The answer is: The average slope from 3 to 1 is , the average slope from 1 to 1 is 0, the average slope from 1 to 3 is +. The question is... What is the shape of the function y = x 2 ?

This shape is called concave up, and occurs whenever the slopes are consistently increasing. If the slopes are consistently decreasing, the shape is called concave down.

This even applies to any piece of the functions.

What shapes?

Remember I said that slope is the foundation of calculus? We havent really started calculus yet but... (careful, this is confusing)

Concave Up Concave Down

Slope is Sloping Up Slope is Sloping Down

(a) Concave Up

(b) Concave Down

(c) Slope is Sloping Up

(d) Slope is Sloping Down

Problem: A coee shop sells coee to go in three sizes.

Assuming the relationship between price and size is linear, what does the 12 oz. coee cost?

Size in oz. x 8 12 20

Price in $ y 1.00 ? 2.08

(Its OK to reverse x and y , just be consistent.) Solution: First nd the slope: m= Therefore y 1.00 = 0.09(x 8) and y = 0.09x + 0.28. Finally, when x = 12, y = 0.09 12 + 0.28 = $1.36. 1.08 2.08 1.00 = = 0.09. 20 8 12

y = 0.09x + 0.28. Problem: What do m = 0.09 and b = 0.28 (the y -intercept) mean in this problem? Solution: The slope is rise/run, in this case $/oz. So evidently coee costs 9 per ounce. The value of b is the value that y takes when x = 0. So if you buy 0 ounces of coee it still costs you 28. Evidently that is the price of renting a mug. b = xed costs mx = variable costs

1.4 #12 xed costs = $650,000 variable costs = $20 per shoe selling price = $70 per shoe Find the total cost in terms of q, the quantity of pairs of shoes. Also nd the total revenue and total prot. Solution: We have m = 20 and b =650,000. C (q) = 20q + 650,000 Revenue, the total amount of money taken in, is even easier: R(q) = 70q. Prot is just the dierence between the two: (q) = R(q) C (q) = 70q (20q + 650,000) = 50q 650,000.

In business problems, the term margin means one more unit. So cost at the margin means the cost of producing one more pair of shoes. Instead of saying cost at the margin youll often see the phrase marginal cost, which means the same thing. If the cost function is linear, then the marginal cost is just the slope of the cost function. C (q) = 20q + 650,000 So the marginal cost is $20. R(q) = 70q. The marginal revenue is $70. (q) = 50q 650,000. The marginal prot is $50.

How does slope behave for the Demand function?

Consistently .

How does slope behave for the Supply function?

Consistently +.

The Equilibrium point is where the supply and demand curves meet: that is where the price and quantity are stable.

On the horizontal line, producers are depressed: not selling enough. On the vertical line, producers are manic: not producing enough At the equilibrium point, producers are perfectly content.

1.4 #26 Demand: q = 120,000 500p Supply: q = 1000p (a) What happens at a price of $100 per unit? (b) Find the equilibrium point. Solution: (a) Demand: q(100) = 50,000 Supply: q(100) = 100, 000 Price is too high. (b) 120,000 500p = q = 1000p 120,000 = 1500p p = 80 At that price, q = 1000 80 = 80,000.

Suppose the company is selling pipes, which the government wants to discourage. So they tax the pipe company $5 per pipe. (This is called a specic tax.) How do things change?

Old equations: Demand: q = 120,000 500p Supply: q = 1000p Equilibrium: q = 80,000 and p = 80 New equations: Demand: q = 120,000 500p Supply: q = 1000(p 5) = 1000p 5000 Equilibrium: 120,000 500p = q = 1000p 5000 125,000 = 1500p p = $83.33 At that price, q = 1000 83.33 5000 = 78,333.

Youve probably heard about quantities that grow exponentially. For example, debt. Suppose you owe $100 to a loan shark who charges 30% interest per month. If you dont pay anything back, next month youll owe $130. The month after that, youll owe the $130 plus an extra 30%: 130 + 0.30 130 = 1.30 130 = $169. Every month you owe 1.3 times what you owed the month before. month x 0 1 2 3 . . . x debt y $100 $100 1.3 = $130 $100 1.32 = $169 $100 1.33 = $219.70 . . . $100 1.3x

So the formula for debt y as a function of time in months x is y = 100 1.3x . This called an exponential function because the input is plugged into an exponent. Exponentially functions grow extremely quickly: because the slope is continually getting steeper. When x = 24, you will owe 100 1.324 =$54,280.08. Other things that grow exponentially: 1. Population: people beget people; 2. Technology: inventions beget new inventions; 3. Mistakes: errors beget further errors.

Some things decay exponentially: The more you have, the more there is to be lost. 1. Radioactive elements; 2. Chemicals; 3. Endangered species. Constantly decreasing, but at a slowing rate: slope is continually getting less steep. It can take a very long time for the level to reach 0, and may never quite happen.

1.5 #20 Deforestation occurs at a rate of about 2.9% per year. How much existing forest will remain in 35 years? Solution: Every year the amount of forest remaining is 2.9% less than it was the year before: this year = (last year) .029(last year) = .971(last year) So the base of the exponential will be .971. Let x be the time in years from the start, and let y be the amount of forest remaining. And suppose the amount of forest at the start is F . Then y = 0.971x F so that after 35 years y = 0.97135 F = .357F . So, about 36% of the original forest remains after 35 years.

In general exponential functions have formulas like this: P = P0 a t . Here P is an exponential function of t, which is usually time. And P0 is the initial value of P, that is, the value P takes when time t = 0: P0 = P(0). The constant a represents the ratio between values of P at successive moments of time. So a represents the growth or decay rate.

Growth Example A towns population is currently 8000 and is growing at a rate of 1% per year. Express the population P as a function of time t from the present. Solution: P = 8000 1.01t

Decay Example A towns population is currently 8000 and is falling at a rate of 2% per year. Express the population P as a function of time t from the present. Solution: P = 8000 0.98t

A funny thing about bases... Mathematicians have a favorite base, namely 2.718281828459045. They call this base e. So rather than write 0.98t , they prefer to write e.02020270731751947t . This is actually equivalent, because e.02020270731751947 = 0.98, so e.02020270731751947t = (e.02020270731751947 )t = 0.98t . This number .02020270731751947 is usually referred to as the decay rate. If k had been +, we would call it the growth rate.

Remember the CarCrusher and Uncrusher functions?

Car Crusher Function

UnCrusher Function

Replace CarCrusher by exponential function and UnCrusher by logarithmic:

So for example, if e3 = 20.08553692318767, that is 3 exponential 20.08553692318767, then 20.08553692318767 logarithmic 3, that is ln(20.08553692318767) = 3. So the exponential and logarithmic functions simply undo each other.

For any x and a > 0, a = ex ln(a) = x.

For any x and a > 0, a = ex ln(a) = x.

Properties of ln: 1. Because e1 = e, ln(e) = 1. 2. Because e0 = 1, ln(1) = 0. 3. Because (ex )y = exy , ln(ay ) = y ln(a). (a = ex ) 4. Because ex ey = ex+y , ln(ab) = ln(a) + ln(b).

Example: Find the number k such that .98t = ekt .

Solution:

ln(.98t ) tln(.98) .0202t .0202

= = = =

ln(ekt ) ktln(e) kt k

Example Suppose a population is initially 35,000 and grows 12% in 10 years. Express the population as a function of time, using base e. Solution: We know the general form of the exponential function: P(t) = P0 ekt . We also know that P0 = 35,000. Now use the known growth data to nd the growth rate k: P(10) = = 1.12 35,000 = 1.12 = ln(1.12) = 0.1133 = k = So P(t) = 35,000e0.01133t . 1.12 35,000 35,000e10k 35,000e10k e10k 10kln(e) 10k 1 0.01133

In an exponential growth problem, the doubling time is the time required for the population to double. This does not depend on the initial population! Example Suppose a population is initially P0 and has a growth constant of 0.02. How long does the population take to double in size? Solution: P = P0 e0.02t When is P = 2P0 ? 2P0 = P0 e0.02t 2 = e0.02t ln(2) = 0.02t ln(2) t = = 34.66 0.02

The corresponding concept for exponential decay is half-life, the time it takes for the quantity to be reduced to half the initial size. Example: An isotope of Cadmium has a half-life of 13.6 years. How long will it take for 99% of the original quantity to decay? Solution: We know the equation looks like Q = Q0 ekt First we need to gure out k. 1 We know that Q = 2 Q0 when t = 13.6 years.
1 2 Q0 1 2 ln( 1 ) 2

= Q0 e13.6k = e13.6k = 13.6k 1 k = ln( 1 ) = 0.051 13.6 2

Example: An isotope of Cadmium has a half-life of 13.6 years. How long will it take for 99% of the original quantity to decay? Solution: So now we have this: Q = Q0 e0.051t . We want to know at what time t the quantity Q will have been reduced to 0.01Q0 . 0.01Q0 = Q0 e0.051t 0.01 = e0.051t ln(0.01) = 0.051t 1 t = ln(0.01) = 90.3 0.051 So it will take 90.3 years.

Suppose you deposit $1000 in a savings account at an interest rate of 2% APY (annual percentage yield). Every year your balance grows by a factor of 1 + 0.02 = 1.02. So after t years your balance has grown to 1000(1.02)t . In general, if the interest rate the initial deposit the number of years elapsed and the balance after t years then B = B0 (1 + r )t . = = = = r % APY B0 t B

B = B0 (1 + r )t . Example: How much will $1000 grow to over 20 years under... 1. ...2% APY? 2. ...3% APY? Calculate the doubling times under these two conditions. Solution: 1. B(20) = 1000(1 + 0.02)20 = $1485.95 2. B(20) = 1000(1 + 0.03)20 = $1806.11 Doubling times: 1. 2B0 = B0 1.02t 2 = 1.02t ln(2) = tln(1.02) ln(2) t = = 35 ln(1.02) 2. 2B0 = B0 1.03t

Now well look at interest from a slightly dierent perspective. We saw in the previous problem that $1000 invested at 3% APY for 20 years yields $1806.11. We say that the future value of $1000 now is $1806.11. We can also say that the present value of $1806.11 in the future is $1000. These are just two dierent ways of saying the same thing. If we let P be the present value, i.e. B = P0 , then B = P(1 + r )t . This gives us B in terms of P. If we want P in terms of B we can rearrange the equation: P= B . (1 + r )t

Present and Future Value B = P(1 + r )t P = Where t r P B = = = = time interest rate (APY) present value future value B (1 + r )t = B(1 + r )t .

1.7 #34 Assume an interest rate of 7.75% APY. Buy: $12,000 now Taxes: $580 in 1 year $464 in 2 years $290 in 3 years Sell: $5000 in 3 years Nominal Cost: $8334 Versus: Lease: $2650 now $2650 in 1 year $2650 in 2 years $2650 in 3 years Nominal Cost: $10,600 Which deal is better? Solution: Compute the present value of each to compare.

Lease: $2650 now $2650 in 1 year $2650 in 2 years $2650 in 3 years Nominal Cost: $10,600 Compute present value of the costs with r = 7.75% using P= B (1 + r )t = B(1 + r )t .

Total Cost =

2650 2650 2650 2650 + + + 0 1 2 (1.0775) (1.0775) (1.0775) (1.0775)3 = $9510.23

Buy: $12,000 now Taxes: $580 in 1 year $464 in 2 years $290 in 3 years Sell: $5000 in 3 years Nominal Cost: $8334 Compute present value of the cost with r = 7.75%. Total Cost = 12,000 580 464 290 + + + 0 1 2 (1.0775) (1.0775) (1.0775) (1.0775)3 5000 (1.0775)3

= $9149.68 Conclusion: Buying is still cheaper than leasing.

Suppose you deposit $1000 in the bank at 2% interest compounded quarterly. That means you are paid 2 = 0.5% interest every quarter (3 4 months). So after k quarters your account has grown to 1000(1 + 0.005)k . If t is number of years, then k = 4t. So we get the formula P = P0 (1 + .005)4t . In general, if r is the nominal annual interest rate, and n is the number of compounding periods, then the formula is
r B = P(1 + n )nt ,

where t = time in years.

Compound Interest
r B = P(1 + n )nt

t = time in years n = # compounding periods per year Example: Suppose you deposit $100 in a savings account at 2% nominal interest. Compute the future balance at 1 and 5 years under yearly, quarterly, and daily compounding. Solution: Yearly Compounding, n = 1: B = 100(1 + B = 100(1 +
.02 11 1 ) .02 15 1 )

= 100 1.021 = 102 = 100 1.025 = 110.41

Compound Interest
r B = P(1 + n )t

t = time in years n = # compounding periods per year Quarterly Compounding, n = 4: B = 100(1 + B = 100(1 +
.02 41 4 ) .02 45 4 )

100 1.0054

= 102.015

= 100 1.00520 = 110.49

Daily Compounding, n = 365: B = 100(1 + B = 100(1 +

.02 3651 365 ) .02 3655 365 )

100 1.00005479365

= 102.02

= 100 1.000054791825 = 110.52

Compound Interest
r B = P(1 + n )t

t = time in years n = # compounding periods per year What happens as the number of compounding periods gets greater? 1. Daily Compounding, n = 365: B = 100(1 +
.02 3651 365 )

= 100 1.00005479365 = 102.02

2. Hourly Compounding, n = 8760: B = 100(1 +

.02 87601 8760 )

= 100 1.0000023418760 = 102.02

3. Per Minute Compounding, n = 525600: B = 100(1 +

.02 5256001 525600 )

= 100 1.00000003805175525600 = 102.02

Moral: For large n the results are all nearly the same. So we can dene continuous compounding to mean compounding when n is large. Since the particular value of n doesnt matter, well just say that

n=

So if you invest $100 in a savings account at 2% nominal interest compounded continuously, after one year your balance has grown to 100 1 + 0.02 = $102.02.

One year continuous interest growth factor for nominal rate r : r

1+

If the initial deposit is P, then the future value B after one year is: r

B=P

1+

This growth factor is an interesting function...

Another big number is

. Suppose that = then =r .

r

Substituting =r into the growth factor r

1+ gives 1+

So the growth factor can also be written r 1+ 1 .

Notice that the expression in [ ]s is a constant. Evaluate it on your calculator: 1

1+

= 2.71828...

Remember that number? Its mathemticians favorite base, e. So the growth factor is er , and the one year continuous interest formula is B = Per . What happens if you wait longer than one year? You multiply by the growth factor once for each year. B = Per er er ... So if the money is invested for t years, B = P(er )t = Per t .

Continuous Compounding Formula B = Per t where t r P B is is is is time in years; the nominal interest rate; the initial investment; the balance after t years.

Example: Suppose $1500 is invested at 3% interest compounded continuously. What is the balance after 20 years? Solution: B = 1500e0.0320 = $2733.18

Recycling functions: Functions can be modied to get the behavior you want. Example: Suppose you have a function f that has the shape you want, but... f (2) = 4 while you want it to be 5. Solution: Dene a new function g (x) = f (x) + 1. Same shape, but g (2) = 5. Because every y -value has been increased by 1, we call g a vertical shift of f .

This might be f :

Then this would be g :

Theres another way to get almost the same eect. Dene 5 h(x) = f (x). 4 Then 5 5 h(2) = f (2) = 4 = 5. 4 4 The graph of h is almost the same shape as the graph of f , its just been stretched vertically.

So know we know how to vertically shift and stretch functions. Vertical Shift Vertical Stretch g =f +C g = Cf

In both forumulas C is a constant, like 1 or 5 . 4 Vertical Shift: if C is + then the shift is up; if C is then the shift is down.

Vertical Stretch: if if if if

|C | > 1 |C | < 1 C is + C is

then then then then

the the the the

stretch is out (expands); stretch is in (shrinks); stretch preserves orientation; shift reverses orientation.

formula: C > 0: C < 0: |C | > 1: |C | < 1: Examples: f (x)

Vertical Shift g =f +C up down

Vertical Stretch g = Cf rightside-up upside-down expand shrink f (x) + 2

f (x)

f (x) 2

Sexual Reproduction of Functions When two functions are alone together... f (x) ...sometimes they get intimate. f (g (x)) This produces a new function well call h. h(x) = f (g (x)) Mathematicians call this composition of functions. The functions f and g have been composed to form h. g (x)

Composition is what geeks mean by daisy-chaining.

Composition of Functions input g f output output = f (g (input)) y = f (g (x)) Example: f (x) = 2x + 3, Find h(4). Solution: h(4) = f (g (4)) = f (19) = 41

g (x) = 5x 1,

and h(x) = f (g (x)).

Composition of Functions input g f output output = f (g (input)) y = f (g (x)) Example: f (x) = 2x + 3, Find h(x). Solution: h(x) = f (g (x)) = f (5x 1) = 2(5x 1)+3 = 10x 2+3 = 10x +1

g (x) = 5x 1,

and h(x) = f (g (x)).

Composition of Functions input f g output output = g (f (input)) y = g (f (x)) Example: f (x) = 2x + 3, Find h(4). Solution: h(x) = g (f (4)) = g (11) = 54

g (x) = 5x 1,

and h(x) = g (f (x)).

Composition of Functions input f g output output = g (f (input)) y = g (f (x)) Example: f (x) = 2x + 3, Find h(x). Solution: h(x) = g (f (x)) = g (2x + 3) = 5(2x + 3) 1 = 10x + 14

g (x) = 5x 1,

and h(x) = g (f (x)).

The shape of the graph of f (g (x)) can be hard to predict. Example: f (x): g (x):

f (g (x)):

g (f (x)):

The only time its easy to predict the shape of f (g (x)) is when g is a linear function. Example: f = , g (x) = x + 1.

What is the graph of f (g (x))? Notice that g is a shift applied to the simple function y = x. But the output of g is the input of f . So its the x values of f that are changed, not the y values.

Note the shift is to the left.

Note the shift is to the left. To remember the direction of the shift, think: f (x + 1) is 1 unit ahead of f (x) (when reading from left to right). f (x 1) is 1 unit behind f (x), so its graph is

You can also do horizontal stretches: f (C x). As with shifts, directions are reversed in comparison with vertical stretches: f (x) f (2x)

f (x)

f ( 1 x) 2

formula: C > 0: C < 0: |C | > 1: |C | < 1:

Horizontal Shift g (x) = f (x + C ) left right

Horizontal Stretch g (x) = f (C x) usual orientation mirror orientation shrink expand

In calculus it will useful to able to decompose complicated functions into their simpler constituent parts. Example: h(x) = ex + x 2 If we dene f (x) = ex and g (x) = x 2 then h(x) = f (x) + g (x). Example: h(x) = x 2 ex Solution: h(x) = g (x)f (x) Example: h(x) = ex
2

Solution: h(x) = f (g (x)) Example: h(x) = e2x Solution: h(x) = g (f (x)) g (f (x)) = g (ex ) = (ex )2 = e2x

Proportionality
Recall the predictability of linear functions: Example: Suppose f is linear and f (3) = 7 and f (5) = 19. What is f (3.4)? Solution: The input 3.4 is 20% of the way from 3 to 5. Therefore f (3.4) is 20% of the way from 7 to 19. f (3.4) = 7 + 0.20(19 7) = 7 + 0.20 12 = 7 + 2.4 = 9.4 The rise and the run are proportional: they are each the same % of something. Run is a % of 5 3 = 2; Rise is a % of 19 7 = 12. So rise is always 6 times bigger than run. rise = 6 run

Whenever variables x and y are related by y = kx for some constant k, we say that y is directly proportional to x with constant of proportionality k. Examples: 1. Gas consumed and miles driven. (At least for constant speed.) 2. Temperature and power consumption. (AC) 3. Population and food consumption. 4. Force of a spring and its displacement (stretch).

Example: A spring in free equilibrium is 3 inches long. When stretched with a 2 pound weight it stretches to 7 inches. 1. How much would it stretch with a 1.5 pound weight? 2. How much weight would be necessary to stretch it to 8 inches? Solution: Let x be displacement and y be the weight. The y = kx for some constant k. We know that y = 2 when x = 4. 2 = k4 k = 2 = 0.5 4

1. How much would it stretch with a 1.5 pound weight? 2. How much weight would be necessary to stretch it to 8 inches? 1. When y = 1.5, 1.5 = 0.5x x=
1.5 0.5

= 3.

So the spring would stretch to 3 + 3 = 6 inches. 2. When x = 8 3 = 5, y = 0.5 5 = 2.5. So you would need to use 2.5 pounds.

Stocks
Suppose a company is worth $50,000,000 and has issued 1,000,000 shares of stock. Then each share is worth (nominally) $50. $50,000,000 value per share = 1,000,000 = $50 Let x be the number of shares issued, let y be the value per share, and let k be the total value of the company. Then y= 1 k =k . x x

We can say that the value per share is directly proportional to the inverse of the number of shares, or we can say that the value per share is inversely proportional to the number of shares.

Example: Suppose that y is inversely proportional to x, and y = 20 when x = 12. What would y be when x = 16? When x = 8? Solution: First nd k: 20 = k 12

240 = k Then when x = 16, y= and when x = 8, y= 240 = 15, 16 240 = 30. 8

Gravity
If F is the gravitational force between two bodies, and r is the distance between them, then F = G r2

where G is the gravitational constant. We can describe this in three dierent ways. 1. Force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance; 2. Force is directly proportional to the inverse of the square of the distance; 1 F =G r2 3. Force is a power function of the inverse of the distance. F =G 1 r
2

Power Functions
We say that y is a power function of x if y = kx p where k is the constant of proportionality and p is another constant. If F = then we can say: F is a power function of F =G or 1 r
2

G r2 1 r

F is a power function of r F = G r 2 .

 If y = 5 x then y is a power function of x: y = 5x 2 . Power functions are the third simplest kinds of functions. But theres quite a variety of shapes. y = x2
4 2

x2

-2

-4

-4

-3

-2

-1

y = x 2
4 2

0 x

1/x2

Polynomials
A monomial is a power function whose power is a whole number. Examples: 2x 3 , 17x 12 , ex 2 . A polynomial is a sum of monomials. Examples: 3x 2 4x + 1 5 4x + 3x 2 9x 3 + 2x 4 (x 3)(2x + 5) = 2x 2 x 15 3x 2 e /2 x +
1

The highest power of the variable is called the degree of the polynomial.

Graphs of Polynomials
The number of bumps can be as large as the degree. The graphs of polynomials can look like virtually anything. y = 1 (x 3 3x) 3
4

(x3-3*x)/3

-2

-4

-4

-3

-2

-1

y=
4

1 4 12 (3 x

0 x

4 x3

12 x 2 )

1.9 #38: C = 10,000 + 35q R = pq q = 3000 20p (a) C = 10,000 + 35(3000 20p) = 115,000 700p p(3000 20p) = 3000p 20p 2

(Demand)

R = (b)

C = 115,000 700p R = 3000p 20p 2

120000 Revenue Cost

100000

80000

60000

411

Remember these equations? 1

e =

1+

er Unprofessional looking...

1+

Lets go back to using n for the gigantic number. e = 1+ 1 n

n

But we need a reminder this is valid only if the value n is gigantic. e = If

n

1+

1 n

Read the as approaches. The answer is more reliable for bigger values of n. Theres just one hitch...

e =

If
n

1+

1 n

This works ne for the present expression f (n) = 1 1+ n

n

2.5

2 (1+1/n)n

1.5

0.5

0 10 20 30 40 50 n 60 70 80 90 100

But what about other functions?

Suppose that f is this function:

1.5 1

0.5
n

(1+1/n)

-0.5

-1

-1.5 10 20 30 40 50 n 60 70 80 90 100

What is
n

If f (n) = ?

We say in this case that f (n) has no limit as n . For the previous function the limit was e.

Since we need the limits to exist, we will write

n

lim f (n).
n

Thus lim
n

1+ 1+

1 n r n

= e
n

lim
n

= er .

Consider some other limits. lim

x

1 x 3+ 1 x

= 0

lim
x

= 3

lim
x

1 x +3 x x +3 x +5 x +3 x x2 + 3

= 0

lim
x

= 1

lim
x

= 1

lim
x

= 0

lim
x

x x x2 x2 + x x2 x x 2 100x

= =

lim
x

lim
x

= = = =

lim
x

lim
x

lim
x

lim
x

100x x 2 =

We get the following rule: If f is a polynomial, then

x

lim f (x) =

where the sign is the same as that of the leading term in f . By leading term we mean the term of the highest degree (power). For example, lim
x

3x 5 100x 4 90x 3 + 7x 2 + 3x 1

lim
x

3x 5 + 100x 4 90x 3 + 7x 2 + 3x 1 = .

These two are easy: lim

x

ex

lim
x

ln(x) = .

But this one is tricky: lim

x

ex x 5 = ?

Key: ex more than doubles on every step to the right. ex+1 = e = 2.718. ex By comparison, x 5 hardly seems to grow at all: (x + 1)5 1. x5

So ex consistently outgrows x 5 , and therefore lim

x

ex x 5 x 5 ex x5 ex ex x5

= =

lim
x

lim
x

= 0

lim
x

The same is true when you replace x 5 by any polynomial: lim

x

ex 100x 7 3x 4 + 25x 3 2

= .

The opposite is true for ln.

100 %e log(x)
x

80

60 y 40 20 0 0 20 40 x 60 80 100

lim
x

ln(x) x 5 x 5 ln(x) x5 ln(x)

lim
x

lim
x

You can take limits as x anything, not just . lim

x

100x 7 + 3x 4 + 25x 3 2 100x 7 + 3x 4 + 25x 3 2 1 x

= = =

lim
x0

lim
x0

1/x

-2

-4

-4

-2

0 x

lim
x0

1 x +2 1 x +2 1 x +2 x +1 x +2 x +1 x +2 x +2 x +2

1 2

lim
x2

= 1 4 3 4

lim
x2

= =

lim
x2

lim
x2

lim
x2

lim
x2

x +2 x +2 (x + 2)2 x +2

= 1

lim
x2

= 0

Because

(x + 2)2 = x + 2. x +2 lim
x2

(x + 2)(x + 1) x +2

Because

(x + 2)(x + 1) = x + 1. x +2 lim
x2

x 2 + 3x + 2 x +2

lim
x0

x 2 + 3x x

= 3

Because

x 2 + 3x = x + 3. x lim
x0

5x 2 4x x 5x 3 4x 2 x 5x 3 4x 2 + 7x x 5x 3 4x 2 + 7x + 1 x

lim
x0

lim
x0

lim
x0

Instantaneous Rate of Change

Or, Instantaneous Slope. Problem: Find the slope of the function f (x) = x 2 at the point (1, 1).
2.5

1.5

Not the average slope between 0 and 2 or between .5 and 1.5. The slope at the point x = 1.
0 0.5 x 1 1.5

0.5

0 -0.5

What we want is the slope of the tangent line.

2.5

1.5 y 1 0.5 0 -1 -0.5 0 x 0.5 1 1.5

How do we calculate that?

We can use average slope to get a pretty good approximation of instantaneous slope.
5

3 y 2 1 0 0.5 1 1.5 x 5 2 2.5 3 4

Instantaneous Slope = lim (Average Slope) Lets use this to compute the slope of the tangent line.
5

3 y

Here the two points used for the average slope are (1, 1) and (a, a2 ), and a 1.
0.5 1 1.5 x 2 2.5 3

The average slope is Average Slope = a2 1 . a1

Average Slope = We want the limit as a 1: lim

a1

a2 1 . a1

a2 1 a1 (a 1)(a + 1) a1 (a + 1) =2

= lim = lim

a1

a1

You can use this technique to calculate the instantaneous slope anywhere on the parabola.

Heres another way to do the algebra. Lets use h to represent the distance of the second point from the rst. Then a = 1 + h. And we take the limit as h 0. lim
h0

(1 + h)2 1 (1 + h) 1 1 + 2h + h2 1 h 2h + h2 h (2 + h) =2

lim
h0

= =

lim
h0

lim
h0

This style is used more generally than the previous one.

The derivative of a function is the value of the instantaneous slope (or equivalently, the slope of the tangent line). Note that the derivative is also a function: its values depend on the input x. In other words, the value of the derivative varies from point to point. Shorthand notation: the derivative of f can be denoted f . So for the previous function, f (1) = 2. f (5) is probably something completely dierent. For a linear function g with slope m, we get g (x) = m for all x. For example, if g (x) = 4x 6 then g (1) = 4 = g (2) = g (19).

Lets nd a general formula for the derivative of f (x) = x 2 . We know that f (1) = 2, now wed like to know f (x) =?. To warm up lets compute f (3). The two points used in the average slope are (3, 9) and 3 + h, (3 + h)2 . f (3) = lim
h0

(3 + h)2 9 (3 + h) 3 9 + 6h + h2 9 h 6h + h2 h (6 + h) =6

lim
h0

= =

lim
h0

lim
h0

So now we know that f (1) = 2 and f (3) = 6. Lets repeat the calculation for x instead of 1 or 3. The two points used in the average slope are (x, x 2 ) and x + h, (x + h)2 . f (x) = lim
h0

(x + h)2 x 2 (x + h) x x 2 + 2xh + h2 x 2 h 2xh + h2 h (2x + h) = 2x

lim
h0

= = So f (x) = 2x.

lim
h0

lim
h0

4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4

f f

In fact the derivative of any quadratic function is linear. More generally, the derivative of a polynomial is always simpler (lower degree) than the original. Note that f slopes up because f is concave up.

-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 x