Excretory System

Various Metabolic activities are being taken place in our body. As a result large amount of wastes are produced which have to be eliminated from the body to maintain health. Removal of wastes and undigested food collectively called faeces from the anus is called Defecation. Separation and elimination of the metabolic nitrogenous wastes from the body is called Excretion. The wastes eliminated are called excretory products and the organs concerned with excretion are called excretory organs. They are a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, a urinary bladder and a urethra.

Function
It maintains the constant environment necessary for normal functioning of tissues and cells. During metabolism of Carbohydrates, fats and proteins a large amount of CO2 and H2O are produced. CO2 is eliminated from lungs and much H2O is eliminated through excretory organs but a certain level is maintained in body. The process where excess water from the body is eliminated to keep H2O content stable is termed as OSMOREGULATION.

Kidney
Mammals possess a pair of 2 dark red, bean shaped kidneys located in the abdomen, one on either side of the Vertebral Column in front of the last 2 pairs of ribs for protection (floating ribs) Right kidney is slightly lower than the left one, this is because the right side of abdomen is occupied by the liver. Each kidney is 10 13 cm long and 2.5 4 cm wide. It is covered by a layer of fibrous connective tissue called Renal Capsule. There is a layer of fat called Renal Fat around the capsule. The outer surface is convex and inner surface is concave. The inner surface has a deep notch called HILUS through which pass the ureter, renal artery, renal vein and nerve.

Anatomy of Kidney
Longitudinal section shows
1). a Peripheral dark reddish brown region called CORTEX 2). a Central Light red area called MEDULLA

The medulla is divided into 15-16 cone like areas called MEDULLARY PYRAMIDS having their base towards cortex. Each pyramid terminates into a Renal Papilla. The cortex substance extends and forms columns of Bertini between the pyramids. The pyramids are connected with 7-13 MINORA CALYCES. The human kidney has 2-3 MAJOR CALYCES

Nephrons: The major calyces open into a funnel shaped renal pelvis which opens into the ureter. There are about 1 million nephrons in each kidney. They are the functional and structural unit of Kidney. Each nephron is a coiled tube about 3 cm long with a width of 20-60 um. It is has 2 main parts
1. Malpighian Body (renal corpuscle) 2. Renal Tubule

 The Malpighian body consists of

a cup shaped Bowmans Capsule A network of blood capillaries called Glomerulus

Glomerulus receives blood through Afferent Arteriole and moves out through Efferent Arteriole. The diameter of afferent arteriole is more than the diameter of efferent arteriole i.e. Lumen of efferent arteriole is narrow and Lumen of Afferent arteriole is broad. The Bowmans lead into a small neck which opens into the renal tubule which is coiled in the cortex and called Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT). It leads to Loop of Henle. This can be distinguished into descending limb, the medulla region and ascending limb and The ascending limb opens into Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT).

 DCT of many nephrons open into collecting ducts which open into larger ducts that run through renal pyramids and open in the renal pelvis The efferent arteriol breaks up into capillaries around the tubules. The capillaries surrounding loop of Henle are called Vasa Recta. (Function: to retain reabsorbed ions and urea). The walls of the bowmans capsule are a single layer of squamous epithelium. The remaining parts of nephrons have highly specialized cells in a single layer.

Ureters
These are the tubes 25-30 cm long It carries urine from kidney to urinary bladder. Each ureter leaves its kidney in the Hilus region. Their walls are composed of transitional epithelium.

Urinary Bladder
Its pear shaped sac like structure in the pelvic cavity. Its muscular walls are internally lived with transitional epithelium. The ureters open into it. This opening is guarded by internal and external sphincters. Sphincters is a specialized ring of muscle that surrounds an orifice.

Urethra
It is a tube which runs from neck of bladder and opens outside the body. It carries urine from bladder to be removed from the body. In Males, it is approx. 20 cm long while in females, it is about 4 cm in length. The Male urethra carries both urine and semen.

Miscellaneous
Diuresis: Increased flow of urine is called Diuresis. - The substances that increase the urine flow are caffeine and alcohol, are called diuretic substances Micturition: - The process of urination is called micturition. Dysuria: Painful urination Polyuria: Excess of urine formation Oliguria: Scanty urine Anuria: Absence of urine

 Urinary Bladder is absent in snakes, crocodile and birds except rhea and ostrich. Dialysis: Separation of toxic substance from the blood stream through a membrane by kidney machine (artificial kidney). Albuminaria: A condition in which there is presence of albumin protein in urine. Glycosuria: Presence of Glucose in the urine. Haematurea: Presence of blood in the urine. Urochrome: A pigment that gives urine its typical yellow colour.

Excretion: The process of excretion consists of Formation of Urea and Formation of Urine
Formation of Urea: - Most of the urea is formed in the liver through the process called Orinithine Cycle / Krebs Henseleit Cycle. - Urea is formed due to catabolism of Proteins

Formation of Urine
It includes the process of
ULTRA-FILTERATION SELECTIVE REABSORPTION TUBULAR SECRETION.

The entire process occurs in the nephrons of kidneys

Ultra-filtration
Capillaries of glomerulus are thin. Diameter of Afferent arteriole is more than the diameter of Efferent arteriole. This causes high BP in the Glomerulus due to which a process of ultra-filtration i.e. filtration under pressure takes place continuously. H2O & many dissolved substances from blood are filtered into the lumen of Bowmans Capsule. This fluid is called GLOMERULAR FILTRATE. It resembles PLASMA except it does not possess PROTEINS & FATS as they are too big to pass out of the pores of capillaries of glomerulus

 The rate of blood flow in the glomerulus is about 750 cc/min, out of which 120 cc ultrafiltrate is formed. Thus, 180 lit of ultrafilterate is formed during 24 hrs. The glomerular filtrate has a large amount of H2O and dissolved substances like urea, uric acid, amino acids, glucose, sodium, potassium, vitamins etc.

Selective Reabsorption
Ultra-filtrate is almost isotonic to plasma since it resembles plasma in composition (except the absence of proteins and fats) As this passes through the PCT about 80% H2O, Na ions, Cl ions, bi-carbonates, glucose and amino acids are reabsorbed by the surrounding network of capillaries. Now the glomerulus filtrate is called RENAL FLUID.

 A Small amount of H2O is absorbed by Descending Limb of loop of Henle Ascending Limb of loop of Henle is impermeable to H2O but Na ions move out of renal fluid. In DCT and Collecting tubule, water is further reabsorbed under the influence of ADH (AntiDiuretic Hormone) of pituitary gland. Na is also absorbed in Collecting tubule under the influence of hormone Aldosterone. The filtrate is now called URINE.

Tubular Secretion
Substances like hippuric acid and ions like K+ and H+ are secreted by blood directly into renal tubules. Penicillin, other drugs and some toxic substances are also secreted here. Thus, out of 180 litres of glomerular filtrate only 1.5 1.75 litre of urine is formed per day.

Organs involved in Excretion

Skin and Lungs in human are also involved in elimination of some amount of Nitrogenous wastes.