UNIT 1:Communication, Homeostasis and Energy

Module 1 Communication and homeostasis

Responding to Changes Need to be able to detect and respond to changes in the environment. Stimulus any change in the internal/external environment E.g. burning yourself Response A change in behaviour/ physiology as a result of a stimulus. Stinging nettles, Migration of birds due to change in weather as well as animals hibernation, Grouse reacting to sound, and Limpets sticking to rocks at low tide. Changes in blood carbon-dioxide levels leads to an increase in breathing and when you eat, glucose levels rise which causes insulin to be released.

Stimuli Examples: (External)

(Internal)

Internal Environments Many multicellular organisms have a range of tissues and organs. Many cells/ tissue are protected by epithelial tissues/ organs (bark or organs) In animals, the internal cells and tissues are bathed in tissue fluid. Cells while undergoing their various metabolic activities, use up substrates and produce products could be toxic or may be unwanted. Substances diffuse out of the cell into the tissue fluid. Could alter the cells own environment. E.g. High levels of carbon dioxide in the tissue fluid could change the pH of the environment disrupting enzyme action. To maintain this environment, blood flowing throughout the body transporting substances that entered the bloodstream after accumulating in the tissue fluid will be EXCRETED.

Coordination
Multicellular organisms have specialised cells which may be some distance from others so they need to be able to communicate with these in some way. There are 2 communication systems: Important features: Speed (Rapid and fast response) Effective method of sending and receiving impulses Effective coordinator and method of getting it around Needs to cover the whole body Specific Enables short AND long term responses Enable all cells to communicate with each other

Hormonal and Nerves

Cell Signalling
Nervous System Hormonal (Endocrine) System

Cells signal across synapses Rapid response Short lived Carried to specific cells

Endocrine organs release chemical signals (hormones) into bloodstream. Slower response Longer Lasting response Carried all over body but only specific receptors on cells respond

Homeostasis: Maintaining Body Temperature

Essential: Due to the optimum temperature for enzymes changing, it could cause denaturisation. To maintain a constant CORE body temperature to ensure that enzymes are kept close to their optimum temperature Why only the core? The core = Main part of the body/ torso. It contains vital organs.. Peripheral body parts can fluctuate however they dont affect essential functions.

(Positive/Negative Feedback) Ectotherms

They rely on external sources of heat to regulate their body temperature e.g. lizards, fish, insects NOT cold blooded as temp. Can reach 37C. Dont need to eat as much as less food is needed for respiration. ADVANTAGES

Can survive for long periods without food. (Snakes)

A greater proportion of energy from food is used for growth. (Salmon)

Restricted to certain areas DISADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

May need to hibernate in winter (so need sufficient stores of energy.

Vulnerable to predators as only receive energy when basking.

An ectotherm will change its behaviour or physiology to increase/ decrease heat absorption. o In order to warm up, they will bask in the sun or lie on a warm surface o To cool down, they will stay underground or in the shade. Some have developed physiological/ anatomical adaptations to help exchange heat with their environment. (Homed Lizard)

Temperature Regulation
Ectotherms change their behaviour or physiology to increase/ decrease heat exchange with the environment.

Adaptation

How it regulates temperature?

Example

Expose body to sun

Enables more body heat to be absorbed

Snakes

Orientate body to sun

Exposes larger surface area for more heat absorption

Locusts

Orientate body away from sun

Exposes smaller surface area for less heat absorption

Locusts

Hide in burrow

Reduces heat absorption by keeping out of the sun

Lizards

Alter body shape

Exposes more or less surface area to sun

Homed Lizards

Increase breathing movements

Evaporates more water

Dogs/ Locusts

Endotherms
An organism that can use internal sources of heat (e.g. from exergonic chemical reactions in the liver/ muscles) to maintain its body temperature within defined boundaries. They also use behavioural and physiological mechanisms to maintain body temperature.

Constant body temp. Independent of external temp. ADVANTAGES

Active even in cold conditions

Can inhabit v. cold parts of the Earth. E.g. Penguins, polar bears

DISADVANTAGES

More food required than similar sized ectotherms.

Less energy from food is used for growth

Larger % of energy used to maintain body temp so eat more

Physiological Mechanisms to maintain body temp.

Components of Body involved

Response if temp. is too high Secrete more onto skin; water in sweat evaporates, using heat from blood to supply latent heat of vaporisation Panting increases evaporation of water from lungs, tongue and other moist surfaces using latent heat as above. Hairs lie flat, providing little insulation and so more heat can be lost by convection and radiation Vasodilation allows more blood into capillaries near the skin surface; more heat can be radiated from the skin, causing skin to become red. Rate of metabolism is reduced; less heat is generated from exergonic reactions such as respiration.

Response if temp. is too low Less sweat secreted; less evaporation of water, so less loss of latent heat.

Sweat glands in skin

Lungs, mouth and nose

Animal does not pant so less water evaporates

Hairs on skin

Hairs raised to trap a layer of insulating air, reducing the loss of heat from the skin/

Arterioles leading to capillaries in the skin

Vasoconstriction reduces the flow of blood through capillaries near the surface of skin; less heat is radiated.

Liver cells

Rate of metabolism increases therefore respiration generates more heat which is transferred to the blood. Spontaneous contractions (shivering) generate heat as muscle cells respire more.

Skeletal Muscles

No spontaneous contractions

Nerves
In receptors, the energy of a stimulus is transferred into energy in an action potential in a neurone. Transmission between neurones takes place at synapses.

Examples of receptors: Eyes rods and cones (light) Skin Pressure and temperature Mouth Taste buds (soluble chemicals) Nose chemicals Ears sound receptors (air vibrations) How do receptors work? Receptors respond to changes in the environment by opening voltage-gated Na+ channels in the membrane. As Na+ moves into the cell, potential across the cell changes = GENERATOR POTENTIAL

The larger the stimulus

the larger the generator potential. ACTION POTENTIAL IS GENERATED

When above THRESHOLD POTENTIAL = Nerve impulse is transmitted along the neurone.

Neurones
3 main types: Motor neurone Relay neurone (inter neurone) Sensory neurone

Cell body containing nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm Cytoplasmic processes branch from the cell body can be a single axon or dendrites: Axon carry impulses away from cell body Dendrites (singular =dendron) carry impulses towards cell body highly branched

Sensory neurone Specialised cells that detect changes in our surroundings (stimuli) Energy transducers convert one form of energy to another. Detect changes in energy e.g. light, heat and convert it to electrical signals (nerve impulses) Transmits messages from receptors to brain/spinal cord (CNS) Long dendron which carries impulses(action pot.) from receptor towards cell body Cell body outside of CNS Short axon which carries impulses (action pot.) away into CNS. Surrounded by myelin sheath

Motor neurone Transmits messages from brain/spinal cord to muscle/gland Cell body lies within spinal cord Dark specks (Nissl granules can be seen in cytoplasm = RER) One large process (the axon) conducts impulses away from cell body Smaller dendrites conduct impulses to cell body (numerous dendrites connected to other neurones) Some axons very long - can stretch from spinal cord toes ~1m!!!! Long axon carries action potential out to the effector.

Surrounded by myelin sheath (series of Schwann cells)

Relay neurone Transmits impulses between neurone e.g. sensory and motor neurones in spinal cord or light receptors and ganglion cells in retina

Myelination In peripheral NS the axons (or dendrons) of most motor and sensory neurones are surrounded by Schwann cells Specialised cells that wrap around axon form a myelin sheath (mainly lipid) Insulating layer of fatty material Na+ and K+ ions diffuse through this layer

Some invertebrate axons are non-myelinated e.g. earthworm Uncovered areas between Schwann cells = Nodes of Ranvier Ionic changes that cause an action potential occur only here. (gaps between myelin sheath) Myelinated neurones local currents are elongated and Na+ ions diffuse from one node to another This is called salutatory conduction.

Occur every 1-3mm and are 2-3mm long Myelin sheath increases the speed of conduction of an action potential ( up to 120 m s-1)

Action Potentials How a nervous impulse is transmitter? Resting Potential Inside of an axon is always negative (compared to outside) Difference between outside and inside = potential difference (-70mV to -60mV)

Sodium potassium pump Sodium potassium pump in cell membrane. Transports Na+ and K + ions against ionic gradient 3Na+ out/2K+ in Requires energy from ATP

Facilitated Diffusion K+ ions move out and Na+ in Far more permeable to K+ flowing out rather than Na+ in Overall net negative charge inside compared to outside

(Cells also contain organic anions negatively charged) Action Potential Depolarisation of the cell membrane so that the inside is more positive than the outside (~ +40mV) transmitted along axon or Dendron. Depends on voltage-gated ion channels open and close in response to change in the potential difference across the membrane usually Na+ and K+ (can be Ca2+)

Hormones Definitions
Endocrine System System of communication that relies on the transport of hormones through the bloodstream A molecule, from the endocrine gland, released into the blood that acts as a chemical messenger to target organs A gland that secretes hormones directly into blood capillaries (Ductless) A gland that secretes substances into a duct that carries it to where it is needed. Hormones bind to specific receptors found in the cell surface membrane of specific target cells that are grouped together to form target tissues.

Hormone

Endocrine Gland

Exocrine Gland

Target Tissue/ Cells

Cells that receive hormone signals must possess a specific complementary receptor on their plasma membrane to which the hormone can bind to. Each hormone is different from all others therefore they are able to travel around the body without affecting cells that do not possess the correct receptor. 2 Types of hormones: Protein and peptide hormones ( insulin, adrenaline, glucagon) o Not soluble in phospolipid membrane. Do not enter the cell Steroid Hormones (sex hormones) o Can pass through membrane and enter the cell. Has a direct effect on the DNA in nucleus.

Adrenaline
It is an amino acid derivative and so is unable to enter the target cell.

Pancreas
It is BOTH an endocrine and exocrine gland. (bottom right pic) Exocrine Functions Small groups of cells secrete digestive enzymes into tubules which join together to form the pancreatic duct. Fluids formed = pancreatic juice that contains: Amylase Trypsinogen (inactive protease) Lipase Hydrogencarbonate (alkaline) to neutralise stomach acid.

(Top right pic) Endocrine Functions Islets of Langerhans = patches of cells with endocrine function. Contains two types : : secrete Glucagon : secretes insulin

Blood Glucose level/ conc. Monitored by and cells.