Topology

Jump to: navigation, search Topology This book contains mathematical formulae that look better rendered as PNG.

General Topology is based solely on set theory and concerns itself with structures of sets. It is at its core a generalization of the concept of distance, though this will not be immediately apparent for the novice student. Topology generalizes many distance-related concepts, such as continuity, compactness, and convergence. For an overview of the subject of topology, please see the Wikipedia entry.

Contents
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1 History 2 Before You Begin 3 Point - Set Topology o 3.1 Some Set Theory o 3.2 Introduction to Topology o 3.3 Properties of Topological Spaces 4 Vector Spaces 5 Algebraic Topology o 5.1 Homotopy o 5.2 Polytopes o 5.3 Homology 6 Differential Topology 7 Help o 7.1 Question & Answer o 7.2 Further Reading 7.2.1 General Topology 7.2.2 Algebraic Topology

8 References 9 Index

[edit] History
It could be said that mathematics in general owes its credibility to ancient Greece's Euclid. What is probably his most famous work, Elements, revolutionized the concepts of geometry and mathematics as a whole through the presentation of a simple logical method. This method is best summarized by Leonard Mlodinow: First, make terms explicit by forming precise definitions and so ensure mutual understanding of all words and symbols. Next, make concepts explicit by stating specific axioms or postulates so that no unstated understandings or assumptions may be used. Finally, derive the logical consequences of the system employing only accepted rules of logic, applied to the axioms and to previously proved theorems [1]. Throughout its history, many mathematicians have influenced the development of topology. While Johann Benedict Listing is not credited with a memorable discovery in terms of the field of topology, he is still considered one of the founding fathers. This is because he gave topology its name. While he published very little on topology, he is remembered for Vorstudien zur Topologie, which was the first document to use the word topologie (English: topology) to describe the field. He is also often credited with discovering the Mbius strip independently of August Ferdinand Mbius [2]. The origins of topology date back to the eighteenth century and the Knigsberg Bridge Problem, a problem of relative position without regard to distance [3]. While this problem is often regarded as the birth of graph theory, it also inspired Euler's development of the topology of networks [4]. Knigsberg, now Kalingrad, was founded in 1255 and became a prosperous seaport [5]. The city resides on the banks of the Praegel, now Pregolya, River. Citizens could use seven bridges that crossed the Praegal, but the question of whether or not one could pass through the town and use each bridge exactly once would turn out to be the catalyst in the creation of the mathematical field of topology. Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler would be the one to discover the answer was no. He determined that the graph defined by the location of the bridge was not what is now called a Eulerian graph [6]. This solution entitled The Solution of a Problem Related to the Geometry of Position was submitted to the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg in 1735 [7].

The Knigsberg Bridge Problem.

Mobius Strip Euler is also well known for his research in the combinatorial qualities of polyhedra. He considered the edges (e), which he called acies, the faces (f), or hedra, and the vertices (v), called angulus solidus. Euler realized the importance of these three properties claiming that they "completely determine the solid". His research resulted in the well-known Polyhedral Formula: v e + f = 2. However, Euler's formula applies only to convex solids [8]. In 1813 Antoine-Jean L'Huilier recognized this limitation of the formula and provided a generalization for a solid with g holes: v e + f = 2 2g. This was the first known result of a topological invariant [9]. August Ferdinand Mbius was one of the main contributors of the topological theory of manifolds. In 1865, Mbius presented an article in which he decomposed several orientations of surfaces in polygonal nets. His most famous example was a non-orientable surface, which is now called the Mbius strip[10].

The Russian born mathematician Georg Ferdinand Ludwig Philipp Cantor, the father of set theory, is another mathematician to whom we owe credit for topology. Concepts of set theory and cardinality are fundamental for the study of topology. Today, Cantor is a truly celebrated mathematician, especially considering that set theory and the idea of infinity do not seem to have a truss of mathematical ideas from which they could have been developed. Sadly, these ideas were not welcomed by a nineteenth century world, and Cantor spent many years of his adult life struggling with public criticism. A German mathematician by the name of David Hilbert

described Cantor's discoveries in the infinite domain as an "astonishing product of mathematical thought" [11]. In 1877, Cantor showed that the points on a 2-dimensional square had a one-to-one correspondence with the points on different line segments, and this caused others to begin asking questions about the idea of dimension, leading to the development of dimension theory [12]. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, many mathematicians challenged themselves with more abstract problems. Maurice Ren Frchet, a French mathematician, helped these mathematicians considerably in 1906. He explained that if a distance can be defined between two different mathematical entities, then real and complex number concepts can be applied [13]. Frchet, along with Schoenflies, Hausdorff, and others, would be one of the first to study "general topology" [14]. Frchet developed the theory of metric spaces, which was based on Cantor's theory of sets [15]. German mathematician Felix Hausdorff followed in Cantor's footsteps with regard to set theory. In fact, Hausdorff was one of the first to teach set theory. In the summer 1901, he had 3 students [16] . The idea that a topology possesses a lattice of open subsets had been around almost as long as the idea of topology itself, but Hausdorff was the first to emphasize the importance of these sets in defining topological concepts [17]. French mathematician and physicist Henri Poincare discovered his talent at an early age. In fact, he took first place in a national mathematics competition while he was still in school. Poincar was the first to study Fuchsian groups, dealing mainly with their underlying geometry and topology [18]. Poincar is most famous for The Poincar Conjecture which states the following: A compact smooth n-dimensional manifold that is homotopy equivalent to the n-sphere Sn must in fact be homeomorphic to Sn. One can think of a compact manifold as a manifold that lives in a finite region of for some m and that has no boundary [19]. This conjecture would not be proven until 2003 by Grigory Perelman [20].

[edit] Before You Begin

In order to make things easier for you as a reader, as well as for the writers, you will be expected to be familiar with a few topics before beginning.

Real analysis o Continuous Functions o Sequences & Series, Convergence & Divergence Set Theory o Set Operations: Union, Intersection, Complement, De Morgan's laws, etc. o Order Relations: Ordered Sets, Equivalence relations, Lattices. o Functions: Definition and Properties of Functions o Cardinality: Finite, Countable, and Uncountable sets o Zorn's Lemma and the Axiom of Choice

Mathematical Logic & Proofs o Mathematics is all about proofs. One of the goals of this book is to improve your skills in doing proofs, but you will not learn any of the basics here.

[edit] Point - Set Topology

[edit] Some Set Theory

Chapter 2.1 Basic Concepts Set Theory

[edit] Introduction to Topology

Chapter 2.2.1 Metric Spaces Chapter 2.2.2 Topological Spaces Chapter 2.2.3 Bases Chapter 2.2.4 Points in Sets Chapter 2.2.5 Sequences Chapter 2.2.6 Subspaces Chapter 2.2.7 Order Chapter 2.2.8 Order Topology Chapter 2.2.9 Product Spaces Chapter 2.2.10 Quotient Spaces Chapter 2.2.11 Continuity and Homeomorphisms

[edit] Properties of Topological Spaces

Chapter 2.3.1 Separation Axioms Chapter 2.3.2 Connectedness Chapter 2.3.3 Path Connectedness Chapter 2.3.4 Compactness Chapter 2.3.5 Comb Space Chapter 2.3.6 Local Connectedness Chapter 2.3.7 Linear Continuum Chapter 2.3.8 Countability Chapter 2.3.9 Cantor Space Chapter 2.3.10 Completeness - not a topological property Chapter 2.3.11 Completion Chapter 2.3.12 Perfect map - optional section which is challenging

[edit] Vector Spaces

Chapter 3.1 Vector Spaces Chapter 3.2 Morphisms Chapter 3.3 Null Space Chapter 3.4 Hyperplanes

Chapter 3.5 Convexity Chapter 3.6 Hahn-Banach Theorem Chapter 3.7 Normed Vector Spaces Chapter 3.8 Euclidean Spaces Chapter 3.9 Hilbert Spaces Chapter 3.10 Topological Vector Spaces

[edit] Algebraic Topology

[edit] Homotopy

Chapter 4.1 Free group and presentation of a group Chapter 4.2 Homotopy Chapter 4.3 The fundamental group Chapter 4.4 Induced homomorphism

[edit] Polytopes

Chapter 5.1 Simplicial complexes Barycentric Coordinates Geometric Complexes Barycentric Subdivision Simplical Mappings Imbedding Theorem

[edit] Homology

Relative Homology Exact Sequences Mayer-Vietoris Sequence Eilenburg-Steenrod Excision Theorem Relative Homotopy Cohomology Cohomology Product Cap-Product Relative Cohomology Induced Homeomorphism Singular Homology Vietoris Homology ech Homology

[edit] Differential Topology

Chapter 6.1 Manifolds

Chapter 6.1.1 Categories of Manifolds Chapter 6.2 Tangent Spaces Chapter 6.3 Vector Bundles

[edit] Help
[edit] Question & Answer
Have a question? Why not ask the very textbook that you are learning from? 1. What is the difference between topology, algebra and analysis?

Topology is a generalization of analysis and geometry. It comes in many flavors: pointset topology, manifold topology and algebraic topology, to name a few. All topology generalizes concepts from analysis dealing with space such as continuity of functions, connectedness of a space, open and closed sets, (etc.). Algebraic topology attributes algebraic structures (groups, rings etc.) to families of topological spaces to distinguish topological differences in those families. Manifold topology works with spaces that are locally the same as Euclidean space, ie surfaces. Often manifolds are equipped with extra structure, such as smooth, PL, symplectic, etc. A naive description of topology is that it identifies those qualities of a space that do not change under twisting and stretching of that space. As such, it is popularly referred to as "rubber sheet geometry." In reality topology does far more than this, in fact providing a rigorous foundation under all branches of mathematics dealing with "spaces." Algebra deals with the structure of sets under various operations with particular properties. Commonly studied algebraic objects include Groups, Rings and Field. One of the major results from Algebra include Galois Theory, which eventually shows that there is no general solution to quintic polynomial equations by radicals. Also important results from Algebra are the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra (which says that, in the Field of Complex numbers, every non constant polynomial has at least one root), Group Classification, and much more. Analysis (or specifically real analysis) on the other hand deals with the real numbers and the standard topology and algebraic structure of . Analysis provides rigorous proofs for the definitions of derivatives and integrals, as well as treatments of sequences and limits. One can, in some sense, view it as a rigorous treatment of the Calculus.

2. How are the concepts of base and open cover related? It seems that every base is an open cover, but not every open cover is a base. But, why are both concepts needed?

The terms base and open cover are not evidently related. Every base is an open cover which is probably the main relation. Take a second countable topological space for instance (second countable means that the space has a countable base for its topology). Such a space satisfies the property that every open cover has a countable sub-cover. To

prove this we use the countability of the base. Basically, for any open cover, we choose for each element of the space, an element of the open cover containing it and hence a basis element contained in that element of open cover. Therefore, for any open cover, we can generate a open cover of basis elements that is an 'open refinement' (see Wikipedia for definition). From here we can get properties of open covers from properties of the base. If the base is countable, we can generate a countable open cover from the original cover. The reason we have both definitions is because these two things have different properties. The most useful fact about a base is that it determines the topology. A basis must have "arbitrarily small" sets, that is, any open set contains a basis element. On the other hand, an open cover does not determine the topology at all. It can be used to build things such as partitions of unity, and often draws on the compactness property. Topology Expert (talk) 04:17, 8 June 2008 (UTC) 3. What is a homology?

[edit] Further Reading

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Topology Wikipedia has related information at Topology [edit] General Topology Aleksandrov; Combinatorial Topology (1956) Baker; Introduction to Topology (1991) Dixmier; General Topology (1984) Engelking; General Topology (1977) Munkres; Topology (2000) James; Topological and Uniform Spaces (1987) Jnich; Topology (1984) Kuratowski; Introduction to Set Theory and Topology (1961) Kuratowski; Topology (1966) Roseman; Elementary Topology (1999)

Seebach, Steen; Counterexamples in Topology (1978) Willard; General Topology (1970) [edit] Algebraic Topology Marvin Greenberg and John Harper; Algebraic Topology (1981) Allen Hatcher, Algebraic Topology (2002) [1] Hu, Sze-tsen, Cohomology Theory (1968) Hu, Sze-tsen, Homology Theory (1966) Hu, Sze-tsen, Homotopy Theory (1959) Albert T. Lundell and Stephen Weingram, The Topology of CW Complexes (1969) Joerg Mayer, Algebraic Topology (1972) James Munkres, Elements of Algebraic Topology (1984) Joseph J. Rotman, An Introduction to Algebraic Topology (1988) Edwin Spanier, Algebraic Topology (1966)

[edit] References
1. Mlodinow, Leonard. Euclid's Window: The Story of Geometry from Parallel Lines to

Hyperspace. New York: Simon & Schuster, Inc. 2001

2. Breitenberger, E. Johann Benedikt Listing. History of Topology. James, Ioan

Mackenzie. Amsterdam: Elsevier BV, 1999. 909-924

3. Knigsberg bridge problem. Encyclopdia Britannica Online. 2011.

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/321794/Konigsberg-bridge-problem
4. Goodwin College of Professional Studies. ``The Beginnings of Topology". Drexel 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

University. 1998. http://mathforum.org/isaac/problems/bridges1.html ``Knigsberg". Encyclopedia Americana. 1831. Vol. 7 Pg. 345 Singh, Suresh, G. Graph Theory. New Delhi: PHI Learning Private Limited, 2010 Wilson, Robin J. "Graph Theory". History of Topology. James, Ioan Mackenzie. Amsterdam: Elsevier BV, 1999. 503-530 Richeson, David. "The Polyhedral Formula". Leonhard Euler: Life, Work, and Legacy. Bradley, Robert E., Sandifer, Charles Edward. Amsterdam: Elsevier BV, 2007 O'Connor, J. and Robertson, E. "A History of Topology". University of St. Andrews. 1996. http://www-history.mcs.standrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/Topology\_in\_mathematics.htm

10. Pickover, Clifford A. The Mbius Strip: Dr. August Mbius's Mathematical Band in

Mathematics, Games, Literature, Art, Technology, and Cosmology. Thunder's Mouth Press, 2007 11. Crilly, T. and Johnson, D. "The Emergence of Topological Dimension Theory". History of Topology. James, Ioan Mackenzie. Amsterdam: Elsevier BV, 1999. 1-24 12. Krantz, Steven G. An Episodic History of Mathematics: Mathematical Culture Through Problem Solving. The Mathematical Association of America, 2010 13. Rezende, Lisa. Chronology of Science. New York: Infobase, 2006 14. Eynde, R. Vanden. "Development of the Concept of Homotopy". History of Topology. New York: Elsevier BV, 1999. 65-102 15. Truesdell, Clifford. Archive for History of Exact Sciences. Springer-Verlag, 1998 16. Hausdorff, Felix, Plotkin, Jacob M. Hausdorff on Ordered Sets. American Mathematical Society, 2005 17. Aull, Charles E., Lowen, Robert. Handbook of the History of General Topology. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2001 18. Stillwell, John. Mathematics and its History. San Francisco: Springer-Verlag, 2002 19. Gowers, Timothy, Barrow-Green, June, Leader, Imre. The Princeton Companion to Mathematics. Princeton: Princton University Press, 2008 20. O'Shea, Donal. The Poincare Conjecture: In Search of the Shape of the Universe. New York: Walker Publishing Company, Inc., 2010

[edit] Index
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Topology/Basic Concepts Set Theory

< Topology This page may need to be reviewed for quality. Jump to: navigation, search

This chapter is meant to be a short, concise introduction to the basic set concepts used throughout this book. It is not meant to be a comprehensive text book on set theory. Rather, it will list the material that the reader should be familiar with and showcase the notation used. Readers desirous of a more in-depth understanding of set theory should read the Set Theory Wikibook.

[edit] Basic Definitions

The empty set is denoted by symbol . A (finite) set consisting of elements is denoted . It is a bit sloppy but common practice not to distinguish very strictly between a singleton set and its single element . For a more in depth understanding of how elements of sets relate to each other, we must first define a few terms. Let A and B denote two sets. Then we define the union of A and B, denoted all x that belong to either A or B (or both). The intersection of A and B, denoted The difference of A and B, denoted or A - B, is the set of all The symmetric difference of A and B, denoted AB, is defined by . If every element in A also belongs to B, we say that A is a "subset" of B. In other words, is equivalent to . A key property of these sets is that A = B if and only if and . If and then A is a proper subset of B, which we denote . We do not use the notation , as the meaning varies between subset and proper subset in various sources. We may want to focus on properties of elements that are not in a particular set. To do so we introduce the notion of the complement of a set. Let X and U be sets such that . We say the complement of X, denoted Xc, is the set of all such that . such that , as the set of

, is the set of all x that belong to both A and B. .

Our next definition deals with "sizes" of sets. Let A be some set. Then we define the cardinality of A, denoted , as the number of elements in A. Examples:
1) 2) 3)

Another important concept to note is that of the power set. We define the power set to be the set of all subsets of some set A, and denote it by P(A). Examples:
1) 2) 3)

Note that

. .

Finite ordered sets (or n-tuples) are denoted For two ordered sets and only if sets).

and , we have X = Y if (compare with the statement above regarding equality of unordered

Ordered sets can be defined in terms of unordered sets. For example, the ordered pair was defined by Kazimierz Kuratowski as . It is tedious but not difficult to check that and only if and . Now n-tuple is defined as follows:

if

We now can use this notion of ordered pairs to discuss the Cartesian Product of two sets. The Cartesian Product of A and B, denoted , is the set of all possible ordered pairs where the first element comes from A and the second from B; that is,
.

Now that we have defined Cartesian Products, we can turn to the notions of binary relations and functions. We say a set R is a binary relationfrom A to B if . If , it is customary to write xRy. If R is a relation, then the set of all x which are in relation R with some y is called the domain of R, denoted domR. The set of all y such that, for some x, x is in relation R with y is called the range of R, denoted ranR. A binary relation F is called a function if every element x in its domain has exactly one element y in its range such that xFy. Also, if F is a function, the typical notation is F(x) = y instead of xFy. There are a few special types of functions we should discuss. A function is said to be onto a set B, or a surjective function from A to B, if ranF = B. A function F is said to be one-to-one or injective if implies A function that is both injective and surjective is called bijective. .

[edit] Exercises
If you can successfully answer the following two problems, you are ready to study topology! Please take the time to solve these problems. 1. Prove that the empty set is a subset of every set. 2 a) Consider the set An = (-n,n) for each n in the set of natural numbers. Does the union over all An (for n in the set of natural numbers) equal R (the set of all real numbers)? Justify your answer. 2 b) Prove that no finite subcollection of this collection has the property that the union of this finite subcollection equals R. Once you study topology, you will see that this constitutes a proof that R is not compact.
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Topology/Compactness
< Topology This page may need to be reviewed for quality. Jump to: navigation, search The notion of Compactness appears in a wide variety of contexts. In particular, compactness is a "tameness property" that tells you that the objects you are dealing with are in some sense wellbehaved.

Contents
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1 Definition 2 Important Properties o 2.1 Tychonoff's Theorem 3 Relative Compactness 4 Local Compactness 5 Exercises

[edit] Definition
Let X be a topological space and let

A collection

of open sets {G} is said to be an Open Cover of S if

S is said to be Compact if and only if every open cover of S has a finite subcover. More formally, S is compact iff for every open cover of S, there exists a finite subset of that is also an open cover of S.

If the set X itself is compact, we say that X is a Compact Topological Space. Compactness of topological spaces can also be expressed by one of the following equivalent characterisations:

Every filter on X containing a filter basis of closed sets has a nonempty intersection. Every ultrafilter on X converges.

[edit] Important Properties

Every closed subset of a compact set is compact Proof: Let be a compact set, and let K be a closed subset of S. Consider any open cover of K. Observe that being open, the collection of open sets is an open cover of S. As S is compact, this open cover has a finite subcover . Now, consider the collection . This collection is obviously finite and is also a subcover of . Hence, it is a finite subcover of K

Every compact subset of a Hausdorff space is closed. Proof: Let K be compact. If the complement Kc is empty, then K is the same as the space; thus closed. Suppose not; that is, there is a point . Then for each , by the Hausdorff separation axiom we can find Uy and Vy disjoint, open and such that and . Since K is compact and the collection a finite number of points y1,y2,...yn in K such that: It then follows that: . Hence, every has an open neighbourhood Ux. As Kc can be represented as the union of open sets Ux, Kc is open and K is closed. covers K, we can find

Every compact set in a metric space is bounded. Proof: Let X be a metric space and let be compact. Consider the collection of open balls for some (fixed) . We see that is an open cover of K. As K is compact, it has a finite subcover, say that . Let , and hence, K is bounded. . We see

Heine-Borel Theorem: For any interval [a,b], and for any open cover of that interval, there exists a finite subcover of . Proof: Let S be the set of all such that [a,x] has a finite subcover of . S is nonempty because a is within the set. Define . Assume if possible, c < b. Then there is a finite cover of sets within for [a,c]. c is within a set A within the cover . Thus, there exists a such that . Therefore, . Then is also within S, contradicting the definition of c. Thus, has a finite subcover.

Sources differ as to what exactly should be called the 'Heine-Borel Theorem'. It seems that Emile Borel proved the most relevant result, dealing with compact subsets of a Euclidean Space. However, we provide the simpler case, for reals.

Let X,Y be topological spaces. If is continuous, and is compact, then the image of A, f(A), is compact. Proof: Let be any open cover of f(A). Consider the inverses {f 1(B)} where . These inverses are open because f is continuous. This covers A, and thus there is a finite subcover of A, {Bi}. Then the images {f(Bi)} is a finite subcover of f(A).

If a set is compact and Hausdorff, then it is normal. Proof: Let X be compact and Hausdorff. Consider two closed subsets A and B which are themselves compact by theorem 1 above. For every and , there exist two disjoint sets Oa,b,1 and Oa,b,2 such that and . The union of all such Oa,b,2 for a fixed a is a cover for B, and thus it has a finite subcover, say, be the union of its members. Let finite, Oa,1 is open. The union , and let and let O'a,2

. Observe that Ba being

covers A, and therefore it has a finite subcover . Take the

. Let U be the union of all members of this subcover. Let A' denote the set of all elements such that intersection , which is open.

Then U is an open superset of A, V is an open superset of B, and they are disjoint. Thus, X is normal.

In a compact metric space X, a function from X to Y is uniformly continuous if and only if it is continuous. Proof: If two topological spaces are compact, then their product space is also compact. Proof: Let X1 and X2 be two compact spaces. Let S be a cover of X1X2. Let x be an element of X1. Consider the sets Ax,y within S that contain (x,y) for each y in X2. 2:(A(x,y)) forms a cover for X2, with a finite subcover {Ax,yi}. Let Bx be the intersection of 1:(Ay) within {Ayi}, which is open. Thus, {Bx} forms an open cover, which has a finite subcover, {Bxi}. The corresponding sets {Axi,yi} is finite, and forms an open subcover of the set. All closed and bounded sets in the Euclidean Space are compact. Proof: Let S by any bounded closed set in Rn. Then since S is bounded, it is contained in some "box" of the products of closed intervals of R. Since those closed intervals are compact, their product is also compact. Therefore, S is a closed set in a compact set, and is therefore also compact.

[edit] Tychonoff's Theorem

The more general result on the compactness of product spaces is called Tychonoff's Theorem. Unlike the compactness of the product of two spaces, however, Tychonoff's Theorem requires Zorn's Lemma. (In fact, it is equivalent to Axiom of Choice.)

Theorem: Let

, and let each Xi be compact. Then the X is also compact.

Proof: The proof is in terms of nets. Recall the following facts:

Lemma 1 - A net converges to

in .

converges to

if and only if each coordinate

Lemma 2 - A topological space X is compact if and only if every net in X has a convergent subnet. Lemma 3 - Every net has a universal subnet. Lemma 4 - A universal net We now prove Tychonoff's theorem. in a compact space X is convergent.

Let

be a net in

. of .

Using Lemma 3 we can find a universal subnet It is easily seen that each coordinate net

is a universal net in Xi.

Using Lemma 4 we see that each coordinate net converges, because Xi is compact.

Using Lemma 1 we see that the whole net

converges in

We conclude that every net in compact.

has a convergent subnet, so, by Lemma 2,

must be

[edit] Relative Compactness

Relative compactness is another property of interest. Definition: A subset S of a topological space X is relative compact when the closure Cl(x) is compact. Note that relative compactness does not carry over to topological subspaces. For example, the open interval (0,1) is relatively compact in R with the usual topology, but is not relatively compact in itself.

[edit] Local Compactness

The idea of local compactness is based on the idea of relative compactness. If, in a topological space X, every element has a neighborhood that is relatively compact, then X is locally compact. It can be shown that all compact sets are locally compact, but not conversely.

[edit] Exercises
1. It is not true in general for a metric space that a closed and bounded set is compact. Take the following metric on a set X:
d(x,y) = 1 0 if x is not equal to y if x=y

a) Show that this is a metric b) Which subspaces of X are compact c) Show that if Y is a subspace of X and Y is compact, then Y is closed and bounded d) Show that for any metric space, compact sets are always closed and bounded e) Show that with this particular metric, closed and bounded sets need not be compact Retrieved from "http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Topology/Compactness" Category: Topology (book)

Topology/Completeness
< Topology This page may need to be reviewed for quality. Jump to: navigation, search Completeness and related ideas inherently assume the notion of 'distance'. Hence, throughout this chapter, we will be dealing only with metric spaces.

Contents
[hide]

1 Definition 2 Theorem o 2.1 Proof 3 Definition 4 Theorem o 4.1 Proof 5 Theorem (Uniform Convergence Theorem)) o 5.1 Proof 6 Tietze Extension o 6.1 Proof 7 Theorem (Cantor's intersection theorem) o 7.1 Proof 8 Theorem (Nested balls theorem) 9 Theorem (Baire Category Theorem)

o 9.1 Proof 10 Theorem (Generalized Heine-Borel Theorem) o 10.1 Proof o 10.2 Corollary (Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem) 11 Theorem (ArzelAscoli theorem) o 11.1 Definitions o 11.2 Proof

12 Excercises

[edit] Definition
A sequence {xn} is said to be a Cauchy sequence if for any for any a,b > N, . , there is an such that

[edit] Theorem
All convergent sequences are Cauchy sequences [edit] Proof A convergent sequence {xn} will converge to a limit x, implying that there exists an N such that for any a > N, that . Thus, for any a,b > N, .

[edit] Definition
A metric space is said to be complete when all Cauchy sequences converge to a limit.

A subset A of a metric space X is dense in an open set O when A subset A of a metric space X is everywhere dense when it is dense in X.

A subset A of a metric space X is nowhere dense when it is dense in no open set in X.

Completeness is obviously not a Topological property, for a homeomorphism exists between the spaces and (0,1), although is complete while (0,1) being a non-closed subset of , is not.

[edit] Theorem
A closed subset of a complete space is itself complete. [edit] Proof

Consider a complete space X and let be closed. Consider any Cauchy sequence within C, which is within X, so it has a limit. This limit is a point of contact of this sequence, and consequently, is a point of contact of C, and so is also within C. Thus, C is complete. For a function from metric space to a complete metric space have a very important theorem called the uniform convergence theorem.

[edit] Theorem (Uniform Convergence Theorem))

Let X be a metric space, and let fn be a sequence of continuous functions from X to a complete metric space Y such that for all > 0, there exists an N such that for all n1,n2>N, . Then the sequence of functions converges to a continuous function from X to Y. Note that must be independent of x. [edit] Proof Obviously the sequence of functions converges pointwise since the sequence fn(x) is obviously a Cauchy sequence which converges to a value f(x). We will now prove that f(x) is continuous.

There exists an N such that for all n>N, for any x within X. Now let n>N, and consider the continuous function fn. Since it is continuous, there exists an open ball B(x) in X such that its image is contained in the open ball .

Now consider any open ball B(f(x)) around f(x), and any point x' in the open ball B(x). Then so the function f(x) is continuous.

[edit] Tietze Extension

Using Urysohn's Lemma and the Uniform Convergence Theorem, we can now prove the following result: Theorem: Let X be a normal topological space, and let A be a closed subset. Let f be a continuous function from the subspace A to the interval [0,1]. Then there exists a continuous function g from X to the interval [0,1] such that f(x)=g(x) for all points in A. [edit] Proof In order to prove this we first establish the following result: For any continuous function from a closed subset A of X to the interval [-r,r], there is a continuous function from X to the interval such that |f(x)-g(x)|< for all .

Consider the sets and , which are disjoint sets which, since they are closed in the closed set A, are also closed in X. Now we use Urysohn's lemma to obtain a function when such that g(x)=0 when . Then consider the function h defined by so that when and and such that g(x)=1

from the set X to the interval such that when

. Then to see that the function h satisfies the . Then . Then . Then so the so the

inequality |f(x)-h(x)|<

, consider the case when

inequality is satisfied there. Then consider the case when inequality is also satisfied there. Finally, consider the case when so the inequality is also satisfied for this final case. Now we prove the main result.

[edit] Theorem (Cantor's intersection theorem)

The intersection of every sequence of compact subsets {An} of a metric space X such that is non-empty if and only if the metric space is complete. [edit] Proof ( )Let {xn} be a Cauchy sequence in X. Define the sequences {an},sn as an = d(xn + 1,xn),

respectively. As sn is a real-valued Cauchy sequence, it is convergent. Hence, we can see that {xn} is bounded. Therefore, we can construct a sequence of compact sets {An} satisfying , such that for each n, but sequence xn converges to x implying that X is complete. . If , the

( )Let An be a sequence of compact sets satisfying . Select a sequence {xn} where . As {xn} is bounded, it has a convergent subsequence {yn} with limit x. As , we have .

[edit] Theorem (Nested balls theorem)

The Nested interval theorem is quite similar to the Cantor's intersection theorem. It states that the intersection of a sequence of the closures of balls An such that and such that their sequence of radii rn approaches 0 is non-empty if and only if the metric space is complete. An important tool in general topology and functional analysis is the Baire Category Theorem which provides the necessary and sufficient condition for a metric space to be complete. Note that this is often referred to as the First form of Baire's theorem.

[edit] Theorem (Baire Category Theorem)

A complete metric space is not a countable union of nowhere dense subsets. [edit] Proof

Let

be a complete metric space where each Ki is nowhere dense. Let S1 be an open

ball of radius . Let Sn, where n > 1 be an open ball of radius contained in Sn 1 which does not meet An, which is possible because if it always met An, then A1 would be dense in Sn 1. The centers cn of the spheres Sn form a Cauchy sequence because when n1,n2 > N and, then . Therefore, because the space A is complete, it converges to a limit c within A. However, it is not within any Kn, and so it is not within A, a contradiction.

[edit] Theorem (Generalized Heine-Borel Theorem)

A metric space is compact if and only if the metric space is complete and totally bounded. [edit] Proof ( ) Let X be a compact metric space. Then it is countably compact, and hence totally bounded. Also, since it is countably compact, any Cauchy sequence must either be finite, in which case it clearly converges to an element in X since the sequence eventually stablizes, or it is infinite, in which case it has a limit point in X, and it is clear that the Cauchy sequence converges to this limit point. ( )

Let {an} be an infinite sequence of points in X, such that they form an infinite set (i. e. at least infinitely many of them are distinct). Now consider a finite 1-net, and consider the set of the closures of the spheres of each point in the 1-net, each of radius 1. The union of these closures of spheres is X. Since there are infinitely many distinct {an}, and only finitely many closures of spheres, at least one of these closures of spheres must contain an infinite subsequence {an1}, and denote this to be Cl(B1(x1)). Now consider a finite -net within this closure of a sphere, and consider the closures of spheres of each point in the -net, each of radius . The union of these closures of spheres is the closure of the first sphere. Since there are infinitely many distinct {an1} in Cl(B1(x1)), but only finitely many closures of balls, at least one of closures of balls that meets Cl(B1(x1)) with Cl(B1(x1)) must contain an infinite subsequence {an2}. Continuing this process of obtaining a new closure of ball which contains infinitely many elements of the sequence, and because of completeness, we can use the nested spheres theorem to obtain an element x that is within the intersection of all of the spheres. This x is a limit point of all balls, and thus must also be the limit point of the original sequence {an} since any neighborhood of x must contain some closure of a ball in the aforementioned sequence, which in turn contains infinitely many elements of the sequence {an}. From this, we can conclude that X is countably compact, and thus is compact. [edit] Corollary (Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem) In a complete metric space X, a set S is relatively compact if and only if it is totally bounded. This is because its closure is obviously totally bounded, and any closed subset of a complete metric space is also complete. Note: If X is a complete metric space, then every totally bounded sequence has a convergent subsequence . This is because the sequence will be relatively compact, and since its closure is compact and thus countably compact and thus has a limit point, this sequence will have a limit point x. For this limit point, consider the balls and then for each ball, choose a point in the sequence within the ball, such that it is in order (i. e. in a way that does not go "backwards" in the sequence). Then this is obviously a subsequence that converges to the limit point.

[edit] Theorem (ArzelAscoli theorem)

Now that we have a result which proves the equivalence between relative compactness and total boundedness in a complete metric space, we now turn to how to establish relative compactness in the metric space of continuous functions in the closed interval [a,b]. First, we have the following definitions. [edit] Definitions

A set of functions F defined on [a,b] is uniformly bounded if there exists an M such that for any function f within F, f(x)<M for all x within [a,b].

A set of functions F defined on [a,b] is equicontinuous if for all > 0, there exists a > 0 such that for all and for all , .

Now, the following is the statement of the theorem: A set of continuous functions F defined on [a,b] is relatively compact if and only if it is equicontinuous and uniformly bounded. [edit] Proof

[edit] Excercises
1. Prove that the Euclidean space

is complete. 2. Prove that the Hilbert space is complete. 3. Explicitly establish the nested balls theorem. Retrieved from "http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Topology/Completeness" Category: Topology (book) What do you think of this page? Please take a moment to rate this page below. Your feedback is valuable and helps us improve our website. Reliability:

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Topology/Connectedness
< Topology This page may need to be reviewed for quality. Jump to: navigation, search

Contents
[hide]

1 Motivation o 1.1 Examples 2 Definitions 3 Theorems about connectedness 4 Exercises

[edit] Motivation
To best describe what is a connected space, we shall describe first what is a disconnected space. A disconnected space is a space that can be separated into two disjoint groups, or more formally:

A space is said to be disconnected iff a pair of disjoint, non-empty open subsets X1,X2 exists, such that . A space X that is not disconnected is said to be a connected space.

[edit] Examples
1. A closed interval [a,b] is connected. To show this, suppose that it was disconnected. Then there are two nonempty disjoint open sets A and B whose union is [a,b]. Let X be the the set equal to A or B and which does not contain b. Let . Since X does not contain b, s must be within the interval . If s is within X, then within X. If s is not within X, then s is [a,b] and thus must be within either X or there is an open set within within

, which is also open, and there is an open set . Either case implies that s is not the supremum. is disconnected:

2. The topological space

A picture to illustrate:

As you can see, the definition of a connected space is quite intuitive; when the space cannot be separated into (at least) two distinct subspaces.

[edit] Definitions
Definition 1.1 A subset U of a topological space X is said to be clopen if it is both closed and open. Definition 1.2 A topological space X is said to be totally disconnected if every subset of X having more than one point is disconnected under the subspace topology

[edit] Theorems about connectedness

If X and Y are homeomorphic spaces and if X is connected, then Y is also connected.

Proof: Let X be connected, and let f be a homeomorphism. Assume, if possible, f(X) is disconnected. Then there exists two nonempty disjoint sets A and B whose union is f(X). As f - 1 is continuous, f 1 (A) and f - 1(B) are open. As f - 1 is a bijection, they are disjoint sets whose union is X, contradicting the fact that X is connected. Thus, Y = f(X) is connected.
Note: this shows that connectedness is a topological property.

If two connected sets have a nonempty intersection, then their union is connected. Proof: Let A and B be two non-disjoint, connected sets. LEt X and Y be non-empty open sets such that . Let . Without loss of generality, assume . As A is connected, As Y is non-empty, Hence, similarly, Now, consider are arbitrary, ...(1). such that ...(2) . From (1) and (2), is connected. , and hence . As .

If two topological spaces are connected, then their product space is also connected. Proof: Let X1 and X2 be two connected spaces. Suppose that there are two nonempty open disjoint sets A and B whose union is X1X2. If for every xX, {x}X2 is either completely within A or within B, then 1(A) and 1(B) are also open, and are thus disjoint and nonempty, whose union is X1, contradicting the fact that X1 is connected. Thus, there is an xX such that {x}X2 contains elements of both A and B. Then 2(A{(x,y)}) and 2(B{(x,y)}), where y is any element of X2, are nonempty disjoint sets whose union is X2, and which are are a union of open sets in {(x,y)} (by the definition of product topology), and are thus open. This implies that X2 is disconnected, a contradiction. Thus, X1X2 is connected.

[edit] Exercises
1. Show that a topological space X is disconnected if and only if it has clopen sets other than and X (Hint: Why is X1 clopen?) 2. Prove that if is continuous and surjective (not necessarily homeomorphic), and if X is connected, then Y is connected.

3. Prove the Intermediate Value Theorem: if

is continuous,

then for any y between f(a) and f(b), there exists a such that f(c) = y. 4. Prove that is not homeomorphic to (hint: removing a single point from makes it disconnected). 5. Prove that an uncounable set given the countable complement topology is connected (this space is what mathematicians call 'hyperconnected') 6. a)Prove that the discrete topology on a set X is totally disconnected. b) Does the converse of a) hold (Hint: Even if the subspace topology on a subset of X is the discrete topology, this need not imply that the set has the discrete topology) Retrieved from "http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Topology/Connectedness" Category: Topology (book)

Topology/Countability
< Topology This page may need to be reviewed for quality. Jump to: navigation, search

Contents
[hide]

1 Bijection o 1.1 Examples 2 Axioms of countability o 2.1 First Axiom of Countability 2.1.1 Definition 2.1.2 Theorem 2.1.2.1 Proof 2.1.3 Theorem 2.1.3.1 Proof

5 6

2.1.4 Theorem 2.1.4.1 Proof o 2.2 Second Axiom of Countability 2.2.1 Definition 2.2.2 Theorem 2.2.2.1 Proof o 2.3 Seperable Spaces 2.3.1 Definition 2.3.2 Definition 2.3.3 Theorem 2.3.3.1 Proof 2.3.3.2 Corollary 2.3.4 Theorem 2.3.4.1 Proof 2.3.4.2 Corollary (Lindelf covering theorem) Countable Compactness o 3.1 Definition o 3.2 Theorem 3.2.1 Proof o 3.3 Relative Countable Compactness 3.3.1 Definition Total Boundedness o 4.1 Definition o 4.2 Definition o 4.3 Theorem 4.3.1 Proof o 4.4 Theorem 4.4.1 Proof Urysohn's Metrizability Theorem o 5.1 Theorem o 5.2 Proof Hahn-Mazurkiewicz Theorem o 6.1 Theorem

7 Exercise

[edit] Bijection
A set is said to be countable it there exists a one to one correspondence between that set and the set of integers.

[edit] Examples
The Even Integers: There is a simple bijection between the integers and the even integers, namely , where f(n) = 2n. Hence the even integers are countable.

A 2 - Dimensional Lattice: Let countable. Proof: let whichever point:

represent the usual two dimensional integer lattice, then

is

represent the function such that f(0) = (0,) and f(n) = (x,y), where (x,y) is

not represented by some f(m) for m < n (x,y) is the lattice point 1 unit from f(n 1) nearest to the origin. In the case where there are two such points, an arbitrary choice may be made.

Because f exists and is a bijection with the integers, The 2 - dimensional integer lattice is countable.

[edit] Axioms of countability

[edit] First Axiom of Countability
[edit] Definition A topological space Xis said to satisfy the First Axiom of Countability if, for every there exists a countable collection of neighbourhoods of x, such that if N is any neighbourhood of x, there exists with . A topological space that satisfies the first axiom of countability is said to be First-Countable. All metric spaces satisfy the first axiom of countability because for any neighborhood N of a point x, there is an open ball Br(x) within N, and the countable collection of neighborhoods of x that are B1 / k(x) where [edit] Theorem If a topological space satisfies the first axiom of countability, then for any point x of closure of a set S, there is a sequence {ai} of points within S which converges to x. , has the neighborhood B1 / n(x) where .

[edit] Proof
Let {Ai} be a countable collection of neighborhoods of x such that for any neighborhood N of x, there is an Ai such that . Define . Then form a sequence {ai} such that . Then obviously {ai} converges to x.

[edit] Theorem Let X be a topological space satisfying the first axiom of countability. Then, a subset A of X is closed if an only if all convergent sequences which converge to an element of X converge to an element of A.

[edit] Proof
Suppose that {xn} converges to x within X. The point x is a limit point of {xn} and thus is a limit point of A, and since A is closed, it is contained within A. Conversely, suppose that all convergent sequences within A converge to an element within A, and let x be any point of contact for A. Then by the theorem above, there is a sequence {xn} which converges to x, and so x is within A. Thus, A is closed. [edit] Theorem If a topological space X satisfies the first axiom of countability, then if and only if whenever {xn} converges to x, {f(xn)} converges to f(x). is continuous

[edit] Proof
Let X satisfy the first axiom of countability, and let be continuous. Let {xn} be a sequence which converges to x. Let B be any open neighborhood of f(x). As f is continuous, there exists an open neighbourhood of x. Since {xn} to x, then there must exist an such that A must contain xn when n > N. Thus, f(A) is a subset of B which contains f(xn) when n > N. Thus, {f(xn)} converges to f(x). Conversely, suppose that whenever {xn} converges to x, that {f(xn)} converges to f(x). Let B be a closed subset of Y. Let be a sequence which converges onto a limit x. Then f(xn) converges onto a limit f(x), which is within B. Thus, x is within f - 1(B), implying that it is closed. Thus, f is continuous.

[edit] Second Axiom of Countability

[edit] Definition A topological space is said to satisfy the second axiom of countability if it has a countable base. A topological space that satisfies the second axiom of countability is said to be SecondCountable. A topological space satisfies the second axiom of countable is first countable, since the countable collection of neighborhoods of a point can be all neighborhoods of the point within the countable base, so that any neighborhood N of that point must contain at least one neighborhood A within the collection, and A must be a subset of N.

[edit] Theorem If a topological space X satisfies the second axiom of countability, then all open covers of X has a countable subcover.

[edit] Proof
Let be an open cover of X, and let be a countable base for X. covers X. For all points x, select an element of , Cx which contains x, and an element of the base, Bx which contains x and is a subset of Cx (which is possible because is a base). {Bx} forms a countable open cover for X. For each Bx, select an element of which contains Bx, and this is a countable subcover of .

[edit] Seperable Spaces

[edit] Definition A topological space X is separable if it has a countable proper subset A such that Cl(A) = X. Example: is separable because is a countable subset and .

[edit] Definition A topological space X is seperable if it has a countable dense subset. Example: The set of real numbers and complex numbers are both seperable. [edit] Theorem If a topological space satisfies the second axiom of countability, then it is separable.

[edit] Proof
Consider a countable base of a space X. Choose a point from each set within the base. The resulting set A of the chosen points is countable. Moreover, its closure is the whole space X since any neighborhood of any element of X must be a union of the bases, and thus must contain at least one element within the base, which in turn must contain an element of A because A contains at least one point from each base. Thus it is separable.

[edit] Corollary
In any topological space, second countability implies seperable and first countable. Prove of this is left for the reader. [edit] Theorem

If a metric space is separable, then it satisfies the second axiom of countability.

[edit] Proof
Let X be a metric space, and let A be a countable set such that Cl(A) = X. Consider the countable set B of open balls . Let O be any open set, and let x be any element of O, and let N be an open ball of x within O with radius r. Let r' be a number of the form 1 / n that is less than r. Because Cl(A) = X, there is an element such that . Then the ball Br' / 2(x') is within B and is a subset of O because if , then . Thus that contains x. The union of all such neighborhoods containing an element of O is O. Thus B is a base for X.

[edit] Corollary (Lindelf covering theorem)

If a metric space is separable, then it satisfies the second axiom of countability, and thus any cover of a subset of that metric space can be reduced to a countable cover. Example: Since is a separable metric space, it satisfies the second axiom of countability. This directly implies that any cover a set in has a countable subcover.

[edit] Countable Compactness

[edit] Definition A subset A of a topological space X is said to be Countably Compact if and only if all countable covers of A have a finite subcover. Clearly all compact spaces are countably compact. A countably compact space is compact if it satisfies the second axiom of countability by the theorem above. [edit] Theorem A topological space X is countably compact if and only if any infinite subset of that space has at least one limit point.

[edit] Proof
( )Let {xi}, (i = 1,2,3,...) be a set within X without any limit point. Then this sequence is closed, since they are all isolated points within the sequence. Let Sn = {xi} for (i = n,n + 1,n + 2,...). The are all open sets, and so is a countable cover of the set, but any finite subcover

of this cover does not cover X because it does not contain the assumption that X is countably compact.

. This contradicts

( )Let {Sn} be open subsets of X such that any finite union of those sets does not cover X. Define:

, which does not cover X, and is open. Select xn such that . There is a limit point x of this set of points, which must also be a limit point of . Since is closed, . Thus, and thus is not within any Sn, so Sn is not an open cover of X. Thus, X is countably compact.

[edit] Relative Countable Compactness

Since there is relative compactness, there is an analogous property called relative countable compactness. [edit] Definition A subset S of a topological space X is relatively countably compact when its closure Cl(S) is countably compact.

[edit] Total Boundedness

[edit] Definition A set element is an -net of a metric space X where such that . if for any b within X, there is an

[edit] Definition A metric space X is totally bounded when it has a finite -net for any [edit] Theorem A countably compact metric space is totally bounded. .

[edit] Proof
Any infinite subset of a countably compact metric space X must have at least one limit point. Thus, selecting where xn is at least apart from any xd where d < n, one must

eventually have formed an -net because this process must be finite, because there is no possible infinite set with all elements more than apart. [edit] Theorem A totally bounded set is separable.

[edit] Proof
Take the union of all finite 1 / n-nets, where n varies over the natural numbers, and that is a countable set such that its closure is the whole space X.

[edit] Urysohn's Metrizability Theorem

The following theorem establishes a sufficient condition for a topological space to be metrizable.

[edit] Theorem
A second countable normal T1 topological space is homeomorphic to a metric space.

[edit] Proof
We are going to use the Hilbert cube, which is a metric space, in this proof, to prove that the topological space is homeomorphic to a subset of the Hilbert cube, and is thus a metric space. First, since all T1 normal spaces are Hausdorff, all single points are closed sets. Therefore, consider any countable base of the topological space X, and any open On set of it. Select a point xn within this open set. Since the complement of the open set is closed, and since a point within the open set is also closed, and since these two closed sets are disjoint, we can apply Urysohn's lemma to find a continuous function such that: fn(xn) = 0 fn(X / On) = 1 It is easy to see from the proof of Urysohn's lemma that we have not only constructed a function with such properties, but that such that fn(On) < 1, meaning that the function value of any point within the open set is less than 1. Now define the function from X to the Hilbert cube to be . To prove that this is continuous, let be a sequence that converges to a. Consider the open ball B(f(a)) where > 0. There exists an N such that

. Moreover, since fn is a continuous function from X to [0,1], there exists a neighborhood of a, and therefore an open set Sn of the base within that neighborhood containing a such that if , then

or

. Let

. In addition, since , there exists an Mi (i=1,2,3,...,M-1) such that when n > Mi, that , and let M be the maximum of Mi so that when n>M, then . Let n>M, and then the distance from g(an) to g(a) is now

This proves that it is continuous. To prove that this is one-to-one, consider two different points, a and b. Since the space is Hausdorff, there exists disjoint open sets and , and select an element of the base On that contains a and is within Ua. It follows that fn(a) < 1 whereas fn(b) = 1, proving that the function g is one-to-one, and that there exists an inverse g 1. To prove that the inverse g 1 is continuous, let On be an open set within the countable base of X. Consider any point x within On. Since fn(x) < 1, indicating that there exists an n > 0 such that when | fn(z) fn(x) | < 2nn

then Suppose that

. . Then

Implying that

indicating that

. and an .

Now consider any open set O around x. Then there exists a set of the base n > 0 such that whenever This proves that the inverse is continuous. , then , meaning that

Since the function is continuous, is one-to-one, and has a continuous inverse, it is thus a homeomorphism, proving that X is metrizable. Note that this also proves that the Hilbert cube thus contains any second-countable normal T1 space.

[edit] Hahn-Mazurkiewicz Theorem

The Hilbert Curve- a space filling curve

The Hahn-Mazurkiewicz theorem is one of the most historically important results of point-set topology, for it completely solves the problem of "space-filling" curves. This theorem provides the necessary and sufficient condition for a space to be 'covered by curve', a property that is widely considered to be counter-intuitive. Here, we present the theorem without its proof. [edit] Theorem

A Hausdorff space is a continuous image of the unit interval [0,1] if and only if it is a compact, connected, locally connected and second-countable space.

[edit] Exercise
1. Prove that a separable metric space satisfies the second axiom of countability. Hence, or otherwise, prove that a countably compact metric space is compact. 2. Prove the sufficiency condition of the Hahn-Mazurkiewicz theorem: If a Hausdorff space is a continuous image of the unit interval, then it is compact, connected, locally-connected and second countable. Retrieved from "http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Topology/Countability" Category: Topology (book)

Topology/Local Connectedness
< Topology This page may need to be reviewed for quality. Jump to: navigation, search In topology and other branches of mathematics, a topological space is said to be locally connected at x (where x is a point of the space to be called X), if for each neighbourhood V of x, there is a connected neighbourhood U of x contained in V. If a space is locally connected at each of its points, we call the space locally connected. Suprisingly, local connectedness and connectedness are independent properties; a space may satisfy one of them without satisfying the other (see the examples below).

Contents
[hide]

1 Examples 2 Local path connectedness

3 Weakly Locally Connected 4 Components and path components 5 Quasicomponents 6 Theorems 7 Exercises

[edit] Examples
1. If a space has a basis consisting entirely of connected sets, then it is locally connected (to see this, let x be a point of the space. Then for each neighbourhood V of x, there is a basis element B containing x which is connected and contained in V. Then B is the desired connected neighbourhood of x contained in V). 2. From example 1, we can conclude that the set of real numbers R is locally connected and connected (since it is a linear continuum). 3. The set of rational numbers Q is neither locally connected nor connected. The same is true for R in the lower limit topology. In fact, a totally disconnected space cannot be locally connected unless it has the discrete topology. 4. The finite union of intervals is locally connected. In other words, elementary sets (see measure theory) in R are locally connected. In particular, the set A = (-1,0) (0,1) is locally connected but not connected. 5.The topologist's sine curve (if f(x) = sin (1/x), then the topologist's sine curve is just the closure of the image of (0,1] under f), is an example of a connected space which is not locally connected. The fact that the topologist's sine curve is connected follows from: a) The set S = f((0,1]) is connected since it is the image of a connected space under a continuous map. b) The closure of a connected space is connected. The space is not locally connected at any point in the set B = [Closure (S)] S. It is locally connected at every other point though.

[edit] Local path connectedness

A topological space, X, is locally path connected, if for each point x, and each neighborhood V of x, there is a path connected neighbourhood U of x contained in V. Similar examples to the previous ones, show that path connectedness and local path connectedness are independent properties. We will give a few more examples.

Examples 1. A locally path connected space is always locally connected. The proof uses the fact that every path connected space is connected. 2. An example of a path connected space that is not locally path connected is the comb space: if K = {1/n |n is a natural number}, then the comb space is defined by: C = (K [0,1]) ({0} [0,1]) ([0,1] {0}] The comb space is path connected (this is trivial) but locally path connected at no point in the set A = {0} (0,1]. It is however locally path connected at every other point.

[edit] Weakly Locally Connected

A more weaker property that a topological space can satisfy at a point is known as weakly locally connected: Definition Let X be a topological space and x a point of X. If for every neighbourhood V of x, there is a connected subspace A of V containing a neighbourhood U of x, the topological space is said to be weakly locally connected at x. If the space is weakly locally connected at each of its points, it is said simply to be weakly locally connected. We will give a few examples and there will be one important theorem on this concept later. Examples 1. Every locally connected space is trivially weakly locally connected (let A = U in the definition). 2. Note that neither the comb space nor the topologists sine curve is weakly locally connected. It is easy to see that these two spaces are not weakly locally connected at each of the points that they arent locally connected. 3. A totally disconnected space cannot be weakly locally connected unless it has the discrete topology (in other words, a totally disconnected space is weakly locally connected if and only if it has the discrete topology). An example is R in the lower limit topology which doesnt have the discrete topology and hence cannot be weakly locally connected at any point. 4. We will prove shortly that if a topological space is weakly locally connected (that is weakly locally connected at EVERY point), then it is locally connected at every point. However, the proof of this fact requires another notion related to local connectedness which is to be discussed in the next section.

5. The previous property may seem strange. If every weakly locally connected space is locally connected, then why call a space weakly locally connected? It doesnt seem to be a weaker condition. However, if a space is weakly locally connected at just one point, then it need not be locally connected at that point. An example of such a space is the broom space. For this space to be locally connected at that point, it needs to be weakly locally connected in a NEIGHBOURHOOD of that point. Hence the definition of a weakly locally connected space does indeed make sense.

[edit] Components and path components

Define an equivalence relation ~ on a topological space X, so that we declare x~y if there is a connected subspace A of X containing both x and y. The collection of all equivalence classes are called the components of X (this is indeed an equivalence relation as the reader can check). Define another equivalence relation ~2 (different from the first) to set x~2y if there is a path from x to y. Equivalently, x~2y if and only if there is a path connected subspace of X containing x and y. The collection of all equivalence classes with this equivalence relation are called the path components of the space (this is indeed an equivalence relation as the reader can check). Being equivalence classes, the components are disjoint, nonempty subsets of the topological space X, whose union is X. The same is true for the path components. Properties 1. Intuitively, the components are the largest possible connected subsets of X and the path components are the largest possible path connected subsets of X. 2. The components are always connected (to see this let C be a component (the equivalence class containing a certain point x of the space). Then C is nonempty since x~x. For each y in C, let Ay be a connected subset of X containing both y and x (since y~x). Take the union of all such Ay for y in C. This union is C. Since this is the union of connected spaces having the point x in common, this union is connected. Therefore, C is connected). A similar argument shows that the path components are always path connected and hence connected. 3. Every connected subset of X lies in a component of X. This justifies property 1. To see this, let A be connected (and nonempty or else the proof is trivial), and let x belong to A. Then if y belongs to A, A is a connected subset of X containing both y and x so that y~x. Since y was arbitrary, we have shown that A is a subset of the component containing x. A similar proof shows that every path connected subset of X is a subset of a path component of X. 4. The components are always closed. To see this we note that if C is a component, then C is connected, so that the closure of C is connected. Now, C is always a subset of the closure of C so that it is sufficient to verify that the closure of C is a subset of C. But we know that the closure of C is connected, and every connected subset of X is the subset of exactly one component. Therefore, C = Closure(C) and C is closed. This proof fails for the path components since the

closure of a path connected space need not be path connected (for example, the topologist's sine curve). 5. If there are only finitely many components, then the components are also open. If C is a component, then its complement is the finite union of components and hence closed. Therefore, C is open. This proof fails for infinitely many components, as the set of rational numbers show. Examples 1. The set of all real numbers has precisely one component; the whole space. In fact every connected space has only one component. 2. The set: A = (-,0)(0,+) has precisely two components; (-, 0) and (0, +). Note how these are the largest possible connected subsets of this space. 3. The set of rational numbers has countably many components. Each one point set is a component. In fact, for any totally disconnected space, the one point sets are the components of the space. 4. The path components of the spaces in examples 1,2 and 3 are exactly the same as the components. However, they are not the same in general. An example of this is the topologist's sine curve which has one component (since it is connected), but has two path components: A = {0} [-1,1] B = f((0,1]) where f is the function defined by f(x) = sin(1/x) Notice that A is closed; but not open. Also, B is open; but not closed. This shows that even though the components are always closed, the same thing does not hold for the path components. 5. In general, the path components are subsets of the components. To see this we note that the path components of a topological space are path connected and hence connected. Since connected subsets of X lie in a component of X, the result follows. We will prove later that the path components and components are equal provided that X is locally path connected. 6. The set I I (where I = [0,1]) in the dictionary order topology has exactly one component (because it is connected) but has uncountably many path components. Indeed, any set of the form {a} I is a path component for each a belonging to I. 7. Let f be a continuous map from R to R (R in the lower limit topology). Since R is connected, and the image of a connected space under a continuous map must be connected, the image of R under f must be connected. Therefore, the image of R under f must be a subset of a component of R. Since this image is nonempty, the only continuous maps from R to R, are the constant maps.

[edit] Quasicomponents
The concept of a quasicomponent is similar to that of a component and only brief attention will be given to it. We first make a definition: Definition Let X be a topological space. Define an equivalence relation on X to declare x~y if there is no separation of X into sets A and B such that x is an element of A and y is an element of B. We note that the relation given in the definition is indeed an equivalence relation as the reader can readily check. Properties 1. The components are always contained in the quasicomponents of X. Before proving this we will let x~1y if there is a connected subset of X containing both x and y (which is the equivalence relation used in defining components), and x~2y if x~y as in the definition given in this section. If x~1y, then there is a connected subset, C, of X containing x and y. If there was a separation of X into sets A and B such that x is an element of A and y is an element of B, then C would intersect both A and B. This implies in particular that C intersection A and C intersection B would form a separation on C contradicting the connectedness of C. Therefore, we must have that x~2y. 2. From the previous property, we may conclude that the path components of a space always lie in the quasicomponents of a space (since the path components always lie in the components). Examples 1. There is only one quasicomponent of a connected space; the space itself. This follows from property 1. 2. In the next section, we will prove that if X is a locally connected topological space, then the quasicomponents of X are equal to the components of X. 3. If X is locally path connected, it is locally connected (as mentioned earlier) so that the components of X are equal to the quasicomponents of X. Since if X is locally path connected, the components of X and the path components of X are equal (which we shall prove in the next section), it follows that the quasicomponents, path components, and components are all equal if X is a locally path connected space. 4. Property 2 still holds if X is weakly locally connected (that is, weakly locally connected at each of its points). This is because a weakly locally connected space is always locally connected (which we shall prove imminently).

[edit] Theorems
In this section, we will prove theorems relevant to the material in this article. Theorem 1 A topological space is locally connected if and only if the components of open sets are open. Proof Suppose X is locally connected (where X is the topological space in question). Let V be open in X and let C be a component of V. For each x in C, choose a connected neigbourhood U of x contained in V (by the local connectedness of X). Since U is connected, U is a subset of C. It follows that C is the union of open sets and is thus open. Conversely, suppose that the components of open sets in a topological space, X, are open. Let x belong to X and let V be a neigbourhood of x. Let C be a component of V containing x. Then C is open by hypothesis. Therefore, C is a connected neigbourhood of X contained in V so that X is locally connected at x. Since x was arbitary, X is locally connected. Theorem 2 A topological space is locally path connected if the path components of open sets are open. Proof The proof is similar to theorem 1 and is omitted. Theorem 3 The components and path components of a topological space, X, are equal if X is locally path connected. Proof Let P be a path component of X containing x and let C be a component of X containing x. We know that P is a subset of C by example 5 in the previous section. Suppose P is a proper subset of C. Since X is open, P is open in X by theorem 2. Take the union of all those path components of X disjoint from P and intersect them with C; call the union of all the resulting sets Q. Then, P and Q form a separation on C, since they are disjoint, nonempty (P is nonempty since x is in P; Q is nonempty, because we are assuming that P is a proper subset of X), and open in C (Q is open in C by theorem 2 and the definition of the subspace topology). This contradicts the connectedness of C. Theorem 4

Let X be a locally path connected space. Then every open, connected subset of X is path connected. Proof Let U be an open connected subset of X and let x belong to U. Let A be the set of all points in U that can be joined by a path to X. Then A is open. If y is in A, then there is a path connected subset V of U containing y (by the local path connectedness of the space). Then we assert that V is a subset of A. If z is in V, then there is a path from z to y. Since there is a path from x to y (because y belongs to A), we can paste these paths together to form a path from x to z. Therefore, z is in A. Therefore, V is a subset of A and A is open. Now if y is in UA, then there is no path from y to x. If V is a path connected neigbourhood of y contained in U, then V is a subset of UA. If z is in V, and if there is a path from z to x, then there would be a path from x to y since there is already a path from z to y. This cannot be since y is in UA. Therefore, there is no path from z to x and z is in UA. It follows that V is a subset of UA and UA is open. We know already that A is nonempty (x is in A). If UA is nonempty, then A and UA will form a separation on U contradicting the connectedness of U. Therefore, every point in U can be joined by a path to x. From this it follows that U is path connected. Theorem 5 Let X be a weakly locally connected space. Then X is locally connected. Proof From theorem 1, it is sufficient to show that the components of open sets is open. Let U be open in X and let C be a component of U. Let x be an element of C. Then x is an element of U so that there is a connected subspace A of X contained in U and containing a neighbourhood V of x. Since A is connected and A contains x, A must be a subset of C (the component containing x). Therefore, the neighbourhood V of x is a subset of C. Since x was arbitrary, we have shown that each x in C has a neighbourhood V contained in C. This shows that C is open relative to U. Therefore, X is locally connected. Theorem 6 Let X be a topological space. If X is locally connected, the quasicomponents of X are equal to the components of X. Proof We noted earlier in the section on quasicomponents that each component of the space is contained in a quasicomponent of the space. It suffices to show that the quasicomponents always lie in the components if the space is locally connected. From theorem 1, it follows that the components of X are open (since X is locally connected). Therefore, if x~1y doesnt hold (x is not equivalent to y under the equivalence relation defining components), then the component containing x is both open and closed (components are always closed; the component containing x

is open because X is a locally connected topological space), so that there is a separation of X into sets A and B such that A contains x and B contains y (A is the component containing x, and B = X-A). Therefore, x cannot be equivalent to y under the equivalence relation defining quasicomponents. Therefore, we have proved that if y is not in the component containing x, y cannot be in the quasicomponent containing x. From elementary set theory, this implies that if y is in the quasicomponent containing x, it must be in the component containing x. Therefore, the quasicomponents of X are equal to the components of X. Some applications of the theorems 1. From theorem 4, we can conclude that every open connected subset of R is path connected (since R is locally path connected). Also, every open, connected subset of R2 is path connected. 2. The set of rational numbers Q is not locally connected since the components of Q are not open in Q (see theorem 1). 3. The components and path components of an elementary subset of R are the same. Also, the elementary subsets of R are the finite union of intervals, since every elementary set is locally path connected. 4. Take the point, p = (0.5,0.5) in the plane. For each rational x in R, let Tx denote the line segment joining p to (x,0). Let T be the union of all such Tx. Then T is locally connected only at p. However, it isnt locally connected at any other point (if x is distinct from p and belongs to T, choose a neighbourhood of x (open in R^2) disjoint from p which doesnt intersect the x-axis. The intersection of this neighbourhood with T is homeomorphic with the countable union of open intervals in R (this we leave you to check in the exercises on homeomorphisms (see next section))and therefore cannot be connected. Therefore, no neighbourhood smaller than this neighbourhood can be connected). Therefore, T cannot be weakly locally connected by theorem 5. 5. See the infinite broom (or the broom space). This is an example of a space which is weakly locally connected at a particular point, but not locally connected at that point. The reader is directed to Wolfram MathWorld for a definition of the broom space. See also the section (in this article) on weakly locally connected space.

[edit] Exercises
Easy Questions 1. Prove that if X is locally path connected, then X is locally connected. 2. Prove that X has precisely one component if and only if X is connected. What is this component? 3. If f is a continuous, surjective map from a topological space X to a topological space Y, does it follow that Y is locally connected if X is locally connected? What conditions can you impose for

this statement to be true, i.e. the continuous image of a locally connected space is locally connected (if your answer was yes to the first question, ignore the second; however, if your answer is yes you must prove it)? 4. a) Prove that the set I X I in the dictionary order topology is locally connected (Hint: What familiar connected subspace of R are basis elements for the topology on I X I homeomorphic to?) b*) Find the path components of this space (Hint: First show that this space is not path connected by obtaining a contradiction and using the intermediate value theorem (assume [0,1] is connected) c) Use your answer to b), to determine whether or not the space I X I is locally path connected. 5. Prove theorem 2 Normal Questions In these questions, we will verify whether local connectedness is preserved under products and other such operations. The reader is expected to be familiar with the product topology. 6. a) Consider the set X = (-1,0) U (0,1) which is clearly not connected. Prove that this set is locally connected. Also find the components of this space (Hint: When proving that this space is locally connected, assume that (0,1) is connected. Then contruct a homeomorphism from (0,1) to (-1,0) to show that (-1,0) is connected) b) Apply a theorem to show that the path components of this space are equal to the components of this space. Prove any assumptions that you make. c) Let E be an elementary subset of R (this term is derived from measure theory where E is said to be an elementary subset of R, if it is the finite union of intervals (not necessarily open), prove that E is locally connected by assuming that each interval is connected. 7. Suppose we take the finite product of X with itself. Is this new space locally connected? (Hint: Use the fact that the product of connected spaces is always connected) 8. Now, what if we take the infinite product of X with itself given the product topology; call this new space Y. We will check whether Y is locally connected or not in question 8. We leave the reader to have a think about this before he reads question 8. See question 7 and think before reading question 8: 9. a) Are basis elements for the product topology on Y connected? (Hint: The projection map is continuous; therefore the projection of a connected space is always connected)

b) Possibly a) gives us a conjecture whether Y is locally connected or not. Depending on your answer to a), prove or disprove that Y is locally connected. (Hint: If your answer to a) was yes, find at least one connected neighbourhood of a point (note that a neighborhood of a point need NOT BE a basis element). If you answer to a) was no, proceed by contradiction: If x is a point of Y and V is a neighborhood of x, suppose U is a connected neighborhood of x contained in V. Then U contains a basis element about X. Note that the projection map is continuous so that the image of U under each projection should be connected. Obtain a contradiction) c) Is Y weakly locally connected? Justify your answer (Hint: The idea is similar to part b)) Research Questions You will be asked to formulate hypothesis based on your knowledge: 10. Like components of a topological space are always closed, do you think path components satisfy a similar property? We will analyse this question (see now question 9 and think before answering 10) 11. a) Is it possible to determine the path components of a connected space (without knowing what the space is)? Is it possible to determine the path components of a path connected space without knowing what the space is? b) The topologists sine curve is not path connected. Assuming this determine its path components and analyze the properties these path components satisfy (determine whether they are closed or open or neither). c) From 10.b), you should be able to answer question 9. As a question which we will leave the reader to think about: 12. Are components of a topological space necessarily locally connected? 13. Are path components of a topological space necessarily locally path connected? (Hint: This question is a little trickier than 7; you might have to construct your own space (a subspace of R^2)) 14. a) Prove that homeomorphisms preserve path connectedness. b) Deduce that the topologists sine curve and the comb space are not homeomorphic. The following question is a research type question:

15*. Like there are the components of a space, can you invent a similar equivalence relation that determines the local components of a space. These local components should be the largest locally connected subsets of the space. Example Type Questions 16. Give an example where the path components of a space and the components of a space are not equal. Give a different example where the path components and quasicomponents of a space are not equal. 17. Find an example of a locally connected space that is not locally path connected. 18*. Give an example where the quasicomponents of a space and the components of the space are not equal. 19. If X is locally homeomorphic with Y and X is locally connected, need Y be locally connected? Justify your answer. Questions on weakly locally connected spaces 20. Formulate a new notion called weak local path connectedness that uses the same idea as the definition of a weakly locally connected space. a) Prove that every weakly locally path connected space is locally path connected b) Give an example of a weakly locally path connected space that isnt locally path connected (at a particular point). 21. As in theorem 2, characterize weakly locally connected spaces in terms of components (Hint: Remember theorem 5) Questions on Homeomorphisms 22. In the section on applications of the theorems, check the details of 4. 23. Prove that if X has n components, and Y is homeomorphic to X, Y has n components. Give an example where f is a continuous surjective map from X to Y, and X has n components but Y doesnt. 24. a) Suppose p is a continuous, closed surjective map such that p^(-1) {y} is compact in X for each element y of Y (p: X->Y) (the reader who is not familiar with compactness is referred to Wikipedia). Prove that if Y is locally connected, so is X. b) Prove that if Y is connected so is X c) If X is locally connected, need Y be locally connected?

Difficult question 25. Is every connected Hausdorff space with more than one point uncountable (Hint: Every connected metric space with more than one point in uncountable; prove this assertion. See what difficulty arises with this proof when one considers a Hausdorff space. Remember that metric spaces are always first countable, normal, paracompact etc whereas Hausdorff spaces arent)? Retrieved from "http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Topology/Local_Connectedness" Category: Topology (book)

Topology/Metric Spaces
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Contents
[hide]

1 Before we begin 2 Metric Space o 2.1 Definition o 2.2 Examples o 2.3 Note 3 Open Ball o 3.1 Motivation o 3.2 Definition o 3.3 Examples 4 Interior of a Set o 4.1 Definitions o 4.2 Properties o 4.3 Reminder o 4.4 Example 5 An Open Set o 5.1 Definition o 5.2 Examples o 5.3 Theorem o 5.4 Theorem

6 Convergence o 6.1 Definition o 6.2 Properties o 6.3 Examples o 6.4 Uniform Convergence 7 Closed Sets o 7.1 Closure 7.1.1 Examples o 7.2 Closed set o 7.3 Properties o 7.4 Open vs Closed 7.4.1 Complementary set 7.4.2 The plot continues... o 7.5 On o 7.6 Examples of closed sets o 7.7 Exercises 8 Continuity o 8.1 Definition o 8.2 Examples o 8.3 Exercise o 8.4 Uniform Continuity 9 Isometry 10 Exercises

[edit] Before we begin

Before we discuss topological spaces in their full generality, we will first turn our attention to a special type of topological space, a metric space. This abstraction has a huge and useful family of special cases, and it therefore deserves special attention. Also, the abstraction is picturesque and accessible; it will subsequently lead us to the full abstraction of a topological space.

[edit] Metric Space

[edit] Definition
A metric space is a Cartesian pair (X,d) where X is a non-empty set and requirement that for all
1. 2. 3.

, is a function which is called the metric which satisfies the :

if and only if a = b (symmetry) (triangle inequality)

Note that some authors do not require metric spaces to be non-empty. We annotate (X,d) when we talk of a metric space X with the metric d.

[edit] Examples

An important example is the discrete metric. It may be defined any non-empty set X as follows

On the set of real numbers , define (The absolute distance between x and y). To prove that this is indeed a metric space, we must show that d is really a metric. To begin with, for any

real numbers x and y.

o

.
o o

On the plane

as the space, and let

This is the euclidean distance between (x1,y1) and (x2,y2)).

We can generalize the two preceding examples. Let V be a normed vector space (over or ). We can define the metric to be: space is a metric space. . Thus every normed vector

For the vector space

we have an interesting norm. Let two vectors of . We define the p-norm:

and

. For each p-norm there is a metric based on it. Interesting cases of p are:
o

. The metric is

. The metric is good-old Euclid metric

. This is a bit surprising:

As an exercise, you can prove that the definition of .

thus justifying

The great-circle distance between two points on a sphere is a metric. The Hilbert space is a metric space on the space of infinite sequences {ak} such that

converges, with a metric d({ai}, {bi})=

The concept of the Erds number suggests a metric on the set of all mathematicians. Take x and y to be two mathematicians, and define d(x, y) as 0 if x and y are the same person; 1 if x and y have co-authored a paper; n if the shortest sequence ({x,a1},{a1,a2},...,{an 1,y}), where each step pairs two people who have co-authored a paper, is of length n; or if x y and no such sequence exists. This metric is easily generalized to any reflexive relation (or undirected graph, which is the same thing). Note that if we instead defined d(x, y) as the sum of the Erds numbers of x and y, then d would not be a metric, as it would not satisfy example, if x = y = Stanisaw Ulam, then d(x, y) = 2. . For

[edit] Note
Throughout this chapter we will be referring to metric spaces. Every metric space comes with a metric function. Because of this, the metric function might not be mentioned explicitly. There are several reasons:

We don't want to make the text too blurry. We don't have anything special to say about it. The space has a "natural" metric. E.g. the "natural" metric for metric d2.

is the euclidean

As this is a wiki, if for some reason you think the metric is worth mentioning, you can alter the text if it seems unclear (if you are sure you know what you are doing) or report it in the talk page.

[edit] Open Ball

[edit] Motivation
The open ball is the building block of metric space topology. We shall define intuitive topological definitions through it (that will later be converted to the real topological definition), and convert (again, intuitively) calculus definitions of properties (like convergence and continuity) to their topological definition. We shall try to show how many of the definitions of metric spaces can be written also in the "language of open balls". Then we can instantly transform the definitions to topological definitions.

[edit] Definition
Given a metric space (X,d) an open ball with radius r around p is defined as the set . Intuitively it is all the points in the space, that are less than r distance from a certain point p.

[edit] Examples
Why is this called a ball? Let's look at the case of : . Therefore Br((0,0,0)) is exactly - The ball with (0,0,0) at center, of radius r. In R3 the ball is called open, because it does not contain the sphere ( ). The Unit ball is a ball of radius 1. Lets view some examples of the B1((0,0)) unit ball of different p-norm induced metrics. The unit ball of with the norm = = is: with

The metric induced by

in that case, the unit ball is: | x | + | y | < 1

The metric induced by

in that case, the unit ball is:

The metric induced by

in that case, the unit ball is: max{ | x | , | y | } < 1

As we have just seen, the unit ball does not have to look like a real ball. In fact sometimes the unit ball can be one dot:

The discrete metric, The unit ball is B1((0,0)) = d{((0,0),(x,y)) < 1} = {d((0,0),(x,y)) = 0} = {(0,0)}

[edit] Interior of a Set

[edit] Definitions
Definition: We say that x is an interior point of A iff there is an > 0 such that: . This intuitively means, that x is really 'inside' A - because it is contained in a ball inside A - it is not near the boundary of A. Illustration: Interior Point Not Interior Points

Definition: The interior of a set A is the set of all the interior points of A. The interior of a set A is marked int(A). Useful notations: . and

[edit] Properties
Some basic properties of int (For any sets A,B):

Proof of the first: We need to show that: and therefore Proof of the second: In order to show that and The " " direction is already proved: if for any set A, . . an the set in question, we get The " " direction: let . We need to show that , we need to show that . , then by taking int(A) as . But that's easy! by definition, we have that

If then there is a ball . Now, every point y, in the ball internal point to A (inside int(A)), because there is a ball around it, inside A: .

We have that definition .

(because every point in it is inside int(A)) and by .

Hint: To understand better, draw to yourself Proof of the rest is left to the reader.

[edit] Reminder

[a, b] : all the points x, such that (a, b) : all the points x, such that a < x < b

[edit] Example
For the metric space

(the line), we have:

int([a,b]) = (a,b) int((a,b]) = (a,b) int([a,b)) = (a,b) int((a,b)) = (a,b) (that is: a < x < b) we'll show and

Let's prove the first example (int([a,b]) = (a,b)). Let that x is an internal point. Let = min{x a,b x}. Note that

. Therefore . We have shown now that every point x in (a,b) is an internal point. Now what about the points a,b ? let's show that they are not internal points. If a was an internal point of [a,b], there would be a ball . But that would mean, that the point is inside [a,b]. but because

that is a contradiction. We show similarly that b is not an internal point. To conclude, the set (a,b) contains all the internal points of [a,b]. And we can mark int([a,b]) = (a,b)

[edit] An Open Set

[edit] Definition
A set is said to be open in a metric space if it equals its interior (A = Int(A)). When we encounter topological spaces, we will generalize this definition of open. However, this definition of open in metric spaces is the same as that as if we regard our metric space as a topological space. Properties:

1. The empty-set is an open set (by definition:

).

2. An open ball is an open set. 3. For any set B, int(B) is an open set. This is easy to see because: int(int(B))=int(B). 4. If A,B are open, then is open. Hence finite intersections of open sets are open. 5. If (for any set if indexes I) are open, then their union is open. Proof of 2: Let Br(x) be an open ball. Let . Then . In the following drawing, the green line is d(x,y) and the brown line is r d(x,y). We have found

a ball to contain y inside Br(x). Proof of 4: A, B are open. we need to prove that int, we only need to show that Let = min{1,2}, we have that definition of an internal point we have that . let . That means that there are balls: (B(x) is the required ball). . Because of the proprieties of . We know also, that . . By the

Interestingly, this property does not hold necessarily for an infinite union of open sets. To see an example on the real line, let An = {( 1 / n,1 / n)}. We then see that closed. Proof of 5: Proving that the union of open sets is open, is rather trivial: let I) be a set of open sets. we need to prove that a ball make it internal in . which is

(for any set if indexes : If then it has

. The same ball that made a point an internal point in Ai will

Proposition: A set is open, if and only if it is a union of open-balls. Proof: Let A be an open set. by definition, if then compose A: because . there there a ball . We can . The equality is true because: in each ball we have the element x and

we unite balls of all the elements of A. On the other hand, a union of open balls is and open set, because every union of open sets is open.

[edit] Examples

As we have seen, every open ball is an open set. For every space X with the discrete metric, every set is open. then x is an internal point. Lets use the ball . Therefore x

Proof: Let U be a set. we need to show, that if around x with radius . We have is an internal point.

The space with the regular metric. Every open segment (a,b) is an open set. The proof of that is similar to the proof that int([a,b]) = (a,b), that we have already seen.

[edit] Theorem
In any metric space X, the following three statements hold: 1) The union of any number of open sets is open. Proof: Let C be a collection of open sets, and let . Then there exists a such that So there exists an > 0 such that

. Therefore

. 2) The intersection of a finite number of open sets is open. Proof: Let , where C is a finite collection of open sets. So for each . Let C = U1,U2,...,Un. For each i = 1,2,3,...,n, there exists an such that . Let {i}. Therefore and . 3) The empty set and X are both open.

[edit] Theorem
In any metric space X, the following statements hold: 1) The intersection of any number of closed sets is closed. 2) The union of a finite number of closed sets is closed.

[edit] Convergence
[edit] Definition

First, Lets translate the calculus definition of convergence, to the "language" of metric spaces: We say that a sequence xn converges to x if for every > 0 exists N that for each n * > N the following holds: . Equivalently, we can define converges using Open-balls: A sequence xn converges to x If for every > 0 exists N that for each n * > N the following holds: .

The latter definition uses the "language" of open-balls, But we can do better - We can remove the from the definition of convergence, thus making the definition more topological. Let's define that xn converges to x (and mark ) , if for every ball B around x , exists NB that for each n * > NB the following holds: . x is called the limit of the sequence.

The definitions are all the same, but the latter uses topological terms, and can be easily converted to a topological definition later.

[edit] Properties

If a sequence has a limit, it has only one limit. Proof Let a sequence xn have two limits, and

. If they are not the same, we must have

. Let be smaller than this distance. Now for some N, for all n > N, it must be the case that both and by virtue of the fact and are limits. But this is impossible; the two balls are separate. Therefore the limits are coincident, that is, the sequence has only one limit.

If , then almost by definition we get that sequence of distances).

. (d(xn,x) Is the

[edit] Examples

In

with the natural metric, The series

converges to 0. And we note it as

follows: Any space, with the discrete metric. A series xn converges, only if it is eventually constant. In other words: If and only if, We can find N that for each n * > N, An example you might already know: For any p-norm induced metric, when . and let If and only if . Let . .

The space Then,

[edit] Uniform Convergence

A sequence of functions {fn} is said to be uniformly convergent on a set S if for any >0, there exists an N such that when a and b are both greater than N, then p(fa(x),fb(x))< for any xS.

[edit] Closed Sets

[edit] Closure
Definition: The point p is called point of closure of a set A if there exists a sequence , such that A equivalent definition using balls: The point p is called point of closure of a set A if for every open ball , we have The proof is left as an exercise. .

Intuitively, a point of closure is arbitrarily "close" to the set A. It is so close, that we can find a sequence in the set that converges to any point of closure of the set. Example: Let A be the segment closure: Let (that's because ). (X,d), is the set of all points of closure. The closure of a . , The point p = 1 is not in A, but it is a point of (n > 0, and therefore ) and

Definition: The closure of a set set A is marked or Cl(A). Note that [edit] Examples For the metric space

. a quick proof: For every

, Let

(the line), and let

we have:

Cl([a,b]) = [a,b] Cl((a,b]) = [a,b] Cl([a,b)) = [a,b] Cl((a,b)) = [a,b]

[edit] Closed set

Definition: A set is closed in if A = Cl(A). Meaning: A set is closed, if it contains all its point of closure.

An equivalent definition is: A set

is closed in

If for every point

, and for ever

Ball , then . The proof of this definition is comes directly from the former definition and the definition of convergence.

[edit] Properties
Some basic properties of Cl (For any sets A,B):

Cl(Cl(A)) = Cl(A) A is closed iff A = Cl(A) While the above implies that the union of finitely many closed sets is also a closed set, the same does not necessarily hold true for the union of infinitely many closed sets. To see an example on the real line, let fails to contain its points of closure, . We see that

This union can therefore not be a closed subset of the real numbers. The proofs are left to the reader as exercises. Hint for number 5: recall that .

[edit] Open vs Closed

That is, an open set approaches its boundary but does not include it; whereas a closed set includes every point it approaches. These two properties may seem mutually exclusive, but they are not:

In any metric space (X,d), the set X is both open and closed. In any space with a discrete metric, every set is both open and closed. In , under the regular metric, the only sets that are both open and closed are and . However, some sets are neither open nor closed. For example, a half-open range like [0,1) is neither open nor closed. As another example, the set of rationals is not open because an open ball around a rational number contains irrationals; and it is not closed because there are sequences of rational numbers that converge to irrational numbers (such as the various infinite series that converge to ).

[edit] Complementary set

A Reminder\Definition: Let A be a set in the space X. We define the complement of A, Ac to be .

A Quick example: let [edit] The plot continues...

. Then

A very important Proposition: Let A be a set in the space (X,d). Then, A is open iff Ac is closed. Proof: ( ) For the first part, we assume that A is an open set. We shall show that Ac = Cl(Ac). It is enough to show that (we will show that because of the properties of closure. Let ).

for every ball we have, by definition that (*) . If the point is not in Ac then . A is open and therefore, there is a ball B, such that: , that means that , contradicting (*). ( ) On the other hand, Lets a assume that Ac is closed, and show that A is open. Let p be a point in A (we will show that have that
c

). If p is not in int(A) then for every ball . Ac is closed, and therefore

we

. That means that

. And by definition of closure point p is a

closure point of A so we can say that

That contradicts the assumption that Note that, as mentioned earlier, a set can still be both open and closed!

[edit] On
The following is an important theorem characterizing open and closed sets on Theorem: An open set O in R1 is a countable union of disjoint open intervals. .

Proof: Let . Let and let . There exists an open ball (x-,x+) such that (x-,x+) O because O is open. Thus, ax- and bx+. Thus, x (a,b). The set O contains all elements of (a,b) since if a number is greater than a, and less than x but is not within O, then a would not be the supremum of {t|tO, t<x}. Similarily, if there is a number is less than b and greater than x, but is not within O, then b would not be the infimum of {t|tO, t>x}. Thus, O also contains (a,x) and (x,b) and so O contains (a,b). If yx and y(a,b), then the interval constructed from this element as above would be the same. If y<a, then inf{t|tO, t>y} would also be less than a because there is a number between y and a which is not within O. Similarly if y>b, then sup{t|tO, t<y} would also be greater than b because there is a number between y and b which is not within O. Thus, all possible open intervals constructed from the above process are disjoint. The union of all such open intervals constructed from an element x is thus O, and so O is a union of disjoint open intervals. Because the rational numbers is dense in R, there is a rational number within each open interval, and since the rational numbers is countable, the open intervals themselves are also countable.

[edit] Examples of closed sets

1. In any metric space, a singleton {x} is closed. To see why, consider the open set, {x}c.

Let . Then , so d(y,x) > 0. Let . Then . So {x}c is open, and hence {x} is closed. 2. In any metric space, every finite set T = {x1,x2,...,xn} is closed. To see why, observe that is open, so T is closed. 3. Closed intervals [a,b] are closed.
4. Cantor Set Consider the interval [0,1] and call it C0. Let A1 be equal {0, } and let dn =

. Let An+1 be equal to the set An{x|x=a+2dn, aAn}. Let Cn be

{[a,a+dn]},

which is the finite union of closed sets, and is thus closed. Then the intersection is called the Cantor set and is closed.

[edit] Exercises
1. Prove that a point x has a sequence of points within X converging to x if and only if all balls containing x contain at least one element within X. 2. In the only sets that are both open and closed are the empty set, and the entire set. This is not the case when you look at . Give an example of a set which is both open and closed in . 3. Let A be a set in the space x. Prove the following: 1. Cl(A) = Int(Ac)c 2. Int(A) = Cl(Ac)c

[edit] Continuity
[edit] Definition
Let's recall the idea of continuity of functions. Continuity means, intuitively, that you can draw a function on a paper, without lifting your pen from it. Continuity is important in topology. But let's start in the beginning: The classic delta-epsilon definition: Let (X,d),(Y,e) be spaces. A function is continuous at a point x if for all x > 0 there exists a such that: for all x1 such that , we have that e(f(x),f(x1)) < x. Let's rephrase the definition to use balls: A function is continuous at a point x if for all x > 0 there exists such that the following holds: for every x1 such that we have that . Or more simply:

Looks better already! But we can do more. Definitions:

A function is continuous in a set S if it is continuous at every point in S. A function is continuous if it is continuous in its entire domain.

Proposition: A function is continuous, by the definition above for every open -1 set U in Y, The inverse image of U, f (U), is open in X. Note that f does not have to be surjective or bijective for f - 1 to be well defined. The notation f - 1 simply means . direction). We

Proof: First, let's assume that a function f is continuous by definition (The need to show that for every open set U, f - 1(U) is open. Let be an open set. Let

. f(x) is in U and because U is open, we can find . Because f is continuous, for that x, we can find a

and x, such that

such that . that means that , and therefore, x is an internal point. This is true for every x - meaning that all the points in f - 1(U) are internal points, and by definition, f - 1(U) is open. ( )On the other hand, let's assume that for a function f for every open set open in X. We need to show that f is continuous. For every can find a and for every x > 0, The set is open in X. Note that such that , and we have that , f - 1(U) is

is open in Y. Therefore the set . Because V is open, that means that we .

The last proof gave us an additional definition we will use for continuity for the rest of this book. The beauty of this new definition is that it only uses open-sets, and there for can be applied to spaces without a metric, so we now have two equivalent definitions which we can use for continuity.

[edit] Examples

Let f be any function from any space (X,d), to any space (Y,e), were d is the discrete metric. Then f is continuous. Why? For every open set U, the set f - 1(U) is open, because every set is open in a space with the discrete metric. Let The identity function. f is continuous: The source of every open set is itself, and therefore open.

[edit] Exercise

1. Prove that a function

is continuous inverse image of U, f - 1(U), is closed in X.

for every closed set U in Y, The

[edit] Uniform Continuity

In a metric space X, function from X to a metric space Y is uniformly continuous if for all , there exists a such that for all , d(x1,x2) < implies that d(f(x1),f(x2)) < .

[edit] Isometry
An isometry is a surjective mapping for all , (a,b) = (f(a),f(b)). , where (X,) and (Y,) are metric spaces and

In this case, (X,) and (Y,) are said to be isometric. Note that the injectivity of f follows from the property of preserving distance: f(a) = f(b)

So an isometry is necessarily bijective.

[edit] Exercises
1. Show that a set is a metric open set iff it is a (possibly infinite) union of open balls.

2. Show that the discrete metric is in fact a metric.

Topology/Path Connectedness
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Contents
[hide]

1 Definition 2 Example 3 Adjoining Paths 4 Relation to Connectedness 5 Exercises

[edit] Definition
A topological space X is said to be path connected if for any two points exists a continuous function such that f(0) = x0 and f(1) = x1 there

[edit] Example
1. All convex sets in a vector space are connected because one could just use the segment connecting them, which is . 2. The unit square defined by the vertices [0,0],[1,0],[0,1],[1,1] is path connected. Given two points the points are . connected by the function f(t) = [(1 t)a0 + ta1,(1 t)b0 + tb1] for The preceding example works in any convex space (it is in fact almost the definition of a convex space).

[edit] Adjoining Paths

Let X be a topological space and let . Consider two continuous functions such that f1(0) = a, f1(1) = b = f2(0) and f2(1) = c. Then the function defined by

Is a continuous path from a to c. Thus, a path from a to b and a path from b to c can be adjoined together to form a path from a to c.

[edit] Relation to Connectedness

Each path connected space X is also connected. This can be seen as follows: Assume that X is not connected. Then X is the disjoint union of two open sets A and B. Let and . Then there is a path f from a to b, i.e., is a continuous

function with f(0) = a and f(1) = b. But then f 1(A) and f - 1(B) are disjoint open sets in [0,1], covering the unit interval. This contradicts the fact that the unit interval is connected.

[edit] Exercises
1. Prove that the set , where

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Topology/Points in Sets
< Topology This page may need to be reviewed for quality. Jump to: navigation, search

Contents
[hide]

1 Some Important Constructions o 1.1 Closure o 1.2 Interior o 1.3 Exterior o 1.4 Boundary o 1.5 Limit Points o 1.6 Isolated Points o 1.7 Density 2 Types of Spaces o 2.1 Perfect Spaces 3 Some Basic Results 4 Exercises

[edit] Some Important Constructions

Let A be an arbitrary subset of X.

[edit] Closure

A point x is called a point of closure of a set A if for every neighbourhood U of x, Define the closure of A to be the intersection of all closed sets containing A, denoted Cl(A) (some authors use ). The closure has the nice property of being the smallest closed set containing A. Each neighborhood (nbd) of every point in the closure intersects A.

[edit] Interior

We say that x is an internal point of A iff There is an open set U,

and

Define the interior of A to be the union of all open sets contained inside A, denoted Int(A) (some authors use ). The interior has the nice property of being the largest open set contained inside A. Every point in the interior has a nbd contained inside A.

Note that a set A is Open iff A = Int(A)

[edit] Exterior

Define the exterior of A to be the union of all open sets contained inside the complement of A, denoted . It is the largest open set inside . . Every point in the exterior has a nbd contained inside

[edit] Boundary

Define the boundary of A to be , denoted Bd(A) (some authors prefer ). The boundary is also called the frontier. It is always closed since it is the intersection of the closed set Cl(A) and the closed set . It can be proved that A is closed if it contains all its boundary, and is open if it contains none of its boundary. Every nbd of every point in the boundary intersects both A and obviously points of contact of A. . All boundary points of a set A are

[edit] Limit Points

A point x is called a limit point of a set A if for every neighborhood U of x, . All limit points of a set A are obviously points of closure of the set A.

[edit] Isolated Points

If a neighborhood N of a point

can be found such that

, then x is called an isolated point.

[edit] Density
Definition: A subset A of a topological space X is called dense if any point the point x is a limit point of A. Definition: In a topological space X, is dense if Cl(A) = X. is in A, or if

Example: The set of rational numbers is dense in the set of real numbers.

Definition: In a topological space X, a set open sets.

is nowhere dense if Cl(A) has no nonempty

Example: The set of natural numbers is nowhere dense in the set of real numbers.

Definition: Suppose X is a topological space. Then for Definition: Suppose X is a topological space. Then for only if .

, A is dense in X if

, A is nowhere dense in X if and

Definition: A G set is a subset of a topological space that is a countable intersection of open sets. Definition: An F set is a countable union of closed sets. Theorem (Hausdorff Criterion) Suppose X has 2 topologies, r1 and r2. For each , let B1x be a neighbourhood base for x in topology r1 and B2x be a neighbourhood base for x in topology r2. Then, Theorem In any topological space, the boundary of an open set is closed and nowhere dense. Proof: Let A be an open set in a topological space X. Since A is open, int(A) = A. Thus, A ( or the boundary of A) = . Note that . The complement of an open set is closed, and the closure of any set is closed. Thus, is an intersection of closed sets and is itself closed. A subset of a topological space is nowhere dense if and only if the interior of its closure is empty. So, proceeding in consideration of the boundary of A.
The interior of the closure of the boundary of A is equal to the interior of the boundary of A. Thus, it is equal to Which is also equal to . .

if and only if at each

, if

And,

. So, the interior of the closure of the boundary of A = ., and as such, the boundary of A is nowhere dense.

[edit] Types of Spaces

We can also categorize spaces based on what kinds of points they have.

[edit] Perfect Spaces

If a space contains no isolated points, then the space is a perfect space.

[edit] Some Basic Results

For every set A; Proof: Let . If a closed set . be open. Thus,

and

, then

. As

for closed

; we have Let we have

being arbitrary, . As . being arbitrary, we have for open U;

A set A is open if and only if Int(A) = A. Proof: ( ) A is open and . Hence, . But we know that and hence Int(A) = A ( ) As Int(A) is a union of open sets, it is open (from definition of open set). Hence A = Int(A) is also open.

A set A is closed if and only if Cl(A) = A. Proof: Observe that the complement of Cl(A) satisfies Hence, the required result is equivalent to the statement " and only if ". A is closed implies that and hence we can use the previous property. is open, . is open if

The closure Cl(A) of a set A is closed Proof:

Let be a closed set such that . Now, for closed . We know that the intersection of any collection of closed sets is closed, and hence Cl(A) is closed.

[edit] Exercises
1. Prove the following identities for subsets A,B of a topological space X:
o o o

2. Show that the following identities need not hold (i.e. give an exaple of a topological space and sets A and B for which they fail):
o o

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Topology/Separation Axioms
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Contents
[hide]

1 Separation Axioms for Topological Spaces 2 Relations among the Separation Properties 3 Exercises 4 Some Important Theorems o 4.1 Theorem 3.1.2 o 4.2 Theorem 3.1.3

o o

4.3 Theorem 3.1.4 4.4 Urysohn's Lemma

5 Exercises

[edit] Separation Axioms for Topological Spaces

A topology on a space is a collection of subsets called open. We can then ask questions such as "can we separate any two distinct points in the space by enclosing them in two disjoint open sets?" For the real line with its usual topology, the answer is obviously yes, but there are spaces for which this is not so. It turns out that many properties of continous maps one could take for granted depend, in fact, on one of the conditions stated below holding. Topological spaces are classified according to which such conditions, called separation axioms, happen to hold. Let be a topological space, and let x,y be any two distinct points in that space. The following conditions, ordered from least to most restrictive, are ones we may wish to place on :
T0 For every x, y, there exists an open set O that contains one point of the pair, but not the other. T1 For every x, y, there exist open sets O1 and O2, such that O1 contains x but not y and O2 contains y but not x. T2 For every x, y, there exist disjoint open sets O1 and O2, such that O1 contains x and O2 contains y. T2 spaces are also called Hausdorff spaces. T2 For every x, y, there exist disjoint closed neighborhoods O1 and O2 of x and y respectively. regular If C is a closed set, and z is a point not in C, there exist disjoint open sets O1 and O2, such that O1 contains C and O2 contains z. A topological space that is both regular and T1 is called T3. completely regular

If C is a closed set, and z is a point not in C, there exists a continuous function such that f(z)=0 and for any , we have f(w)=1 (i.e. f(C)={1}). A topological space that is both completely regular and T1 is called T3. normal If C1 and C2 are disjoint closed sets, there exist disjoint open sets O1 and O2, such that O1 contains C1 and O2 contains C2. A topological space that is both normal and T1 is called T4. completely normal Let C1 and C2 be separated sets, meaning that . Then there exist disjoint open sets O1 and O2, such that O1 contains C1 and O2 contains C2. A topological space that is both completely normal and T1 is called T5. perfectly normal If C1 and C2 are disjoint closed sets, there exists a continuous function such that f - 1({0}) = C1 and f - 1({1}) = C2. A topological space that is both perfectly normal and T1 is called T6.

NOTE: Many authors treat regular, completely regular, normal, completely normal, and perfectly normal spaces as synonyms for the corresponding Ti property.

[edit] Relations among the Separation Properties

The Ti separation properties (axioms) form a hierarchy, such that if i>j, then property Ti implies property Tj. When property Ti+1 implies Tx, which in turn implies Ti, and Tx was proposed after Ti and Ti+1, Tx is designated Ti. Other implications of these properties include:

Complete regularity always implies regularity, even without assuming T1; T0 alone suffices to make a regular space T3. The full T1 property is unnecessary; Perfect normality implies complete normality, which in turn implies normality; A topological space is completely normal if and only if every subspace is normal.

[edit] Exercises
1. Suppose that a topological space X is T1. Given open to conclude that X is closed. , show that is

2. Given a topological space X, and given that for all that X is T1.

, {x} is closed, show

[edit] Some Important Theorems

[edit] Theorem 3.1.2
Let X be a T2 space and let sn be a sequence in X. Then sn either does not converge in X or it converges to a unique limit. Proof Assume that sn converges to two distinct values x and y. Since X is T2, there are disjoint open sets U and V such that Now by definition of convergence, there is an integer M such that Similarly there is an integer N such that implies . and . implies .

Take an integer K that is greater than both M and N, so that sK is in both U and V, contradicting the fact that the two sets are disjoint. Therefore sn cannot converge to both x and y.

[edit] Theorem 3.1.3

If X is a metric space, then X is normal. Proof Given any , and any point , define the distance, d(x,A) from x to A by , where d(x,a) is the distance function supplied by definition of a metric space. Observe that Fix closed, disjoint subsets A,B of X, and define is continuous. by

(Note f well--defined, since for any , we have d(x,S) = 0 iff x in the closure of S.) Observe f is 1 on A, -1 on B, and in the open interval ( 1,1) elsewhere. Also, f continuous by the continuity of . Therefore, and are the preimages of open sets (open in [ 1,1], that is) and therefore open, and they're disjoint as the preimages of disjoint sets.

[edit] Theorem 3.1.4

If X is a metric space, then X is Hausdorff. Proof

Let x and y be two distinct points, and let . Then Bd(x) and Bd(y) are open sets which are disjoint since if there is a point z within both open balls, then , a contradiction.

[edit] Urysohn's Lemma

A topological space X is normal if and only if for any disjoint closed sets C1 and C2, there exists a continuous function such that f(C1) = {0} and f(C2) = {1}. Proof In order to prove Urysohn's Lemma, we first prove the following result: Let X be a topological space. X is normal if and only if for every closed set U, and open set V containing U, there is a set S containing U whose closure is within V. Suppose that X is normal. If V is X, then X is a set containing U whose closure is within V. Otherwise, the complement of V is a nonempty closed set, which is disjoint from U. Thus, by the normality of X, there are two disjoint open sets A and B, where A contains U and B contains the complement of V. The closure of A does not meet B because all points in B have a neighborhood that is entirely within B and thus does not meet A (since they are disjoint), so all points in B are not within the closure of A. Thus, the set A is a set containing U, and whose closure does not meet B, and therefore does not meet the complement of V, and therefore is entirely contained in V. Conversely, take any two disjoint closed sets U and V. The complement of V is an open set containing the closed set U. Therefore, there is a set S1 containing U whose closure is within the complement of V, which is the same thing as being disjoint from V. Then the complement of V is an open set containing the closed set Cl(S1). Therefore, there is a set S2 containing S1 such that Cl(S2) is within the complement of V i. e. is disjoint from V. Then S1 and the complement of S2 are open sets which respectively contain U and V, which are disjoint. Now we prove Urysohn's Lemma. Let X be a normal space, and let U and V be two closed sets. Set U0 to be U, and set U1 to be X. Let be a set containing U_0 whose closure is contained in U1. In general, inductively define for all natural numbers n and for all natural numbers a < 2n 1 to be a set containing whose closure is contained within the complement of

. This defines Up where p is a rational number in the interval [0,1] expressible in the form where a and n are whole numbers. Now define the function [0,1] to be f(p)=inf{x| }.

Consider any element x within the normal space X, and and consider any open interval (a,b) around f(x). There exists rational numbers c and d in that open interval expressible in the form where p and n are whole numbers, such that c<f(x)<d. If c<0, then replace it with 0, and if d>1, then replace it with 1. Then the intersection of the complement of the set Uc and the set Ud is an open neighborhood of f(x) with an image within (a,b), proving that the function is continuous. Conversely, suppose that for any two disjoint closed sets, there is a continuous function f from X to [0,1] such that f(x)=0 when x is an element of U, and that f(x)=1 when x is an element of V. Then since the disjoint sets [0,.5) and (.5,1] are open and under the subspace topology, the inverses f 1([0,.5)), which contains X, and f 1((.5,1]), which contains Y, are also open and disjoint.

[edit] Exercises
It is instructive to build up a series of spaces, such that each member belongs to one class, but not the next.

The indiscrete topology is not T0. If X is the unit interval [0;1], and , then this space is T0 but not T1. Consider an arbitrary infinite set X. Let X and every finite subset be closed sets, and call the open sets . Determine whether (X,), is a topological space which is T1 but not T2. Hint: Consider the intersection of any two open, non-empty sets.

Verify that

T1 implies T0 T2 implies T1 T3 implies T2 (hint: use theorem 3.1.1)

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Topology/Sequences
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A sequence in a space X is defined as a function from the set of natural numbers into that space, that is . The members of the domain of the sequence are and are denoted by f(n) = an. The sequence itself, or more specifically its domain are often denoted by . The idea is that you have an infinite list of elements from the space; the first element of the sequence is f(1), the next is f(2), etc. For example, consider the sequence in given by f(n) = 1 / n. This is simply the points 1,1 / 2,1 / 3,1 / 4,... Also, consider the constant sequence f(n) = 1. You can think of this as the number 1, repeated over and over.

[edit] Convergence
Let X be a set and let be a topology on X Let be a sequence in X and let We say that " converges to x" if for any neighborhood U of x, there exists and n > N together imply This is written as such that

[edit] Exercises
1. Give a rigorous description of the following sequences of natural numbers: (i) (ii) 2. Let X be a set and let be a topology over X. Let and let U be a neighbourhood of x.

Let

and . Let

. Similarly construct neighbourhoods be a sequence such that each .

with

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Topology/Subspaces
< Topology This page may need to be reviewed for quality. Jump to: navigation, search Put simply, a subspace is analogous to a subset of a topological space. Subspaces have powerful applications in topology.

[edit] Definition
Let A set be a topological space, and let X1 be a subset of X. Define the open sets as follows: is open in X1 if there exists a a set such that

An important idea to note from the above definitions is that a set not being open or closed does not prevent it from being open or closed within a subspace. For example, (0,1) as a subspace of itself is both open and closed. Retrieved from "http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Topology/Subspaces" Category: Topology (book)

Topology/Topological Spaces
< Topology Jump to: navigation, search In this section, we will define what a topology is and give some examples and basic constructions.

Contents
[hide]

1 Motivation 2 Definition of a topological space 3 Examples of topological spaces o 3.1 Metric Topology o 3.2 The usual topology on the real numbers o 3.3 The cofinite topology on any set o 3.4 The cocountable topology on any set 4 Sets in topological spaces o 4.1 Definition o 4.2 Theorem o 4.3 Theorem o 4.4 Theorem 5 Exercises

[edit] Motivation
In Abstract Algebra, a field generalizes the concept of operations on the real number line. This general definition allows concepts about quite different mathematical objects to be grasped intuitively by comparison with the real numbers. Likewise, the concept of a topological space is concerned with generalizing the structure of sets in Euclidean spaces. Of course, for many topological spaces the similarities are remote, but nevertheless aid in judgment and guide proofs. Interesting differences in the structure of sets in Euclidean space, which have analogies in topological spaces, are connectedness, compactness, dimensionality, and the presence of "holes". If we begin with an arbitrary set, it may not be immediately obvious what is needed to imbue it with an interesting structure. One possibility might be to define a metric on the set, but as it turns out, requiring a metric is overly restrictive. In fact, there are many equivalent ways to define what we will call a topological space just by defining families of subsets of a given set. The properties of the topological space depend on the number of subsets and the ways in which these sets overlap. Topological spaces can be fine or coarse, connected or disconnected, have few or many dimensions.

The most popular way to define a topological space is in terms of open sets, analogous to those of Euclidean Space. (In Euclidean space, an open set is intuitively seen as a set that does not contain its "boundary").

[edit] Definition of a topological space

Given a set X, a topology following properties:

on X is a collection of subsets of X (called open sets) with the

The empty set and X are both in . The union of any collection of open sets is an open set. That is, . The intersection of any finite collection of open sets is an open set. That is, .

The pair is called a topological space. If the topology is evident or does not need an explicit name (since we can just refer to sets in the topology as open sets), then we just say that X is a topological space.

[edit] Examples of topological spaces

For any set X, there are two topologies we can always define on X:

The Discrete topology - the topology consisting of all subsets of a set X. The Indiscrete topology (also known as the trivial topology) - the topology consisting of just X and the empty set, .

[edit] Metric Topology

Given a metric space , its metric topology is the topology induced by using the set of all open balls as the base. One can also define the topology induced by the metric, as the set of all open subsets defined by the metric. We denote the topology induced from the metric d with

This forms a topological space from a metric space. If for a topological space , we can find a metric d, such that topological space is called metrizable. , then the

[edit] The usual topology on the real numbers

We can define a topology is an such that usual topology on .

on

by defining

to be in

if for every point

, there

. We call this topology the standard topology, or

[edit] The cofinite topology on any set

Let X be a non-empty set. Define following:
1. Either 2. Or

to be the collection of all subsets G of X satisfying the

is finite.

Then is a topology on X called the cofinite topology (or "finite complement topology") on X. Further, this topology turns out to be discrete if and only if X is finite.

[edit] The cocountable topology on any set

Let X be a non-empty set. Define following:
1. Either 2. Or

to be the collection of all subsets G of X satisfying the

is countable.

Then is a topology on X called the cocountable topology (or "countable complement topology") on X. Further, this topology turns out to be discrete if and only if X is countable.

[edit] Sets in topological spaces

Let X be a topological space. There are many types of sets we can define on X.

The complement of a set A in X, denoted by AC, is (that is, the entire space except for A). A subset C is called closed if the set CC is open. Notice that the intersection of any nonzero number of closed sets is closed and the union of finitely many closed sets is closed. Note also that a set can be both closed and open. The trivial examples are the empty set and the entire set X, each of which is both closed and open. By definition, is open, so its complement, X, is closed. But X, by definition, is an open set, so X is both open and closed. A set N is called a neighborhood of a point , if there is an open set U such that

We now investigate some commonly occurring sets in the study of Topology.

[edit] Definition
In a topological space, a G set is a countable intersection of open sets. A F set is a countable union of closed sets.

[edit] Theorem
The complement of a F set is G, and vice versa. Proof: Let A be a F set and let . Then A is a countable union of closed sets, such that An

is closed for all n. Then . Since An is closed, countable intersection of open sets. Hence Ac is G.

is open, so we have a

The entirely similar proof of the other implication is left to the reader.

[edit] Theorem
In any metric space, a closed set is a G set. Proof: Let X be a metric space and let Define . . Observe that On is open for any n, and hence the to show that a closed set is the

union is open. Now our goal is to show that intersection of countably many open sets. : Let

. Then 1 / n(x) intersects A at some x0 which implies .

. This is

true for any n so : Let such that Therefore and

. Then , which implies

such that . Thus

. So .

in A

and is therefore a G set.

[edit] Theorem

In usual

is a F set. is closed.

Proof: Since with the usual topology is a metric space, every singleton such that Thus, we have a countable union of closed sets, and hence is a F set.

[edit] Exercises
1. Prove the following are topologies: o The discrete topology on any set. o The indiscrete topology on any set. o The cofinite topology on any set. o The cocountable topology on any set. 2. Show that the cofinite (respectively, cocountable) topology on a set X equals the discrete topology if and only if X is finite (respectively, countable). 3. Prove that a set is open if and only if for every element within the set, there is a neighborhood contained within the set. 4. Show that the discrete topology is the topology induced by the discrete metric. (This is also a splendid way of remembering which is the discrete and the indiscrete topology)
(16:28, 31 March 2008 (UTC))

Retrieved from "http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Topology/Topological_Spaces" Category: Topology (book)

Derived set (mathematics)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search

In mathematics, more specifically in point-set topology, the derived set of a subset S of a topological space is the set of all limit points of S. It is usually denoted by S. The concept was first introduced by Georg Cantor in 1872 and he developed set theory in large part to study derived sets on the real line.

Contents
[hide]

1 Properties 2 Topology in terms of derived sets

3 CantorBendixson rank 4 External links 5 References

[edit] Properties

The zero set of a Wiener process path is a perfect set.

A subset S of a topological space is closed precisely when . Two subsets S and T are separated precisely when they are disjoint and each is disjoint from the other's derived set (though the derived sets don't need to be disjoint from each other). The set S is defined to be a perfect set if S = S. Equivalently, a perfect set is a closed set with no isolated points. Perfect sets are particularly important in applications of the Baire category theorem. Two topological spaces are homeomorphic if and only if there is a bijection from one to the other such that the derived set of the image of any subset is the image of the derived set of that subset. The CantorBendixson theorem states that any Polish space can be written as the union of a countable set and a perfect set. Because any G subset of a Polish space is again a Polish space, the theorem also shows that any G subset of a Polish space is the union of a countable set and a set that is perfect with respect to the induced topology.

[edit] Topology in terms of derived sets

Because homeomorphisms can be described entirely in terms of derived sets, derived sets have been used as the primitive notion in topology. A set of points X can be equipped with an operator * mapping subsets of X to subsets of X, such that for any set S and any point a:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Note that given 5, 3 is equivalent to 3' below, and that 4 and 5 together are equivalent to 4' below, so we have the following equivalent axioms:
1. 2.

3'. 4'.

If we call a set S closed if , this will define a topology on the space in which * is the derived set operator, that is, . If we also require that the derived set of a set consisting of a single element be empty, the resulting space will be a T1 space.

[edit] CantorBendixson rank

For ordinal numbers , the -th CantorBendixson derivative of a topological space is defined by transfinite induction as follows:

X0 = X X+1 = (X)' X = X for limit ordinals .

The transfinite sequence of CantorBendixson derivatives of X must eventually be constant. The smallest ordinal such that X+1 = X is called the CantorBendixson rank of X.

[edit] External links

PlanetMath's article on the CantorBendixson derivative

[edit] References

Kechris, A. (1995). Classical Descriptive Set Theory (Graduate Texts in Mathematics 156 ed.). Springer. ISBN 0-387-94374-9 ISBN 3-540-94374-9. Sierpiski, Wacaw F.; translated by Krieger, C. Cecilia (1952). General Topology. University of Toronto Press.

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derived_set_(mathematics)" Categories: General topology