Atomic Considerations

ELEC 424 John Peeples

What Changed
Interest in atomic scale physics grew Newtonian Physics adequately defines in a common
sense manner matter in motion we observe daily Quantum Mechanics are needed to describe behavior of atomic scale particles and may seem to defy common sense, only because we observe atomic interactions only indirectly.

Late 1800s
Light is observed to diffract into interference patterns
when shone through slitsmust be wave-like. BUT electrons ejected when light strikes certain metal surfaces depend on the frequency of the exciting light, not the amountmust be particle-like. Electrons diffract when shone through slitswavelike. BUT we always thought of electrons as particles.

Early 1900s
In 1911, Rutherford establishes that atoms are
composed of a solid core surrounded by a much larger shell of electrons.

Classical EM and mechanical theory - orbits should erode as energy is radiated, causing the atoms to collapse.

Radiated spectra from heated bodies and from

hydrogen atoms could not be explained classically. Electron interaction with magnetic fields was observed to be weirdly constrained.

So
1901 - Plank proposes atomic processes occur in
Quanta. Properly predicts blackbody radiation. 1905 Einstein explains photelectrics using the particle nature of light (and won a Nobel Prize). 1913 Bohr explains the spectra of the Hydrogen atom assuming quantized orbits. 1922 Compton demonstrates photon/electron interaction. 1924 Paulis exclusion principle 1925 deBroglie describes the wave-particle duality. 1926 Schrodinger describes wave-based QM 1927 Hisenberg describes matrix mechanics-based QM and defines limits of certainty.

Photelectric Effect

Light particles??

A simple experiment with a variable resistor and a voltage source determine the emitted particle energy. A voltage applied to the collecting plate was adjusted to just stop emissions at varying frequencies of light. The resulting plot of energy vs. frequency is a straight line (y=mx+b) with the y-intercept of q being the work function of the metal. This irrefutably tied the frequency of light waves to Planks quanta and won Albert Einstein a Nobel prize.

Dispersion Relationship
How frequency relates to wavelength
Light waves can be thought of as localized packets of energy, called photons, of energy E=h. Electrons can be though of with wave characteristics, such as wavelength of =h/p=h/mv. The Dispersion Relationship is the relationship between frequency and wavelength, and is different for different objects. For photons =c/v, but not for electrons, as will be discussed in chapter 3.

Atomic Spectra
v v v cR(1 1 4 1 cR( 9 cR( 1 ), n 2,3,4 n2 1 ), n 3,4,5 n2 1 ), n 4,5,6 n2

Analysis of light emissions from atoms

Lyman Balmer Paschen

R=Rydberg constant=109,678/cm

Bohrs Atom
Postulates 1. Orbits are stable 2. Electrons can change orbits 3. Angular momentum of each orbit is an integral multiple of Plancks constant divided by 2 . Coulombic attractive force must equal centripetal force. Orbit radii are constrained as momentum can only exist as integer multiples of Bohrs atom was OK for hydrogen, but misses some subtleties, and falls short on more complicated atoms.hence QM!

q Kr 2
p

mv2 r
K 4 h/2
0

mvr n

Schrodinger and Hisenberg

1926 Schrodinger describes wave-based QM

Each particle can be described as a wave function, (Psi) Classical variables are mapped to quantum operators (p 42). The probability of finding a particle is expressed by its wave function and volume of interest.

1927 Hisenberg describes matrix mechanics-based QM and defines limits of certainty.

Cannot know position and momentum precisely. Cannot know energy and time precisely. Limit to either certainty product is / 2

Figure 25 The problem of a particle in a potential well: (a) potential energy diagram; (b) wave functions in the first three quantum states; (c) probability density distribution for the second state.

Figure 26 Quantum mechanical tunneling: (a) potential barrier of height V 0 and thickness W; (b) probability density for an electron with energy E < V 0, indicating a non-zero value of the wave function beyond the barrier.

Figure 27 The spherical coordinate system.

Figure 28 Electronic structure and energy levels in a Si atom: (a) The orbital model of a Si atom showing the 10 core electrons (n = 1 and 2), and the 4 valence electrons (n = 3); (b) energy levels in the coulombic potential of the nucleus are also shown schematically.

Figure 29 Orbitals in a Si atom: The spherically symmetric s type wave functions or orbitals are positive everywhere, while the three mutually perpendicular p type orbitals ( p x , p y , p z ) are dumbbell shaped and have a positive lobe and a negative lobe. The four sp 3 hybridized orbitals, only one of which is shown here, point symmetrically in space and lead to the diamond lattice in Si.

Homework Due Wednesday, 5/25/11

Point A is at an electrostatic potential of +1V
relative to point B in a vacuum. An electron initially at rest at B moves to A. What energy (expressed in Joules and in eV) does the electron have at A? What is its velocity in m/s? 2.5, 2.6, and 2.11 in text, p57