1.BJT can not be used for MIcrowave application because gain of BJT amplifier de creases as the frequency increses.

so response become poor. Ans: This can be misleading! Bipolar amplifiers are used widely for high frequency am plifiers. However, it is easier to get the same performance using modern CMOS or GaAs technology. Common base configuration is good for high frequency amplifiers. This is because the junction capacitance of emitter base as well as collector base is connected between input and ground and output and ground respectively. Thus, it can be ab sorbed in the input/output tuned circuits. In the common emitter configuration, the collector base junction capacitance con stitutes feedback from output (at collector) to the input (at base). This makes it tricky to stabilize the amplifier at high frequencies. 2. can a common base amplifier be used in audio amplifier? pls answer with reaso n. what are the practical applications of common base amplifier? Ans: Any low frequency amplifier can be used for audio amplification. As mentioned by me elsewhere in this discussion, the 741 - a low frequency opamp, uses a common collector/common base combination at its input. In practical use, common base amplifiers are used when the input can feed the lo w input impedance of the cb configuration, and where the high voltage gain offer ed by common base is useful. Examples are: a phonogram amplifier using a low imp edance coil pick up, RF oscillators which use a step down secondary coil for fee dback etc. 3. Sir , is there any condition such that when Ic is less than Beta Ib for the t ransistor to go into saturation ? Ans: In saturation Ic will be less than (beta. Ib). This is one of the signs of satur ation. Also, in saturation (for an npn transistor) Vc < Vb. Both base-emitter an d base-collector junctions will be forward biased. Vc = Ve + Vcesat. This situation can can be seen in many circuits. In one of the home assignment p roblems I gave (BJT Assignment #1) there was a problem on finding the maximum va lue of Rc that can be used in the given CE biasing circuit. Above a certain valu e of Rc, the voltage Vc drops such that Vce becomes 0.2v (approx) and Ic < (beta .Ib). 4,. sir why always collector junction bias voltage is much greater than the emit ter junction bias voltage when transistor is in active mode? Ans: Let us consider an npn transistor. In the active mode, the base-emitter junction is forward biased with about 0.7V. Base-collector junction is reverse-biased. V alid voltage range for the C-B jn is VCB > -0.4V. To make it simple let us say V C > VB. However when the circuit (say CE amp) is used, one needs to ensure that the above condition is always satisfied, even with the largest signal swing. Thi s is why VC >> VB or VCB voltage is at least a few volts. 5. what is apllication of zero crossing detector? Ans: Also, any application where one needs to get an indication whether the input vol tage is > 0 or not. Sine wave to square-wave conversion is another commonly used application of the zero-crossing detector. in digital communication for detecting logic levels '1' or '0'. op amp Slew Rate

ans: The maximum output current from an opamp is limited. Since CdV/dt = I, dV/dt = I/C is limited. This is called slew rate limitation. Consider an amplifier stage with a closed loop gain of 100. Suppose the rate of change of voltage at the input is 100 mV This means the <output> should change at the rate of 10V per This could be too high, depending on the design of the opamp tance. So the opamp will be unable to support this expected rate of t, because it is above its slew rate limitation. in 1 microsecond. microsecond. and the load capaci change at its outpu

Thus, you can have a configuration, where the peak to peak output is within the capability of the opamp, but it cannot keep up with the rate of change required to faithfully reproduce its input at the output with a constant gain. This is what leads to distortion at high dV/dt, which is likely to occur at high frequency. 6. IN OP AMP CONSISTING OF TWO TRANSISTORS WITH THEIR EMMITERS CONNECTED TO FORM A DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER..HOW CAN THE RESISTANCE re CONNECTED ACROSS THE EMITTE R CAN PROVIDE NEGATIVE FEEDBACK..AND HOW CAN IT DECREASE THE GAIN AT THE COLLECT OR...PLZZZZ GIVE CLARITY IN THIS TOPIC ...WAITING FOR A REPLY Ans: In a transistor with emiiter resstance , the output current flows through emitte r resistance. There fore the input voltage Vin is the sum of Vbe and (Ie X Re).If Vin inceases then Ie increases and it decrases the Vbe .finally it compansates the increased output current.so the emitter resistance maintains currnt series negative feedb ac. 7. Why the active filter gain becomes 0.707 times the maximum gain where as powe r becomes half at the same cut off frequency ? Consider two voltages V1=V and V2=v/sqrt(2) applied across a resistor. The power absorbed by the resistor is V^2/2. For the second voltage, it is half of the fi rst. 1/sqrt(2) = 0.707. 8. The Early effect is the variation in the width of the base in a bipolar junct ion transistor (BJT) due to a variation in the applied base-to-collector voltage ,A greater reverse bias across the collector base junction, for example, increases t he collector base depletion width, decreasing the width of the charge neutral portio n of the base.

Under increased collector base reverse bias, a widening of the depletion region in t he base and the associated narrowing of the neutral base region. The collector depletion region also increases under reverse bias, more than does that of the base, because the collector is less heavily doped. The principle go verning these two widths is charge neutrality. The narrowing of the collector do es not have a significant effect as the collector is much longer than the base. The emitter base junction is unchanged because the emitter base voltage is the same.

There is a lesser chance for recombination within the "smaller" base region. The charge gradient is increased across the base, and consequently, the current of minority carriers injected across the emitter junction increases.

Both these factors increase the collector or "output" current of the transistor with an increase in the collector voltage. This increased current is shown in Fi gure 2. Tangents to the characteristics at large voltages extrapolate backward t o intercept the voltage axis at a voltage called the Early voltage, often denote d by the symbol VA. 9. what is differance between saturation current and scale current? How scale cu rrent depends on the width of base region Saturation current and scale current (IS) of a BJT are both the same. For a npn transistor the expression for IS is IS = (AE q Dn ni2)/(NA W) where AE = cross sectional area of base-emitter jn q = electronic charge Dn = electron diffusivity in the base W = effective width of base NA = doping cocentration in the base ni = intrinsic carrier density From the above equation we see that IS increases with AE and decreases with W. 10.