ON

NTPC

SANJEEV KR. CHAURASIA

B-Tech (3rd YEAR) ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ANAND ENGG. COLLEGE,AGRA

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Acknowledgement
I am very grateful and thankful to all those who were a part of this project and helped me towards its smooth and efficient completion. I feel especially

thankful to Mr.Munish jauhri,Mr. A.K Singh Mr. S.P Sathe, Mr. Sameer Kashyap and Mr. Chavi Pant to name a few for their helpful contribution and knowledge without which my project would not be a reality.

SANJEEV KR. CHAURASIA B-Tech (3rd YEAR) ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

ANAND ENGG. COLLEGE AGRA

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page no.
1. 2. 3.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.2 TABLE OF CONTENTS..3 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS..13 A. B. C. D.

TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT PRESSURE MEASUREMENT MEASUREMENT OF LEVEL FLOW MEASUREMENT

4. 5.

RECORDING INSTRUMENTS....30 TELEMETERING .34

CONTROL & INSTRUMENTATION

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS:
In any process the philosophy of instrumentation should provide a comprehensive intelligence feed back on the important parameters viz. Temperature, Pressure, Level and flow. This section seeks to provide a basic understanding of the prevalent instruments used for measuring the above parameters.

A-TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT: The most important parameter in thermal power plant is temperature and its measurement plays a vital role in safe operation of the plant. Rise of temperature in a substance is due to the resultant increase in molecular activity of the substance on application of heat, which increases the internal energy of the material. Therefore, there exists some property of the substance, which changes with its energy content. The change may be observed with substance itself or in a subsidiary system in thermodynamic equilibrium, which is called testing body and the system itself is called the hot body.

1- Bimetal thermometer: This device consist of two different metal strip bounded together. This metal have different coefficients of expansion & so when the temperature changes the composite strip deforms .the composite strip may be in the form of spiral so that the unwinding & winding up of the spiral, when the temperature changes .can be used to move a spiral across a seal.

2- Pressure thermometer: In pressure thermometer a sensing bulb is connected to a bourdon tube through armored capillary tube and liquid is filled. When the temperature is increased, the liquid expands and the bourdon tube straightens out to some extent and causes a pointer to move across a scale.

3-Resistance thermometer: All the conducting metal has some resistance. Resistance of a metal depends on length of the wire, area, temperature and other factors. Now, resistance depends on temperature, when temperature changes resistance will also change and this change is measured at the output of electronic circuit. This type of device is known as passive device.

4-Thermocouple: A thermocouple circuit made up from joining two wires A & B and made of dissimilar metal. Due to Seebeck effect, net EMF is generated in the circuit, which depends on the difference in temperature between the hot & cold junctions & is therefore thermometric property of the circuit. This emf can be measured by microvolt meter to a high degree of accuracy .an active device is one where a device is itself a source of electrical power.

B-PRESSURE MEASUREMENT:There are basically three main purposes of pressure measurement: 1-To obtain data about sum event or item. 2-For inspection or testing thing to determine whether an item is specific; 3-As an element in the control system.

1-The U-Tube or Manometer:

Liquid contained in a tube bend in the form of a U will respond to a difference in pressure across the two limbs. A glass tube of uniform cross sectional area is bent to form a U and partly filled with a liquid of known density d p.s.i.

PRESSURE

ELASTIC ELEMENTS

MOTION

MECHANICAL TRANSDUCER 88

o/p OLTAGE

2-Bourdon tube: Types Of Pressure Gauges: Spiral Tube: This type is used for low-pressure indication and recording when a Cshaped Bourdon tube is not suitable and where power is required. By making the oval tube in the form of a spiral an enlarged movement of the free end is achieved and thus the tube becomes more sensitive over pressure ranges below 10 p.s.i. Helical Tube: For higher pressure the tube is wound in the form of a helix and is often used in pressure recorders. Range :0-80,000 p.s.i. Critical Type: This is used in boiler houses to enable distant reading of the steam pressure to be made to the nearest 1 p.s.i. over a range of say +/- 15 p.s.i.. The movement of a pressure sensitive element is transmitted to a pointer and scale via linkages, which only allow the pointer to operate over a selected range of pressure to either side of the normal steam pressure.

3-Elastic elements:
a) Diaphragm b) Bellow c) Capsule
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LVDT type transducer:

A linear variable differential transducer type consists of transmitter with primary coil and two secondary coils. The two secondary windings are connected in series so that their output opposes each other. When there is an alternating voltage input is given to the primary coil, alternating emf is induced in the identical secondary coils. The emf induced in the 2 secondary coils will be the same. Since the secondary coils are connected in such a way that their output oppose each other the result is zero output. However when core is displaced from the central position the change in flux linkage with one coil is greater than the other the result is change the degree of coupling between primary & secondary coils. Hence the induced emf is greater than that of the other.

Piezo-electric type pressure transducer: In this a Piezo-resistive type material is cemented to the surface of a diaphragm. When the pressure is increased a crystal is stretched, ions in the crystal are displaced from their normal position. Due to this result ions in one face are positively charged and the opposite face negatively charged depending on the forces applied and the crystal concerned, this change separation results in a potential difference appearing across the crystal. This effect is called Piezo-electricity.

Capacitance type pressure transducer:The capacitance of parallel plate capacitor depends on the plate separation and so a change in this separation produces a change in capacitance. C=eA/(d+x). If strain gauge is attached to the diaphragm, changes in the capacitance changes the signal conditioner used is likely to be an A.C bridge with its out of balanced and the signal being amplified at the out put of the bridge.

C-MEASUREMENT OF LEVEL: Direct Methods:

Single Glass is used for local indication on closed or open vessels. A sight glass is a tube of toughened glass connected at both ends through packed unions and vessel. The liquid level will be same as that in the vessel. Valves are provided for isolation and blow down. Float with Gauge Post is normally used for local indication on closed or open vessels. Float Operated Dial is used for small tanks and congested areas. The float arm is connected to a quadrant and pinion which rotates the pointer over a scale. Pressure operated type: since the pressure acting on any area at the bottom of a tank depends only upon the depth and density of the contained liquid, a measure of this pressure is proportional to the liquid level. Bourdon Pressure Gauge: A Bourdon pressure gauge calibrated in any fact head is often connected to a tank at or near the datum level. Mercury Manometer is used for remote indication of liquid level. The working principle is the same as that of a manometer one limp of a Utube is connected to the tank, the other being open to atmosphere. The manometer liquid must not mix with the liquid in the vessel and where the manometer is at a different level to the vessel, the static head must be allowed in the design of the manometer. Diaphragm Type is used for remote level indication in open tanks or docks etc.. A pressure change created by the movement of a diaphragm is proportional to a change in liquid level above the diaphragm. This consists of a cylindrical box with a rubber or plastic diaphragm across its open end as the level increases, the liquid pressure on the diaphragm increases and the air

inside is compressed. This pressure is transmitted via a capillary tube to an indicator or recorder incorporating a pressure-measuring element. Sealed Capsule Type: The application and principle is the same as for the diaphragm box. In this type, a capsule filled with an inert gas under a slight pressure is exposed to the pressure due to the head of a liquid and is connected by a capillary to an indicator. In some cases the capsule is fitted external to the tank and is so arranged that it can be removed whilst the tank is still full, a spring loaded valve automatically shutting off the tapping point. Air Purge System: This system provides the simplest means of obtaining an indication of level, or volume, at a reasonable distance, and above or below, the liquid being measured. The pressure exerted inside an open-ended tube below the surface of a liquid is proportional to the depth of the liquid. Ultrasonic level detection system: In this an ultrasonic transmitter is placed above the surface of the liquid and emits pulses of ultrasonic waves. The pulses are reflected from the surface to a receiver. The time taken from the emission to the reception of the reflected pulse can be measured. Since the time taken depends on the distance of the liquid surface from the transmitter or the receiver the level of the liquid can be determined.

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D-FLOW MEASUREMENT: Two principle measurements are made by flow meters viz. Quantity
of flow and rate of flow. Quantity of flow is the quantity of fluid passing a given point in a given time, i.e., gallons or pounds. Rate of flow is the speed of a fluid passing a given point at a given instant and is proportional to quantity passing at a given instant, i.e. gallons per minute or pounds per hour. There are two groups of measuring devices:Positive or Volumetric: which measure flow by transferring a measured quantity of fluid from the inlet to the outlet. Inferential: which measures the velocity of the flow and the volume passed is inferred, it being equal to the velocity times the cross sectional ar area of the flow. The inferential type is by far the most widely used.

Pressure Difference Flow Meters: These are the most widely used type of flow meter since they are capable of measuring the flow of all industrial fluids passing through pipes. They consists of a primary element inserted in the pipeline which generates a differential pressure, the magnitude of which is proportional to the square of the rate of flow, and a secondary element which measures this differential pressure and translates it into terms of flows.

1-Primary Elements: Bernoullis theorem states that the quantity of

fluid or gas flowing is proportional to the square root of the differential pressure. There are four principal types of primary elements (or restrictions) as enumerated below:(i) Venturi: This is generally used for a medium and high quantity fluid flow and it consists of two hollow truncated cones, the smaller diameters of which are connected together by a short length of parallel pipe, the smallest diameter of the tube formed by this length of parallel pipe is

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known as the throat section and the lower of the two pressure (the throat or downstream pressure) is measured here. (ii) Orifice Plate: This is the oldest and most common form of pressure differential device. In its simplest form it consists of a thin metal plate with a central hold clamped between two pipe flanges. In the metering of dirty fluids or fluids containing solids the hope is placed so that its lower edge coincides with the inside bottom of the pipe. It is essential that the leading edge of the hole is absolutely sharp rounding or burring would have a very marked effect on the flow. (iii) Flow Nozzle: This is in fact a very short Venturi, the entrance cone is bell shaped and there is no exit cone. Both corner D and D/2 tapings are used. (iv) Pitot Tube: This is used mainly for experimental work to determine the flow in pipes or ducts prior to making a permanent installation. If a tube is placed with its open and facing into a stream of fluid then the fluid impinging on the open end will be brought to rest and its energy of motion will be converted to pressure energy. 2-Secondary Elements: These are methods of measuring differential pressure and converting it into measurement of flow. The differential pressure-measuring portion of the instrument must have a suitable range for the particular operation, it must be capable of withstanding the static pressure of the fluid in the main to which it is applied and it must be sensitive to small changes of differential pressure. The differential pressure produced by any primary element is proportional to the square of the flow so a flow meter may have a scale, which opens out as the flow increases, or a more complex system, which corrects for the square law and uses a linear scale. A U-tube manometer is the simplest form of secondary element. Here the liquid must be denser than the fluid being measured. The scale will be a square law scale. Low Differential Head Flow Meters: The Bell Type Flow meter is a typical example under this category. Here, the moving element consists of a bell suspended on a spring with the open end downwards in a sealed chamber partly filled with a liquid, which forms a seal between the inside and outside of the bell. The bell movement due to the differential pressure is transmitted to the exterior through a segmental lever and chain, or similar
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device, and a spindle rotating in a pressure light gland. These are used for low-pressure gas flows down to a maximum differential head of w.g. Medium and High Differential Head Flow Meters: The following are some of the instruments coming under this category: The Mercury Manometer consists of two metal chambers joined together by a small-bore pipe to form a U-tube, which is partly filled with mercury. Pressure tapings are made in the top of each chamber and it is usual to fit air vent valves, isolating valves and an equalizing valves. Bellows Flow Meters: is capable or measuring liquid and gas flow up to the highest known static pressures normally found in industry and are tending to supersede the manometer type flow meter. In this type of flow meter the liquid seal is replaced by some form of flexible diaphragm of bellows, which form a partition in a pressure tight casing. The differential pressure produced by a primary element is applied across the bellows, which is displaced. The bellows movement is controlled by a spring. Variable Aperture Type Flow Meters: These are used to meter all types and rates of flow, e.g. water 0.5 to 40,000 gallons/hour. Air 0.01 to 300 Cu.ft/min. It consists of a tapered tube forming an upward passage with its smallest diameter at the bottom containing a tapered float having an outside diameter which just clears the bore of the tube in its lowest position where it rests on stop. As the flow increase the float rises to a position of equilibrium between the pressure loss, across the orifice and the weight of the float and any mechanism attached to it. The distance of the float from the stop will be a measure of the rate of flow.

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RECORDING INSTRUMENTS :-

ecording instruments provide a permanent record of variables in a convenient form, with indicators giving information regarding the various parameters at a given point of time. The link between a measuring instrument and a remote recording/indicating device is known as a telemeter. CHART RECORDERS: Principle: The variable is converted into an electrical signal and is fed into a recorder, which consists of a pointer, pen or stylus, which in turn marks a paper chart printed with a convenient scale. There are two basic types strip and circular chart recorders. Strip Chart Recorder: This consists basically of (I) a chart drive mechanism (ii) an indicating instrument and (iii) a multi point recording system, if fitted. THE CHART DRIVE MECHANISM: Mechanical: A clockwork mechanism. Disadvantage, clock requires winding and regulating, also numerous moving parts. Electrical: Geared synchronous motor drive. Mechanical, electrically wound: designed to overcome the possibility of power supply failure and can be more accurate than the synchronous motor because it is independent of frequency.

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When the clock spring has wound down to a predetermined level contacts make and the spring is rewound by an electric motor. Indicator: Usually a moving coil instrument is fitted with a long pointer. The pointer carries a pen, which can be fitted with a ink reservoir or be fed through the pointer tube. Circular Chart Recorder: A circular chart is arranged to rotate, say once every 24 hours. The indicator pointer carries a pen, which may be duplicated in a multi-point instrument, or one pointer may be arranged to pick up a set of pens carrying a range of colored ink.

RECORDERS AND INDICATORS:

Moving Coil Meters: In these meters a coil carrying the current to be measured (or part of it) moves in a magnetic field, produced by a permanent magnet. It is held in place by a light spring then, when current is passed round the loop it will try to rotate, and the distance it will move against the opposition of the spring will depend upon the magnitude of the current this is the principle of the moving coil-meter. Resistance Thermometer Temperature Indicator: The indicator incorporates a high resistance galvanometer and utilizes the Wheat stone bridge circuit for its operation. One arm of the bridge is subjected to the temperature being measured. The bridge is first standardized by means of a fixed resistance, which is afterwards replaced by a thermometer bulb. When the bulb is subjected to a temperature change its resistance varies by an amount proportional to the change, and the current flowing through the galvanometer produces a deflection of the pointer, which, when the scale is suitably calibrated, indicates the correct value of the temperature. The thermometer bulb is made up of a pure platinum resistor, non-inductively wound on an insulator, and enclosed in a suitable projective pocket. Multi Point Instruments: Most indicators can be supplied with multi point switch units, in which case all the leads have to be balanced, resistance wise. Adjusting the balance spiral, which is usually mounted on a terminal block in the back of the switching unit, does this. The switching unit can be either manually or motor driven, depending upon the application.

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Potentiometer: When an accurate measurement of temperature is required the most common type of detecting element is the thermocouple. Its output is a small d.c. voltage (mill volts), and the method of measurement most generally accepted is the potentiometer, for a simple potentiometric circuit.

TELEMETERING:
A telemetering system should transmit the measurement without distortion or delay. It should not pick up stray signals, neither should the reading drift. The basic parts of telemetering system is: 1- A system consists of the instrument, which measures the variable. 2-A transducer to convert the measurement into a form suitable for transmission, e.g. into an electrical signal or a pneumatic pressure. This device is called the transmitter. 3-The wires, pipe work or medium through which the signal is transmitter. 4-The receiver, which indicates or records the value of the transmitted signal, and is scaled to show the original measurement. The receiver may be the input to an automatic controller.

The common telemetering systems in industry are:

(1) Pneumatic Telemetering: It is a typical arrangement of pneumatic system elements. The functions of the major elements of this system are given in the following paragraphs: Air Supply: This primary requirement can be taken from the station system or a separate compressor and pipe work installed for the purpose. Filter: These remove moisture and dirt from air supply. Regulators: The supply of air to the telemetering system is maintained at a constant pressure by the regulator or reducer.
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Flapper or Nozzle: Air is supplied through a restriction to a nozzle, which is covered by a flapper. The flapper is connected to the measuring element so that when the measured value changes, the flapper moves nearer to (restricting air) or further from the nozzle (spilling out air faster).

(2) Electrical Telemetering:- The Basic types of electrical transmitters have been enumerated in the following paragraphs. Variable Resistance: In this type of telemeter the movement of a link moves the rider along a slide wire. This changes the voltage across that part of the slide wire. This voltage is indicated remotely on a voltmeter, which is calibrated in units of whatever parameter that is intended to be measured. Variable Inductance: A link on the measuring instrument moves the iron core of an inductor altering its inductance. This change is reflected in the change in current at a remote point. Variable Capacitance: These telemeters are used where the measurement can easily cause a change in capacitance (e.g. level in the hopper, tank). The connected circuit measures the charging current required by the capacitance of the medium. Force Balance Telemeters: These are electrical telemeters, which are made to work on the force balance principle. An increase in force from the measuring instrument causes a change in the output of a differential transformer. This alters the current flowing in an electromagnet so that it opposes a balances the original force.

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