3. Electromagnetic Waves 3.4.

EM elds (waves) in conductors The behaviour of EM waves in a conductor is quite dierent from that in a source-free medium. The conduction current in a conductor is the cause of the dierence. We shall analyze the source terms in the Maxwells equations to simplify Maxwells equations in a conductor. From this set of equations, we can derive a diusion equation and investigate the skin eects. 3.4.1 Skin Eects in Conductors A. Maxwells Equations in a Conductor Complete Maxwells equations: E = B E = t B = 0 E ~ + B = j t Fact 1: Conducting current dominates over the displacement current In a conductor, the electric eld is the driving source for the conduction current. The collision is the source of impedance. The conduction current is governed by the Ohms law: j f = E where (S/m) is the conductivity. The AC conductivity diers from the DC conductivity. Let be the collision frequency of electrons (current carrier in conductors) with ions and the frequency of the EM waves in the conductor. The equation of motion for electrons is: m d v = e E m v dt

Assume = 0 eit and use /t i, we obtain v v im = e E m v v = v e E m( i)

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which gives the AC conductivity in conductor: () =

Recall the current density is expressed by j = en (n is the electron number v density in the conductor), ne2 jf= E m( i) 1 ne2 i m

In practical situations, 1014 (1/sec) (infrared range). So the DC conductivity = can be used. Lets now compare the magnitude of conduction current with that of the displacement current. Assume E = E 0 eit . Then
j f E = = E E
t

ne2 m

In copper, = 6 107 (S/m). The condition for jf ' =

E , t

or

' 1 leads to

6 107 = 7 1019 (rad/sec) 8.85 1012

E t

At frequencies < 1012 (rad/sec) (communication wave frequency), 1 or Amperes law in a conductor:
j f

B = j f = E Fact 2: No signicant charge accumulation Because of the good conductivity, no signicant charge accumulation in a conductor is expected ( ' 0). Phys 463, E & M III, C. Xiao 2 / note11

From the charge conservation and Gausss law E = f j f = t we obtain f = E = f t So f = f (0)e t

The free charge f (0) dissipates in a characteristic time = , similar to the static case in which the charge will ow out to the edge of the conductor.

If the transient phase is excluded, f = 0 can be assumed in a conductor. For simplicity, we shall consider good conductor case in which the displacement current can be ignored. Maxwells equations in a conductor: E E B B B. Diusion Equation As we did before for waves in source-free media, lets apply curl operator to the 2nd Maxwells equation: B E = = ( B ) = E t t t LHS of the equation
E = E 2 E = 2 E

B = t = 0 = E

= 0

It can be shown that the EM waves in conductor are also TEM (Transverse EM ) waves

So

E E = Diussion equation t Similarly, the magnetic eld also satises the same diusion equation: B 2 B = Diussion equation t 2 Phys 463, E & M III, C. Xiao 3 / note11

C. Skin Depth Suppose we have a plane wave. It comes from the z direction and reaches a large conductor surface at z = 0. Outside of a conductor: E = E0 eit~x at z = 0. e

Assume the wave inside the conductor has the form i(kzt) E = E 0e where k is an unknown constant. Recall ik, (ik)2 E = i E
i 4

i t

for the waves of the above type, we nd from the diusion equation k 2 = i = e 2 i
r

k = e = (1 + i) 2 Choose + sign to allow the electric eld to damp (to propagate) in the +z direction. Separate the real and imaginary parts of k: k = k+ + ik , k+ = k =
r

2 (1) (2)

k z i(k+ zt) E = E 0e e k z i(k+ zt) B = B 0e e

If the good conductor assumption is not valid, the displacement current should be included in the 4th Maxwells equation. The solution for E and B are the same as above with s 1/2 r 2 1+ 1 k = 2 The equations (1) and (2) indicate that the amplitude of E and B elds decays to 1/e of their values at z = 0 in a distance: = 1 k 4 / note11

Phys 463, E & M III, C. Xiao

where is called skin depth For a good conductor ( ): =

s

2 (m)

Also, the wavelength is = 2/k+ = 2 inq good conductor. The wave decays a signicantly within one wavelength. Since 1/, deep penetration occurs for 1. Low frequency 2. poor conductor Example: skin depth at f = 60 Hz for copper. =
s

2 = 8 103 m = 8 mm 7 6 107 2 60 4 10

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There is no advantage to construct AC transmission lines using wires with a radius much larger than the skin depth because the current ows mainly in the outer part of the conductor. For a poor conductor ( ): 2 = independent of the frequency. Example: For sea water, = 0 = 4 107 N/A2 , ' 700 = 6 1010 C2 /Nm2 , and ' 5 (m)1 . Sea water is a poor conductor for frequency f= = 109 Hz 2 2 or 30 cm. The skin depth is 2 2 700 = = 0 2 70 2 70 = = ' 1 cm Z 5 377 In the radio frequency range (f 109 Hz) sea water is a good conductor, the skin q depth = 2/() is quite short. To reach a depth = 10 m, for communication with submarines, 1 f= ' 500 Hz = 2 2 Phys 463, E & M III, C. Xiao 6 / note11
s s s

(m)

The wavelength in the air is about = c 3 108 = = 600 km f 500

The required /4 antenna would be gigantic. 3.4.2 Monochromatic plane waves in a Conductor A. Transverse waves The E and B elds in a conductor ~ ~ E(z, t) = E0 ek z ei(k+ zt) , can be rewritten as ~ ~ E(z, t) = E0 ei(kzt) , ~ ~ B(z, t) = B0 ei(kzt) ~ ~ B(z, t) = B0 ek z ei(k+ zt)

They have the same functions as EM wave in vacuum, except that k is a complex number Following the same calculation for waves in vacuum, we can derive from ~ E = 0, the following results: ~ E = k~z E = 0 k ~ e ~ Lets assume ~ E = E0 ei(kzt)~x = E0 ek z ei(k+ zt)~x e e From ~ B ~ E = t k ~ B = E0 ek z ei(k+ zt)~y e |k| i = e E0 ek z ei(k+ zt)~y e where k = tan , k+ For a good conductor = 450 , |k| =
1

and

~ B =0

~ B = k~z B = 0 k ~ e ~

~ ~ Both E and B are perpendicular to ~z , the wave propagation direction. e

we obtain

|k| =

2 2 k+ + k

The B elds lags behind the electric elds

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4.3.3 Reection of EM Waves on a Conductor Surface We have seen that the EM waves do not penetrate the conductor deeply. Where do the waves go? Absorbed or reected? Back to our example with a plane wave perpendicularly propagating to a conducting surface

~ H = Hy~ y = H0 ei(z/t) ez/~ y e e ~ H = ~ = Ex~ x = E0 ei(z/t) ez/~ x j e e Hz Hy 1i ~ ( H)x = [ (Hy~ y )]x = e = Hy y z So 1i Hy = Ex

| {z }
=0

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Characteristic impedance of the conductor Z = Ex 1i 1i = = Hy

r r

1i = 2

For 4mm microwave, f = 75 Ghz. If the conductor is aluminum (Al = 2 107 S/m) 2 75 109 4 107 |ZAl | = = 2 107 = 0.17 Zair = 377 The reectivity: = Almost complete reection. ZAl Zair Zair ' = 1 ZAl + Zair Zair
r s

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