PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE OF TRANSMISSION LINES

BY M. JHANSI 1005-10-748206

Introduction
Transmission lines are brides linking generation and distribution. EHV lines are the backbone of the transmission network as it mainly constitutes main transmission line of higher voltages greater than 220KV . Efficient and economic distribution of the power depends upon the efficient operation and maintenance of transmission. EHV transmission lines are very expensive to build and maintain. Overtime due to expansion and contraction on these power lines will cause the lines to wear out. Transmission lines and insulators are also affected by the wind and weather conditions. So transmission towers along with lines and insulators have to be maintained.

TOWER ACCESSORIES. Types of towers : 1) A type ( 0 to 2 angle of deviation) The tower supports along the straight run of the line are called tangent towers on which no angle of deviation is allowed. In special cases, subject to corresponding restriction of the sum of the adjacent spans an angle of deviation upto a maximum of 2 is allowed.. 2) Angle Towers The angle towers are those used at locations where the kine takes an angle of deviation and these towers are also called tension towers, since the conductors and earthwire are tensioned and attached to tower the duly insulting the conductors by suitable tension insulator strings and hardware, There are three types of angle towers 1. B type tower for deviation of more than 2 upto 15 2. C type tower for deviation of more than 15 upto 30 3. D type tower for deviation of more than 30 upto 60 For 220KV transmission line A B C D type of towers may be used For 132KV transmission line P R S type of towers may be used Bird Gaurds: These are fixed to the crossarms of tangent towers to prevent birds from perching over the insulators strings. If such provision is not made, the droplets may foul continously with the insulator string resulting in breakdown of the insulation. The bird guard is made up of a 18 guage M S sheet. The arrangement of sawthooth type bird guard Iis used.

Anti climbing devices: These devices are provided to towers at a height of about 3.00Mt from ground at valnerble places such as road crossings, near villages ad other inhabited places. Thses anticlimbbing device prevent persons from reaching the live power conductor or their vicnity. The anticlimbing devices are mae up of MS angles and barbed steel wire. The arrangement of anticlimbing devices as fixed to the tower legs. Danger plates: 16 guage M C sheet of size 200x325mtr is used as danger plate. The DANGER in English and local language shall be inscribed on the plate. Danger sign depicting of a skull above two bones is painted on the Danger plate. The voltage at which the EHT line is charged is also indicted on the plate. Provision is made in the danger plate to fix it on tower leg with 16mm bolts. Number plates: Ech tower in any transmission line is alloted a number in a serial order cpmmencing from terminal tower and ending with the terminal tower on the on the other end. The number plate is made of 16 guage sheet of 100x150mtr size. The number is enamelled in Red on white enamelled background. The number plate is ixed to the tower body at about 4 mtrs above ground level. Phase plates: Each angle tower is provided with aset of three circular discs of .100mtr dia each enamelled in red, yellow and Blue.These phases are fixed to the towers at aheight of about 4 mts above ground, Grounding: Piipe earthing or counterpoise earthing has to be done at every tower location depending upon the type soil met wih at the location. Pipe earthing: At all loccations where pits can be excavated the towers shall be earthed by pipe earthing. The grounding shall be effected by making about 325 mm dia and 3750mm deep pit at a distance of not less than 3650mm diagonally away from the stubs and filling in the pits with finely broken coke having granule sizes not more than 25mm thick and salt, in such a way that the salt mixed coke shall be maintained upto a distance of 150mm from the pipe on all sides. The top edge of the pipe should be at least 600mm below the ground level. The galvanise steel strip shall be buried not less than 600mm deep from the ground level. Counterpoise Earthing: In places of high resistivity soils especially in rocky loations pecial earthing arrangements shall be employed in the form of counterpoise earth to bring down the tower foootin g resistance to 15 ohms. The counterpoise earth shall consists of 4 Nos. 7/9 o 7/8 SWG galvanised steel wires running radially from all our tower legs foe adistance of about 15 to 30mts. The galvanised steel wire shall be connected to the tower legs by galvanised steel lugs forged or compressed at its one end, complete with 15.9mm dia bolts and nuts, required for connecting the earthing to the tower and the counterpoise shall be burried radially from the tower base at 600mm below ground level. The lugs should be preferably buried in chimney portion of the foundation to avoid pilferage.

Conductors The conductor used for transmission lines is ACSR or AAAC conductors. Depending upon the current carrying capacity and the no of the strands they are classified as For 220KV lines Transmission lines we use is moose conductor. Current carrying capacity is 900A For 132KV lines Transmission lines we use is Panther conductor. Current carrying capacity is 520A For Substations Zebra conductor Current carrying capacity is 795A DISC Insulators: Insulators are devices used in Electricity system to support, separate or contain conductors carrying currents at given voltages, Functions: The insulators separate the current carrying conductors of a transmission line from their support structures to prevent the flow of current through the support structrures to ground and o prevent the flow of current through the support structures to ground and to provide necessary mechanical support to the conductors at a height above ground level. At a subsation the insulators are used to support the current carrying parts of isolators, breakers busbars and other equipment while at the same time seprate such parts from mounting structures, Insulators thus perform dual functions, mechanical and electrical acting as ties stuts, housing or containers and as beams in the process. Their main function may be summarized as Mechanical: They should be strong to with stand maximum expected loading for different operating conditions such as self weight, wind, and ice loads, weights of conductors or parts supported and weighted of techniques within tool. Electrical: They should keep separated, the conductors or other current carrying [parts from the supports structures which are at ground potential, under all operating conditions. 70KN disc insulators are used for suspension Towers or Tangent towers 120KN disc insulators are used for Tension Towers As each disc can withstand upto 11Kv In 132KV line we use 9Nos. disc In 220KV line we use 13Nos. disc

Suspension towers:
There are three types of suspensions hardware in the normal use viz. a) Single Suspension hardware with fixed type arcing horns b) Single Suspension hardware with Adjustable type arcing horns on tower side. c) Double Suspension Hardware. Single suspension hardware assembled with required number of ball and socket type insulators are used to support the power conductors from the crossarm of tangent towers. The single suspension hardware provided with adjustable arcing horns on tower side are used on approach tangent towers near the substations, There double suspension hardware assembled with two stacks of insulators are used for the tangent towers on either side of river crossing spans, road crossing span etc.

Tension Hardware:
There are three types of tension hardware sets normally used a) Single tension hardware with fixed type arcing horns b) Single tension hardware with Adjustable type arcing horns on tower side. c) Double tension hardware. Normally single tension hardware sets with fixed arcing horns on tower side are used for angle locations of 132KV and220KV lines. The single tension hardware sets wih adjustable arcing horns are used on angle towers of the approach locations of the connected EHT substations, The actual spacing between the spheres of the tower side and line side arcing horns is adjusted as per the insulations coordination decided for the connected substation near the approach towers. Double tension hardware sets are used for angle towers on either side of rive crossing spans and railway crossing spans in case of 132KV and 220KV lines and or all angle towers of 400KV Lines. The double tension hardware sets have provisions for assembling two stack of insulators. Pre armpured rods: The preformed armour rod are used at th tangent locations. The armored rod are wound over the portion of the power conductor which is o be clipped in a suspension clamp of the suspension hardware. Each set of performed armour rods generally consists of 11Nos. rods for 132KV lines 12rods for 220KV lines. The preformed armour rods are helical shape and made of aluminium alloy which has a minimum tensile strength of 35000kg/Sqcm. The armour rods can be fixed over conductor by hand. For 132KV an 220KV lines either ball ended or parrot bill ended rods are accepted. Mid span Compression joints: The compression type joints are required for jointing two ends of two pieces of ACSR conductors. The compression joints consists of outer sleeve made of Aluminium and inner sleeve made of steel hot dip galvanized. After inserting the steel core portions of the conductors to be jointed into the steel sleeve, he same is compressed by means of 100 tonne hydraulic compressor fitted with suitable die set. The Steel sleeve duly compressed with steel cor portions of two conductors is fixed in the outer Aluminium sleeve alone with the aluminium strand of both the conductors. Then the aluminium sleeve is compressed together with steel sleeve and Aluminium strand by means of 100tonne

Hydraulic compressor. Fitted with suitable die set. Both the steel sleeve and the aluminium sleeves are compressed from round to hexagonal shape. Repair Sleeve: The repair sleeve is of tabular shop with a sliding part known as keeper. If a few strands of the conductors are round to be cut or damaged. The repair sleeve is o be fixed to the conductor over the damaged portion and compressed by means of 100tonne hydraulic compressor fitted with suitable die set. The repair sleeves are made out of aluminium extruded sections. The compressor die used for repai sleeve is the same as hat used for midspan compression joint. The repair sleeves also are compressed from round to hexagonal shape. The minimum failing load of repair sleeve used in 400KV lines shall have RIV not more than 500 micro volts at 266Kv (rms) phase to ground. Vibration Damper: Vibration damper consists of Two dead weight made of cat iron, messenger cable made of high tensile stranded steel wire and a clamp made of aluminium alloy. The dimension of the compent are made to effectively dampen the conductor vibrations. The conductors get excited to vibrations are classified under thee categories side swing or sway caused by cross winds. Galloping of conductors which occurs when the conductors are ice loaded and behave eccentric to the wind force, and Aeolian vibration the vibration with frequencies from 3 to 12 hz occur in the direction transverse to the steady wind flow of speeds ranging from 1 to 8 mtr per second. The vibration results in frequent bending of conductor and lead to fatigue failure at the root. The vibration dampers may be used at tangent locations also to facilitate dampening of vibrations at suspension locations. Spacers: The spacres are used fixing the two conductors of each phase in 400KV lines. The two conductors are held in cushined grips of spacers consists of an Aluminium alloy body provided with cushioned grips which is made of Neoprene. The cushioned grips which hold the two sub conductors apart are fixed to the sub conductors by means of armour rod made of Aluminium alloy.

Spacer Dampers: Spacer dampers are used on 400Kv lines instead of separately fixing dampers and spacers.

WHY TRIPPINGS OCCUR:

The tripping are broadly classified in three categories. 1. Trippings due to fault in substation equipment. 2. Trippings due to mal operation of proteciove relays. 3. Trippings due to fault on transmission lines.

Trippings due to transmission line: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. High tower footing resistance Failure of disc insulators due to pollution. Failure of disc insulators due to other reasons Problems due to birds. Ineective discharge capability of LA at substation. Trees, building in the close of vicinity. Lesser clearance due to ag Soil errosion near tower legs. Failure of tower foundation. Rusting on tower memebers/stubs Failure of cross arms/ towers Tower deformation/ deflection Loesening of nuts & bolts due to ineffective damper. Theft of tower members Failurew of earth wire and accessories. Failure of hardware fittings. Ailure of conductor accessories. Failure / snapping of jumpers.

TRIPPINGS DUE TO TRANBSMISSION LINES Remedial measures: 1. High tower footing resistance: Tower footing resistance is required to be required to be maintained within specified limit ( less than 10ohms) mainly to get the lightening strokes discharge effectively otherwise high voltage impulse will travel along the line and damaged disc insulators. The tower footing resistance may deteriorate due to following reasons. a) b) c) d) e) f) Salt and other chemicals used in earthing sets washed away. Loosening of nuts & bolts due to vibrations and lossening of flexible bond. Rusting of various bolted joints thus increasing contact resistance/ aging of electrodes. Excavation work disturbing the counter poise earthing. Change in ambient/ earth temperature. Due to discharge of lightening strokes causing damage to earthing electrodes, earthing strip as well as nuts and bolts. g) Lowering of water level h) Passing of heavy fault current resulting into change of resistivity of earth.

The tower footing resistance can be reduced by adopting following methods. 1. Tower body connecting contacts should be cleaned and provided with cold galvanizing paint. 2. If the earth resistance is not improved, the electrode should be renovated by putting low resistivity material such as the mixture of coal and salt in the ration of 1:1 around the electrode. 3. If the earth resistance still does not come within limit, the additional electrode should be provided on tower leg diagonally. If still effective results are required, more electrodes can be provided. 4. Tower footing resistance can also be reduced by the following earthing methods. a) For normal soil Rod/Pipe type b) For stony clay & hard soil c) For rocky location Counterpoise earthing Long driven rods, chemical treatment.

The norms may be adopted for checking the condition of earth rod/ earth strip etc., used for earthing of towers. a) Checking or towers first time after construction of line b) Subsequent checking first ten years. next five years

2. Failure of Disc Insulators due to Pollution: The most severe problem which is being faced now a days is pollution related flash overs which is drawing the attention of all the power utilities. The contaminants have little effect as long as insulators surface is dry how ever fog, mist or light rain creates a condition that produces a conducting film on polluted insulator surface. The following type of contaminants have been identified as the source of surface deposites. a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) Salt factories nearby transmission line/ salt from adjacent areas i.e sea etc., Cement/ lime from cement plants, constructions sites. Dust from fertilizer, metallic, coal, feed lots, brick kiln Defecation by birds. Chemical industries. Vehicle emission. Smoke from industrial and agricultural burning. Cremation ground near the transmission lines.

The following remedial measures may be adopted to overcome the problem of failure of disc insulators due to pollution. a) Generally the cleaning of inner grooved surface is ignored even during shut downs for which it is recommended to replace the insulators string with new one by hot line crew and then clean the polluted/ inner grooved surface of the insulator thoroughly by bringing the old string at ground level.

b) The cleaning of disc insulators are required to be carried out twice in a year i.e in the month of March/ April i.e before coming of rainy season. c) To clean the insulators within minimum possible time additional workers may also be deployed by diverting from other places if required to avoid frequent shutdowns. d) Hand scrubbing or some of the material like steel wool, non abrasive nylon pads, soft dry tags, paraffin soaked clothes. e) Number of latest techniques for hot line washing/ cleaning of disc insulators are being used. f) The cleaning of disc insulators can also be done by compressed air dry cleaning with abrasive technique in which ground corn cob mixed with ground walnut is commonly used as cleaning compound.

3. Failure of disc., insulators due to other reasons. The following are the other reasons due to which the disc insulators may fail. a) Poor quality of disc insulators due to:1) Manufacturing defect such as small surface crack & internal cavity. 2) Cement growth i.e volume expansion of cement products causing stress 3) Mech. Separation of cap/ pin and insulator

b) Ageing: The IR value of aged/ used insulators taken with the help of portable one KV digital megger should not be less than fifty mega ohms. c) Throwing of stone by miscreants/ shooting incidents. d) Ineffective earthing. e) Blasting in the hills.

4 .Problems due to Birds. The various troubles created by the birds are a) the problem of contamination with dropping of birds on insulators deteriorates the insulation with the chemical ingredient of the dropping. The definite evaluation of deterioration depends upon the kinds of birds. b) Flash over faults created by a piece of wire/ big bones c) The tripping can occur due to reduction in flash over clearance caused by the birds after sitting on cross arm at particular position.

To avoid the sittings of the bird on cross arm above the insulators, the following types of bird gaurds may be provided/ used. a) Conventional type bird guards: 1) Toothed saw type. 2) Metal cone type. b) 1) 2) 3) 4) Latest type bird guard:Sound impact type. Visual impact type. Touching impact type i.e stick jelly type. Anti perching etc.,

Ineffective discharge capability of LA s at substation. The discharge capability of lightening strokes depends upon the types of Las installed on the line. The conventional type Las were provided at both ends of the transmission line. This damage was prevented by the way of replacement of conventional type Las with zinc oxide type Las. This is basically due to the fact that the discharge capability of zinc oxide type Las is better than conventional type. In case there is lightening, the zinc oxide type Las effectively conducts before the damage of the disc insulators whereas the old installed conventional type Las did not conduct properly causing flash over of insulators. Hence it is recommended to provided zinc oxide type Las in place of conventional type Las due to its high discharge capability.

Trees, Buildings in the close vicinity of tower. Large No. of trippings are due to trees and buildings in the vicnity of towers. The trees have moisture in them and due to deep roots in the soil, the trees provide path for leakage current when its branches come near the line. And the distance between trees and line reduces, there happens electrical breakdown through the air resulting into the trippings. In case the trees have been found within the induction zone of the transmission line the same can cause the trippings during strom. Similarly high trees after uprooting may also fall on the transmission line during storm and cause tripping for which the necessary steps for cutting/ trimming the branches should be taken immediately. The clearance of trees from line conductor can be got measured with the help of hot line crew and action should be taken to maintain minimum clearance.

Leaser clearance due to sag Due to carrying out of the various below mentioned project works, the minimum ground clearance is disturbed. i) Crossing of another HT/LT/Telephone lines beneath EHV lines. ii) Dams. iii) Railways. iv) Road & Bridges v) Aero-drums vi) Buildings vii) Mines & various quarries. viii) Canal works ix) Other similar projects.

To maintain the minimum clearance, the solution is either raising/lowering the height or transmission tower or shifting of transmission line if raising/lowering the height is not possible. The increase in the sag of the conductor is due to:a) Ageing. b) Increase load. c) Sudden variation in ambient temperature.

Conductor clearance of the line can be measured even in live line conditions with the help of conductor height meter. In case of more sag the same can be corrected by restringing. If restringing is not possible, ground excavation should be done to increase the clearance.

Soil Erosion. Soil erosion is basically a phenomena of soil detachment and subsequent transportation. Soil erosion may be due to following reasons. i. Diverted flow/natural erosion of rain water. ii. River/Canal/Nala`adjacent to tower and possible beach. iii. Excavation work/cutting of earth. iv. Flash floods. v. Hill sinking/land sliding. Soil erosion, if observed, should be attended immediately. Any delay in attending the soil erosion problem may lead to lower failure at a later stage. The most suitable corrective measures for soil erosion includes special grass covers, new plantation, providing of sand bags. Boulders, providing of drains, providing of brick protection wall etc. In addition to above, the following points also need to be given serious attention.

i)For cutting of earth near the tower(s),necessary public notice should be got issued for awareness of public. The directive of the civil authorities for not providing brick klin up to one kilometer from tower should be arranged so as to avoid cutting of earth. ii) The compensation of land may be paid and surrounding area may be acquired. iii) For the towers falling in river bed, well type foundations should be provided with suitable design depending upon discharge of water etc. iv) For towers suitable on hills, small drain must be made to divert the water to safe distance by giving proper slope. v) Immediate steps to check the erosion is to provide earth filled bags. After some period, these bags would become one earth mass. vi)`Patrolling is to be intensified during the rainy season for safety of tower and its foundation. Failure of tower foundation. If the care is not given at the initial stage, it may lead to failure of tower resulting into some breakdown. The majority of foundation failures are due to uplifting of tower foundations from the ground. Failure of tower foundation may be due to design deficiency, construction deficiency and ageing etc. In addition to above, tower foundation may also collapse due to rusting of lower stubs and soil erosion etc. The remedial measures for soil erosion as discussed earlier may be adopted to avoid failure of foundations. The chimney top of foundation should be kept in slanting slope to avoid accumulation of water. Anti- corrosive measures such as painting with aluminum paint is normally required to avoid rusting. Cracks in concentrate portion, if observed , should be repaired immediately. I f there is some crack in chimney, the condition of the foundation is required to be assessed by the following non destructive methods:i) ii) iii) iv) v) Corrosion measurement of tower steel & foundation monitoring by use of tower corrosion meter. Corrosion measurement of tower steel by using tower leg integrity monitor. Ultrasound pulse velocity test. Acoustic emission. Absorption and recovery of mechanical energy.

Rusting on tower members/stubs. Rusting on tower members etc. may occur due to poor galvanizing of material/effect of mechanical industries near the towers. Rusting of stubs may also occur inside the concrete due to entry of water in the gap in stub surface and concrete holding surface due to hair crack in the concrete. Rusting of stubs reduces its effective area causing reducing of strength which may lead to tower collapse. To overcome the problem of rusting, regular application of red oxide and aluminum paint on the rusted tower members as well as black bitumen paint on the stubs/legs is required. In addition to

above ,the repairing of concrete surface should also be carried out as and when the crack is noticed in the concrete portion to avoid further rusting.

Failure of cross arms/ towers The main reason for the cross arm failure is due to breakage of conductor loosening of nuts & bolts and failure of adjacent towers. Tower failure may be due to the following reasons.:a) Poor quality of material used during construction. b) Insufficient factor of safety during design. c) Not following the drawings during construction. d) Damage by miscreants. e) Missing of tower members f) Failure of foundations due to rusting of stubs/soil erosion etc. g) Foundation not matching with soil data/weak foundations. h) Dash by vehicles/air collision. The remedial measures suggested for avoiding failure of towers has been mentioned as below. i) Refer remedial measures for maintenance od tower foundation discussed above. ii) Cement concrete muffs be provided around stubs/main legs (say three feet above ground level) for protection/ to avoid removal of nuts and bolts by miscreants. iii) Refer remedial measures discussed above for avoiding failure of nuts and bolts. iv) Providing tower guards/RCC walls/RCC pillars etc near the tower situated on highways Painting of structure with different colors/providing globes on earth wire for avoiding air collision etc.

Tower deformation /deflection: One of the major causes for deformation of tower bracings are due to swelling & shrinkage of the foundation soils. Due to swelling pressure,\there is upward thrust on the legs. This along with pull on the conductor & earth wire together with varying wind pressure or thrust of canal/river water may cause deformation of tower structure. In case of saline soil (due to its erratic behavior) and improper /poor quality of construction work of foundation,\there may be sinking of foundation which can lead to deformation/bending of the tower members. The phenomena of tower deflection can also take place due to slippage of nuts & bolts of tower members, cross-arm failure , earth quake etc. In addition it depends upon the following factors.:1. Poor design of tower. 2. Type of material used.

The deflection of tower should normally be measured for all the towers once in five years particularly for the towers situated in hill region, areas having saline soil, tower situated in rivers etc. The deflection may also be measured after conductor breakage, cross arm failure, earth quakes etc. For measuring deflection at site, the centre point of the base of the tower should be marked and plum is to be hanged at the centre top of the tower and the distance between plum and centre of tower is to be measured. Strengthening of various members of tower should be done to bring the deflection within limit to avoid tower failure. The four legs of the tower are connected by RCC beam after proper jacketing for one ness of the foundation at locations where possibility of tower deformation etc. is more. Monitoring of erratic water table along the transmission lines is also required to be carried out to watch the uplift possibility of towers. Loosening of nuts & bolts due to ineffective dampers. Most of the failure of nuts & bolts are due to vibration in the conductor caused by defective/ineffective vibration dampers as well as non provision of washers etc. Due to looseness of nuts & bolts, cross arm/tower failure can take place for which tightening, punching, tack welding and chamfering of the same be ensured. The looseness of nuts & bots can also be detected by hearing the sound from tower super structure. Theft of tower members: Due to theft of tower members, the tower may collapse during storm, etc., Theft of towers members can be avoided by punching, chamfering, tack welding of nuts & bolts as mentioned above. Intensive patrolling of the transmission lines are also required for reducing the chances of theft. Barbed wire of anti- climbing device should also be got tightened during the patrolling.

Failure of earth wire & Accessories: The damage of earth wire and accessories might be due to improper crimping, poor quality of material, inefficient, earthing, inefficient earth wire dampers, improper position/ lesser provision of dampers w.r.t to design/ drawings etc.,. Any loose connection between suspension clamp and structure can lead to sparking/ subsequent damage of earthing bond during lightening etc., The same be set right without availing shutdown. To avoid wear and tear of earth wire at the point of suspension clamp, preformed armour rods may be provided.

Failure of hardware fittings: Vibration in the conductor is again one of the major factor for failure of hardware of hardware fittings. Hardware fittings get loosening of nuts and bolts. The defective hardware fittings can be replaced during shutdown as well as with the help of hot line maintenance techniques. Use of bolted type fittings are not recommended on lines as the same can easily spark over due to vibrations etc.,

Failure of conductor and its Accessories: The looseness between Aluminium & steel portions of compressed joints ( Straight & dead end joints) causes gap which leads to continuous sparking and thus damage to the conductor. The hot spots can be detected by thermo vision camera and loose connections got attended. The accessories such as vibrations dampers, spacers, suspensions clamps etc., may get loosened due to non provision of proper washer/ their improper tightening etc., Proper attention is therefore, required to be paid in this regard.

Failure/ snapping of jumpers. The failure/ snapping of the jumpers have been observed mainly due to loose connections causing air gap in the joints, excessive vibrations due to defective/ ineffective vibration dampers. The failure of jumpers can also take place due to looseness in the nuts & bolts, defective crimping, poor quality of material, oxidation etc., Air gap in the clamps/ joints causes hot spot which should be detected by thermo vision camera and got attended through hot line crew.