The rungs of the DNA ladder consist of pairs of nitrogen bases.

There are two kinds of nitrogen bases: purines and pyrimidines. The purines have a two-ringed structure; they are adenine (A) and guanine (G). The pyrimidines have a one-ring structure; they are cytosine (C) and thymine (T).

Figure 3 shows the structures of the four nitrogen bases found in DNA. Note the symbols for the bases. A nucleotide consists of one nitrogen base, one phosphate group, and one deoxyribose molecule. Study Figure 4 to see how the phosphate group, deoxyribose molecule, and nitrogen base are related in a nucleotide. Each nitrogen base is attached to the deoxyribose- side of a phosphate-deoxyribose combination. Note that because there are four different nitrogen bases there are four kinds of nucleotides.

Parts of a DNA Model

By Wanda Thibodeaux, eHow Contributor

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is found in every living cell. Because DNA makes up the genes found in cells, it has been called the building block of life. Models of DNA can be constructed easily and have only three basic parts and a foundation.

1. The Backbone
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DNA is in the form of a double helix. This means that two helices, or sides, twist around a center. The sides of the double helix are referred to as the backbone of the DNA strand. They are made up of molecules of phosphate and sugar. You can represent these molecules with two different-colored beads, painted Styrofoam balls or any other spherical objects that can be connected through wire, glue or wood.

Bases
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The phosphate and sugar backbone of the DNA strand support four primary bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine. These bases come together in pairs. Guanine and cytosine always pair together, as do adenine and thymine. The bases pair together in the center of the double helix, and their specific sequence makes up the genetic code for the organism. As with the sugar and phosphate molecules, the bases can be represented with four different-colored beads, Styrofoam balls or other spherical objects.

Bonds
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The molecules of the DNA strand are held together through hydrogen bonds. To represent these, you can use toothpicks, shish kebob skewers or wire. Simply insert the end of the toothpick, skewer or wire into the center of the bases, phosphates and sugars, the pieces you have selected so far. If you use beads for your base, it's easiest to use wire to show the hydrogen bonds, since the wire can be wrapped around the beads to secure it in place and keep it from sliding.

Foundation
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Once you have the three main parts of the DNA model together, you will need a way to stand the model erect. Depending on the size, weight and materials you've used for the other three parts of the model, you can get a square block of either metal or wood to serve as the model base. Secure a post of wood (for instance, a dowel or peg) or a metal rod in the center of this base so that the two pieces are attached and perpendicular. You can use screws or nails to secure all of this.

Intricacy
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Each part of the basic DNA model can be represented with more accuracy by increasing the number of parts. For instance, you can use smaller beads and connectors to represent the individual atoms involved in each molecule. Because molecules of DNA can be very complex, most people just stick to the three main parts with the understanding that the bases and DNA backbone are in fact large structures made of smaller components.

DNA replication is a biological process that occurs in all living organisms and copies their DNA; it is the basis for biological inheritance. The process starts with one double-stranded DNA molecule and produces two identical copies of the molecule. Each strand of the original double-stranded DNA molecule serves as template for the production of the complementary strand. Cellular proofreading and error toe-checking mechanisms ensure near perfect fidelity for DNA replication. In a cell, DNA replication begins at specific locations in the genome, called "origins". Unwinding of DNA at the origin, and synthesis of new strands, forms a replication fork. In addition to DNA polymerase, the enzyme that synthesizes the new DNA by adding nucleotides matched to the template strand, a number of other proteins are associated with the fork and assist in the initiation and continuation of DNA synthesis. DNA replication can also be performed in vitro (artificially, outside a cell). DNA polymerases, isolated from cells, and artificial DNA primers are used to initiate DNA synthesis at known sequences in a template molecule. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR), a common laboratory technique, employs such artificial synthesis in a cyclic manner to amplify a specific target DNA fragment from a pool of DNA.

DNA structure

DNA usually exists as a double-stranded structure, with both strands coiled together to form the characteristic double-helix. Each single strand of DNA is a chain of four types of nucleotides having the bases: adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine. A nucleotide is a mono-, di-, or triphosphate deoxyribonucleoside; that is, a deoxyribose sugar is attached to one, two, or three phosphates. Chemical interaction of these nucleotides forms phosphodiester linkages, creating the phosphate-deoxyribose backbone of the DNA double helix with the bases pointing inward. Nucleotides (bases) are matched between strands through hydrogen bonds to form base pairs. Adenine pairs with thymine, and cytosine pairs with guanine. DNA strands have a directionality, and the different ends of a single strand are called the "3' (three-prime) end" and the "5' (five-prime) end". These terms refer to the carbon atom in deoxyribose to which the next phosphate in the chain attaches. In addition to being complementary, the two strands of DNA are antiparallel: They are orientated in opposite directions. This directionality has consequences in DNA

synthesis, because DNA polymerase can synthesize DNA in only one direction by adding nucleotides to the 3' end of a DNA strand. The pairing of bases in DNA through hydrogen bonding means that the information contained within each strand is redundant. The nucleotides on a single strand can be used to reconstruct nucleotides on a newly synthesized partner strand. DNA transcription is a process that involves the transcribing of genetic information from DNAto RNA. The transcribed DNA message is used to produce proteins. DNA is housed within the nucleus of our cells. It controls cellular activity by coding for the production of enzymes and proteins. The information in DNA is not directly converted into proteins, but must first be copied into RNA. This ensures that the information contained within the DNA does not become tainted. DNA Transcription DNA consists of four nucleotide bases [adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and thymine (T)] that are paired together (A-T and C-G) to give DNA its double helical shape. There are three main steps to the process of DNA transcription. RNA Polymerase Binds to DNA DNA is transcribed by an enzyme called RNA polymerase. Specific nucleotide sequences tell RNA polymerase where to begin and where to end. RNA polymerase attaches to the DNA at a specific area called the promoter region. Elongation Certain proteins called transcription factors unwind the DNA strand and allow RNA polymerase to transcribe only a single strand of DNA into a single stranded RNA polymer called messenger RNA (mRNA). The strand that serves as the template is called the antisense strand. The strand that is not transcribed is called the sense strand. Like DNA, RNA is composed of nucleotide bases. RNA however, contains the nucleotides adenine, guanine, cytosine and uricil (U). When RNA polymerase transcribes the DNA, guanine pairs with cytosine and adenine pairs with uricil. Termination

RNA polymerase moves along the DNA until it reaches a terminator sequence. At that point, RNA polymerase releases the mRNA polymer and detaches from the DNA. Since proteins are constructed in the cytoplasm of the cell by a process called translation, mRNA must cross the nuclear membrane to reach the cytoplasm. Once in the cytoplasm, mRNA along with ribosomes and another RNA molecule called transfer RNA, work together to produce proteins. Proteins can be manufactured in large quantities because a single DNA sequence can be transcribed by many RNA polymerase molecules at once.

DNA Translation
In a nutshell, DNA translation can be defined as the process that "translates" information contained in the nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) to facilitate polypeptide or protein synthesis.

In the synthesis or production of proteins, a process of decoding the 'messenger Ribonucleic Acid' or mRNA takes place. It is the first step in the process and is known as translation. The mRNAs decoded in translation are obtained from a process known as transcription. The translation process takes place in the cell cytoplasm, specifically where the cell organelle, ribosome is present. Translation produces polypeptides as a result of decoding of mRNA. Activation The process of translation starts with 'activation', which actually is not a step, but the starting point of the process. During activation, the amino acids form covalent bonds with 'transfer RNA'. Initiation The next step in translation is 'initiation'. The components that play an important part in initiation are as follows. There are two subunits of ribosomes involved in the initiation process. Messenger RNA (mRNA). Aminoacyl transfer RNA (tRNA) Guanosine-5'-triphosphate (GTP) provides energy for the process of translation. Initiation factors (IF) assembles the components taking part in the initiation process.

The nucleotides - DNA and RNA is made up of strands. One end of a strand is known as the "3' end", while the other as "5' end". In the initiation process, a small subunit of ribosomes is attached or bound to the 5' end of messenger RNA. Special proteins known as 'Initiation Factors' help in the binding process. The 'eIF3' or eukaryotic Initiation Factor assists in binding the small ribosome unit to mRNA. Along with the ribosome, transfer RNA (tRNA) is also attached to mRNA. When the tRNA gets attached to the mRNA, it carries amino acids along with itself. The mRNA is made up of a set of three nucleotides called 'codon'. The codons present on

nucleic acids (DNAs and RNAs) correspond to the amino acids present in proteins. For every codon, there is a set of nucleic acids attached at the end of tRNA. These are known as 'anticodons'. The tRNA starts searching the mRNA for the start codon. The start codon present on the mRNA is mostly 'AUG' (Adenine, Uracil, Guanine). In the cells of eukaryotic organisms, the corresponding amino acid for the start codon is methionine. The tRNA that has formed a covalent bond with methionine during the activation phase of translation becomes a part of the complex structure called 'ribosomal complex'. The protein synthesis, thus starts with methionine. A eukaryotic Initiation Factor 2 (eIF2) brings tRNA to a small subunit of the ribosome. This carries out the hydrolysis of the GTP. It further leads to the formation of a complete ribosome followed by dissociation of its small and large subunits. This ends the initiation phase and elongation phase begins thereafter. Elongation The elongation of polypeptide chain begins with tRNA entering the 'P' site of ribosome. The 'A' site of ribosome is now ready for receiving the aminoacyl-tRNA. In the phase of elongation, a cycle of three steps is followed for the elongation of the protein chain to take place. The aminoacyl is correctly placed in the ribosome. Formation of the peptide bond. After every peptide bond formation, the mRNA shifts by one codon.

Termination It is the final phase of the translation process. If any of the termination codon enters the 'A' site of the ribosome, the translation process stops. This happens because the tRNA does not recognize these codons. These codons are recognized by the 'release factors' instead, and they trigger a reaction called hydrolysis. The protein formed as a result of this whole process, is released from the ribosome and finally the translation process ends. In prokaryotic cells, 18 amino acids are produced per second while 1000 amino acids are generated in the bacteria. Protein synthesis is a vital process that takes place in the ribosomes of cells of living beings and translation forms an important part of it.