TERM PAPER TOPIC: MAGNETIC COUPLING

NAME-SHAILESH SINGH SECTION D4901 ROLL NO-D4901A59 SUBJECT-ELE 101 REG NO-10908518

CONTENTS: 1. INTRODUCTION TO MAGNETISM

2. INDUCTIVE COUPLING 3. A NOTE ON INDUCTIVE COUPLING 4 .A GRAPH BETWEEN CURRENT^2 AND WAVELENGTH 5 .USES---. TRANSFORMERS .ELECTRIC MOTOR AND GENERATOR .RADIO FREQUENCY IDENTIFICATION .INDUCTION LOOP COMMUNICATION SYSTEM .GRAPHICS TABLET .INDUCTION CHAARGING 6 .LOW FREQUENCY INDUCTION 7 .MAGNETICALLY COUPLED CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 8. REFERENCES

INTRODUCTION TO MAGNETISM
The term magnetism is used to describe how materials respond on the microscopic level to an applied magnetic field .

WHAT IS COUPLING?
A coupling is a device used to connect two shafts together at their ends for the purpose of transmitting power. Couplings do not normally allow disconnection of shafts during operation, though there do exist torque limiting couplings which can slip or disconnect when some torque limit is exceeded. The primary purpose of couplings is to join two pieces of rotating equipment while permitting some degree of misalignment or end movement or both. By careful selection, installation and maintenance of couplings, substantial savings can be made in reduced maintenance costs and downtime. Two conductors are referred to as inductively coupled or magnetically coupled when they are configured such that change in current flow through one wire induces a voltage across the ends of the other wire through electromagnetic induction. The amount of inductive coupling between two conductors is measured by their mutual inductance. The coupling between two wires can be increased by winding them into coils and placing them close together on a common axis, so the magnetic field of one coil passes through the other coil. The two coils may be physically contained in a single unit, as in the primary and secondary sides of a transformer, or may be separated. Coupling may be intentional or unintentional.

The term electromagnetic induction refers to the generation of an electric current by passing a metal wire through a magnetic field. The discovery of electromagnetic induction in 1831 was preceded a decade earlier by a related discovery by Danish physicist Hans Christian Oersted (17771851). Oersted showed that an electric current produces a magnetic field. That is, if you place a simple magnetic compass near any of the electrical wires in your home that are carrying a current, you can detect a magnetic field around the wires. If an electric current can produce a magnetic field, physicists reasoned, perhaps the reverse effect could be observed as well. So they set out to generate an electric current from a magnetic field. Unintentional coupling is called cross-talk, and is a form of electromagnetic interference. Inductive coupling favors low frequency energy sources. High frequency energy sources generally use capacitive coupling. An inductively coupled transponder comprises an electronic data carrying device, usually a single microchip, and a large coil that functions as an antenna. Inductively coupled transponders are almost always operated passively. two conductors are referred to as inductively coupled or magnetically coupled when they are configured such that change in current flow through one wire induces a voltage across the ends of the other wire through electromagnetic induction. The amount of inductive coupling between two conductors is measured by their mutual inductance. The coupling between two wires can be increased by winding them into coils and placing them close together on a common axis, so the magnetic field of one coil passes through the other coil. The two coils may be physically contained in a single unit, as in the primary and secondary sides of a transformer, or may be separated. Coupling may be intentional or unintentional. Unintentional coupling is called cross-talk, and is a form of electromagnetic interference. Inductive coupling favors low frequency energy sources. High

frequency energy sources generally use capacitive coupling. An inductively coupled transponder comprises an electronic data carrying device, usually a single microchip, and a large coil that functions as an antenna. Inductively coupled transponders are almost always operated passively.

Inductive Coupling
An inductively coupled transponder comprises of an electronic data carrying device, usually a single microchip and a large area coil that functions as an antenna. Inductively coupled transponders are almost always operated passively. This means that all the energy needed for the operation of the microchip has to be provided by the reader. For this purpose, the reader's antenna coil generates a strong, high frequency electromagnetic field, which penetrates the crosssection of the coil area and the area around the coil. Because the wavelength of the frequency range used (< 135 kHz: 2400 m, 13.56 MHz: 22.1 m) is several times greater than the distance between the reader's antenna and the transponder, the electromagnetic field may be treated as a simple magnetic alternating field with regard to the distance between transponder and antenna (see the chapter "Physical Principles Transition from Near Field to Far Field" (4.2.1.1.) for further details). A small part of the emitted field penetrates the antenna coil of the transponder, which is some distance away from the coil of the reader. By induction, a voltage Ui is generated in the transponder's antenna coil. This voltage is rectified and serves as the power supply for the data carrying device (microchip). A capacitor C1 is connected in parallel with the reader's antenna coil, the capacitance of which is selected such that it combines with the coil inductance of the antenna coil to form a parallel resonant circuit, with a resonant frequency that corresponds with the transmission frequency of the reader. Very high currents are generated in the antenna coil of the reader by resonance step-up in the parallel resonant

circuit, which can be used to generate the required field strengths for the operation of the remote transponder. The antenna coil of the transponder and the capacitor C1 to form a resonant circuit tuned to the transmission frequency of the reader. The voltage U at the transponder coil reaches a maximum due to resonance stepup in the parallel resonant circuit.

To reclaim the data in the reader, the voltage measured at the reader's antenna is rectified. This represents the demodulation of an amplitude modulated signal. An example circuit is shown in the chapter "Reader Low Cost Layout".

Picture: sample circuit of the power supply and load modulator in a transponder Picture above: If the additional load resistor in the transponder is switched on and off at a very high elementary frequency fH, then two spectral lines are created at a distance of H around the transmission frequency of f the reader, and these can be easily detected (however fH must be less than fREADER). In the terminology of radio technology the new elementary frequency is called a subcarrier. Data transfer is by the ASK, FSK or PSK modulation of the subcarrier in time with the data flow. This represents an amplitude modulation of the subcarrier.

As described above, inductively coupled systems are based upon a transformer-type coupling between the primary coil in the reader and the secondary coil in the transponder. This is true when the distance between the coils does not exceed 0.16 , so that the transponder is located in the near field of the transmitter antenna (for a more detailed definition of the near and far fields, please refer to the chapter "Physical Principles"). If a resonant transponder (i.e. the selfresonant frequency of the transponder corresponds with the transmission frequency of the reader) is placed within the magnetic alternating field of the reader's antenna, then this draws energy from the magnetic field. This additional power consumption can be measured as voltage drop at the internal resistance in the reader antennae through the supply current to the reader's antenna. The switching on and off of a load resistance at the transponder's antenna therefore effects voltage changes at the reader's antenna and thus has the effect of an amplitude modulation of the antenna voltage by the remote transponder. If the switching on and off of the load resistor is controlled by data, then this data can be transferred from the transponder to the reader. This type of data transfer is called load modulation.

Figure 2. Inductive Coupling Circuit Figure 2 shows the equivalent case for inductive coupling (mutual inductance). Instead of injecting a current that splits, as in capacitive coupling, a series voltage is induced in the coupled conductor that pushes a current along the conductor. In Figure 2, the source current entering the inductor at the "dot" side causes a voltage drop from left (+) to right (-). This induces a source voltage from left (+) to right (-) in the coupled conductor. The coupled voltage in the

(secondary) conductor is the same polarity as the drop in the primary, but since it is a source instead of a drop, the current direction is reversed. Note that the current is the same on both sides of the coupling point, even if the two loads are not equal and the circuit is not symmetrical (as long as the capacitive coupling between the inductors is negligible). If a ferrite core is placed on either side of the coupling point, the current will be reduced on both sides. With or without the ferrite core, a pair of current probes on each side of the coupling point will show the same current in the same direction. Although Figure 2 shows a "transformer," inductive coupling can sometimes take the form of two parallel conductors at frequencies of few MHz and higher.

where Rp and Rs are the resistances associated with both circuits. (The value of the mutual inductance M can then be calculated if we know the frequency of operation.) Well, what exactly are these resistances? For the primary circuit, Rp is the resistance associated with the generator (remember the maximum power theorem!) But what is Rs? That is a harder question to answer. It also seems likely, for a Tesla coil secondary, that it will vary according to whether a spark is being produced from the top electrode or not. At least with an aerial it will be constant. With a resonant aerial in fact it's fairly easy, being equal to the sum of the resistive losses in the aerial, the ground and the radiation resistance. The radiation resistance is a fictitious resistance, which if it was included in the aerial would cause as much power loss through heating as the loss of power due to radiation from the aerial. So in the case of a Tesla secondary, what we need here is a "spark resistance" which would cause the same amount of power loss as is caused by spark discharge from the top electrode. It is by no means easy to see what value this should be. We can, however, state with certainty that it is unlikely to be very useful trying to reduce the rf resistance of the secondary to a value much below that of the ground connection, as the two act in series. Fortunately, we can be ignorant of the exact requirements here and adjust the mutual inductance coupling by the physical separation of the primary and secondary coils and, according to time honoured wireless practice, "tune for maximum smoke"! [You can usually tell when you've damaged an electronic component because the smoke they put in it at the factory leaks out. I don't know who it was who invented smoke as a means for indicating faulty components but all I can say is, it's a jolly clever idea and I wish I had the patents on it.] One of the reasons (by no means the only one, nor, as it happens, anything like the best one) why Tesla secondaries give bigger sparks with larger top capacitances is because there is often insufficient mutual inductance coupling for perfect impedance matching (this may be because decreasing the separation between the coils causes sparking into the primary) and when the top capacitance of the secondary increases, the resonant frequency drops, more turns are needed on the primary (which may be too small in relation to the primary capacitance) and the effective size of the primary is increased, thereby increasing the proportion of input power converted to rf, and increasing the mutual inductance and

Note On Inductive Coupling.

Having generated power at rf, it is necessary to transfer it from the primary circuit where it originated to the secondary circuit where it will do something useful. Remembering the requirements of the maximum power theorem, it is clear that the conditions required are those of an impedance match. In the diagram, the primary and secondary coils are coupled inductively by means of a mutual inductance M. This has a reactance at the operating frequency Xm. For perfect matching, the resistance coupled into the primary circuit must be equal to the resistive load which the generator expects to see. If the load is itself reactive, then to get a perfect match two out of the three reactances Xp, Xs, and Xm must be variable. Fortunately, if primary and secondary are tuned circuits at resonance, things become greatly simplified and we have the possibility of obtaining a perfect match purely by varying the mutual inductance coupling. This we do according to the equation:

improving the match. It may also happen that reducing the secondary reactance (corresponding to the drop in frequency) improves the impedance match and we get a better power transfer from that cause too. (We'll come to the best reason for big secondary capacitances later.) But there's more. The mutual inductance coupling between primary and secondary can be related to their self-inductance by means of the coupling constant k:

the primary and this external choke provides the necessary "leakage inductance". The coupling constant is independent of the number of turns in a coil. The number of turns in a coil determines the magnetic field which will be produced for a given current. The coupling constant is concerned with how the lines of magnetic force produced by one coil interact with another coil, and hence the coupling constant between two air spaced coils depends only on their physical size and disposition in space. Hence to obtain the best coupling between primary and secondary in an aircored transformer we can only change the size and spatial relationships of the coils. With a tapped coil it may be noticed that changing the tap position changes not only the self-inductance but also the coupling constant. This is of course because when the tap is moved to a different position, the effective size and spatial relationship of that coil are changed as well as its self-inductance. When we have the critical coupling, which exists when the voltage output is optimised, then we have an additional relationship between kc the critical coupling constant and the Q values of primary and secondary:

Notice that since k is defining the relationship between magnetic flux linkages in the circuit, it can never be greater than 1. A value of 1 means that all the flux produced by the primary is linked with the secondary and vice versa. A value of k greater than 1 would mean that more than all of the flux produced by the primary is linked with the secondary and thus values of k greater than 1 (and I have seen people claim it!) means you have a problem! In fact, k = 1 is never achievable! The closest you are likely to get is in the output transformers of high quality valve amplifiers where primary and secondary are split into interleaved windings, and in specialist types of instrument transformers where the construction is similar. Power transformers used for supply distribution are also quite good, fortunately for the supply companies and the end user. Neon sign transformers and welding transformers are examples of designs where the value of k varies considerably with the load and is sometimes a lot less than 1. Transformers of this latter type are called "magnetic leakage transformers" because the design is such that a large proportion of the flux generated by each coil can escape from the magnetic circuit associated with the other coil. Under load, the proportion which "leaks" increases. This gives intentionally poor power regulation and ensures that when a short circuit is placed across the secondary (the striking of the welder's arc, the conductive breakdown of the neon gas, or the flashing over of the primary spark gap) the output voltage is suddenly reduced until the "fault condition" is removed. Mr. Melville Clapp-Eastham in the USA can be credited with the introduction of this type of transformer for spark transmitters, and his Model E transformer has a prominent place in wireless history. Similar results can be obtained from a power transformer of the closely coupled type if there is an external inductance (choke) in series with

The value of coupling constant is important in a spark transmitter because the tightness of coupling determines the rate at which the primary loses power to the secondary, and hence determines decrement, damping, sharpness of tuning (loaded Q) and intensity of current at resonance (and hence secondary voltage in a Tesla coil.) Remember those nice graphs showing the logarithmic decrement and loaded Q? The graph of decrement = 0.09 and loaded Q = 34.6 corresponds to the critical coupling constant having a value of kc = 0.17, which, from the records left by the old-time spark wireless operators, is around the maximum which can be used with a quenched spark gap of multi-plate construction. Hence for a critical coupling constant of kc = 0.17, the product QpQs must be 34.6. We can of course split that product between a wide range of possible Qp and Qs values! If both are equal to Q = 5.88 (the square root of 34.6) the decrement of each circuit individually is given by the graph of = 0.53. The diagram shows the effect of varying the coupling on the frequency distribution (read 'logarithmic

decrement') of a spark transmitter. As the coupling is increased much beyond 20%, k = 0.2, the frequency spread increases dramatically, indicating that the logarithmic decrement has increased and that loaded Q has decreased. The square of the current, plotted on the y axis, also plummets drastically.

11%. For the average aerial and coupling k=0.17, the detuning was normally about 3%.

Curves like these are recorded by coupling an rf ammeter into the circuit. I have seen circuit diagrams in which the meter is placed directly in the primary circuit, but evidently these were low voltage circuits (possible with the quenched gap which will operate on just a few hundred volts) and it is more usual to couple the meter to the aerial circuit and then indirectly by means of a coupling loop. A thermocouple ammeter would be the instrument of choice, but these curves were recorded most likely with a hot wire meter, whose deflection is proportional to the square of the current hence the plot of I2 on the y axis. The mutual inductance coupling ensures that everything critical to the operation of the spark transmitter (or Tesla coil) is dependent on just about everything else, and that is why trying to find the global optimisation for a Tesla coil to give the biggest spark for a given input power is so very difficult. It isn't that we have such an enormous number of variables it's the interdependence of all of them simultaneously on each other! All of which goes to show how very complicated the inductively coupled spark transmitter (or Tesla coil) really is. It's a nice demonstration of the fact that there is not necessarily a direct correlation between the number of components in a circuit and its complexity of operation. The spark transmitter circuit is one of the simplest - just seven components (power transformer, primary capacitor, primary inductance, primary spark gap, secondary inductance, secondary capacitance and mutual inductance) and yet a detailed description of its operation would require a lot more space than this and cartloads of higher mathematics. Any electrical circuit can be broken down into just four fundamental 'units' inductance, capacitance, resistance and mutual inductance - and with just seven components, this circuit has the lot.

The next diagram shows that, in order to get the highest possible secondary current, the primary and secondary circuits have to be slightly detuned. In each case the primary circuit remains tuned to a wavelength of 650m, whilst the aerial circuit (secondary) is varied from 500 - 650m. The best result is for 585m. This was obtained in an experimental test circuit chosen to demonstrate the effect clearly, and the best detuning is here about

As a mere radio ham tinkering outside my sphere of professional competence I can only scratch the surface. I am left gasping with admiration at the achievements of the old timers who built and operated spark transmitters and Tesla coils often without a clue as to the frequency of operation or technical knowledge much above Ohm's law. They did it, of course, by a combination of knowing inside out what there was to know, by meticulous method and by sheer patience and dogged determination.

greater than NP, or "stepped down" by making NS less than NP. In the vast majority of transformers, the windings are coils wound around a ferromagnetic core, aircore transformers being a notable exception. Transformers range in size from a thumbnail-sized coupling transformer hidden inside a stage microphone to huge units weighing hundreds of tons used to interconnect portions of power grids. All operate with the same basic principles, although the range of designs is wide. While new technologies have eliminated the need for transformers in some electronic circuits, transformers are still found in nearly all electronic devices designed for household ("mains") voltage. Transformers are essential for high voltage power transmission, which makes long distance transmission economically practical.

Uses
Devices that use inductive coupling include:

Transformers
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through inductively coupled conductorsthe transformer's coils. A varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction. If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the transformer to the load. In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding (VS) is in proportion to the primary voltage (VP), and is given by the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary (NS) to the number of turns in the primary (NP) as follows:

Electric motors and generators

An electric motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy, very typically through the interaction of magnetic fields and currentcarrying conductors. The reverse process, producing electrical energy from mechanical energy, is accomplished by a generator or dynamo. Traction motors used on vehicles often perform both tasks. Many types of electric motors can be run as generators, and vice versa. Electric motors are found in applications as diverse as industrial fans, blowers and pumps, machine tools, household appliances, power tools, and disk drives. They may be powered by direct current (for example a battery powered portable device or motor vehicle), or by alternating current from a central electrical distribution grid. The smallest motors may be found in electric wristwatches. Medium-size motors of highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial uses. The very largest electric motors are used for propulsion of large ships, and for such purposes as pipeline compressors, with ratings in the millions of watts. Electric motors may be classified by the source of

By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating current (AC) voltage to be "stepped up" by making NS

electric power, by their internal construction, by their application, or by the type of motion they give. The physical principle of production of mechanical force by the interactions of an electric current and a magnetic field was known as early as 1821. Electric motors of increasing efficiency were constructed throughout the 19th century, but commercial exploitation of electric motors on a large scale required efficient electrical generators and electrical distribution networks. Some devices, such as magnetic solenoids and loudspeakers, although they generate some mechanical power, are not generally referred to as electric motors, and are usually termed actuators and transducers, respectively.

as a functioning secondary computer screen that you can interact with directly using the stylus. Some tablets are intended as a general replacement for a mouse as the primary pointing and navigation device for desktop computers.

Radio Frequency Identification

Radio-frequency identification (RFID) is the use of an object (typically referred to as an RFID tag) applied to or incorporated into a product, animal, or person for the purpose of identification and tracking using radio waves. Some tags can be read from several meters away and beyond the line of sight of the reader. Radio-frequency identification comprises interrogators (also known as readers), and tags (also known as labels). Most RFID tags contain at least two parts. One is an integrated circuit for storing and processing information, modulating and demodulating a radiofrequency (RF) signal, and other specialized functions. The second is an antenna for receiving and transmitting the signal. Inductive Modems Resonant energy transfer

Induction loop communication systems

Induction loop is a term used to describe an electromagnetic communication- and detection system, relying on the fact that a moving magnet will induce a electrical current in a nearby conducting wire. Induction loops are used for transmission and reception of communication signals, or for detection of metal objects in metal detectors or vehicle presence indicators. A common modern use for induction loops is to provide hearing assistance to hearing aid users.

Graphics tablet

A graphics tablet (or digitizing tablet, graphics pad, drawing tablet) is a computer input device that allows one to hand-draw images and graphics, similar to the way one draws images with a pencil and paper. These tablets may also be used to capture data or handwritten signatures. A graphics tablet (also called pen pad or digitizer) consists of a flat surface upon which the user may "draw" an image using an attached stylus, a pen-like drawing apparatus. The image generally does not appear on the tablet itself but, rather, is displayed on the computer monitor. Some tablets however, come

Resonant energy transfer or resonant inductive coupling is the short-distance wireless transmission of energy between two coils that are highly resonant at the same frequency. The equipment to do this is sometimes called a resonant transformer. While many transformers employ resonance, this type has a high Q and is nearly always air-cored to avoid 'iron' losses. The coils may be present in a single piece of equipment or in separate pieces of equipment. Resonant transfer works by making a coil ring with an oscillating current. This generates an oscillating magnetic field. Because the coil is highly resonant any energy placed in the coil dies away relatively slowly over very many cycles; but if a second coil is brought near to it, the coil can pick up most of

the energy before it is lost, even if it is some distance away. One of the applications of the resonant transformer is for the CCFL inverter. Another application of the resonant transformer is to couple between stages of a superheterodyne receiver, where the selectivity of the receiver is provided by tuned transformers in the intermediate-frequency amplifiers. Resonant transformers such as the Tesla coil can generate very high voltages without arcing, and are able to provide much higher current than electrostatic high-voltage generation machines such as the Van de Graaff generator.[ Inductive charging products charge batteries using inductive coupling, such as eCoupled; Torches, Cochlear Implants and many electric toothbrushes.

An induction cooker uses a type of induction heating for cooking. It is chiefly distinguished from other common forms of stovetop cooking by the fact that the heat is generated directly in the cooking vessel, as opposed to being generated in the stovetop (as by electrical coils or burning gas) and then transferred to the cooking vessel. In an induction stovetop, a coil of copper wire--an electromagnet--is placed underneath the cooking pot. An oscillating current is applied to that coil, which produces an oscillating magnetic field. That magnetic field creates heat in the cooking vessel over it, in two different ways. First, it induces a current in the electrically conductive pot, which produces Joule (I2R) heat. Second, it also creates magnetic hysteresis losses in the ferromagnetic pot. The first effect dominates: hysteresis losses typically account for less than ten percent of the total heat generated.

Inductive charging uses the electromagnetic field to transfer energy between two objects. A charging station sends energy through inductive coupling to an electrical device, which stores the energy in the batteries. Because there is a small gap between the two coils, inductive charging is one kind of shortdistance wireless energy transfer. The other kind of charging, direct wired contact (also known as conductive charging or direct coupling) requires direct electrical contact between the batteries and the charger. Conductive charging is achieved by connecting a device to a power source with plug-in wires, such as a docking station, or by moving batteries from a device to charger. Induction chargers typically use an induction coil to create an alternating electromagnetic field from within a charging base station, and a second induction coil in the portable device takes power from the electromagnetic field and converts it back into electrical current to charge the battery. The two induction coils in proximity combine to form an electrical transformer

Low frequency induction

Low frequency induction is an unwanted form of inductive coupling, which can occur when a metallic pipeline is installed parallel to a high-voltage power line. The pipeline, which is a conductor, and is insulated from the earth by its protective coating, can develop voltages which are hazardous to personnel operating valves or otherwise contacting the pipeline.

Related Circuits Diagram:

Induction cookers and induction heating systems

REFERENCES 1. www.answers.com/topic/coupled-circuits 2. www.ece.utk.edu/~roberts/EECS300/.../Cha

pter13.pdf 3. http://www.scienceclarified.com/ElEx/ElectromagneticInduction.html#ixzz0iYGiu0xH

4. www.magnetmaterialyl.com/pro/MagneticCoupling.htm 5. www.magnetmaterialyl.com/pro/MagneticCoupling.htm 6. http://www.qbyrd.com/web? o=15529&l=dis&q=magnetic%20coupling