IUTtKNATlONAL J O U R N A L ITOR N U M E R I C A L M E T H O D S IN E N G I N E E R I N G , VOL.

28, 461 -474 (1989)

A CONSISTENT CHARACTERISTIC LENGTH FOR SMEARED CRACKING MODELS

J . OLIVER E. 7,s. Ingenieros de Carninos, Canales y Puertos, Universitat Politecniea de Catalunya, Jordi Cirona Salgado, 31,
08034 Barcelona, Sparti

SUMMARY A numerical scheme for crack modelling by means of continuous displacement fields is presented. In twodimensional problems a crack is modelled as a limiting case of t w o singular lines (with continuous displaccnients, but discontinuous displacement gradients across them) which tend to coincide with each other. An analysis of the energy dissipated inside the band bounded by both lines allows one to obtain an expression for the characteristic length as the ratio between the energy dissipated per unit surface area (fracture energy) and the energy dissipated per unit volume (specific energy) at a point. The application of these mathematical expressions to the finite element discretized medium allow one to obtain a general spatial and directional expression for the characteristic length which guarantees the objectivity of the results with respect to the size of the finite element mesh. The numerical results presented show the reliability of the proposed expressions.

INTRODUCTION Cracking is a kind of local damage that can be observed in many materials (metals, concrete, ceramics, etc.) causing (at least at the macroscopic level) a loss of continuity between particles a t the points where it occurs. This lack of continuity logically causes a discontinuity of the displacement field at the damaged points which has to be considered in some way when models of this phenomenon are constructed. In the last few years, several models for the numerical simulation of cracking, many of them applied to concrete, have been proposed.-9 These may be classified as (a) discrete models (which basically include the crack in the boundary of the analysed solid) o r (b) continuous or smeared models, in which the cracked solid is considered as a continuous medium and the cracks are modelled in a more abstract manner by means of inelastic strains. In this case, the constitutive equation has to include strain softening as a way of inducing strain localization in a certain zone. Localization can be induced naturally o r abruptly, by means of a bifurcation process when the constitutive law defines a non-positive material I We shall restrict ourselves t o type (b) models, in which many cracking models proposed for concrete can be included. A common feature of these models is their non-objectivity with respect t o the size of the finite element mesh when standard finite elements of Co continuity are used. Objectivity can be achieved by modifying the constitutive law a n d making it depend on mesh size by introducing a parameter called crack band width 1,536, o r characteristic length. R 3 9 , For fairly regular meshes this parameter is frequently determined in a n intuitive way which, however, is difficult t o generalize in a formal manner for irregular meshes and arbitrary crack directions. In this paper, a general expression f o r the characteristic length is deduced from certain

0029-5981 /89/020461-14$07 .OO 01989 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Received 5 February 1988 Revised 20 July 1988

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J. OLIVER

hypotheses on the behaviour in the localization zone. For simplicity, only the two-dimensional problem is analysed, although generalization to three dimensions is straightforward. CRACK MODELLING IN THE CONTINUOUS MEDIUM SINGULAR LINE AND SINGULAR BAND. Let us define a 5ingular line in a two dimensional domain a5 a continuous material line, acro5s which displacements are continuous but displacement gradients are discontinuous (see Figure
1).

Let us consider the incremental constitutive equation

ci,

= Cwkkkl

(1)

where oiJand t h / are Cartesian components of the stress and small-strain tensors, respectively, and the upper dot means derivation with respect to time in a quasi-static deformation process. The condition for a point belonging to a singular line, with unit normal n at this point, is that the determinant of the acoustic tensor in the n direction Q ( n ) be zero; that is, det [Q,kI
= det(n,C,kcnr) = 0

(2)

Non-positive materials bifurcate, producing singular lines, and equation ( 2 ) permits their direction to be determined at each point. In the context of standard finite elements of Co continuity, a singular line can be modelled only by the sides of the elements, these being the only points in the mesh where displacernentgradient discontinuities can be obtained. However, a crack produces not only displacementgradient discontinuities but also displacement discontinuities. This latter kind of discontinuity cannot be modelled by a Co finite element mesh for finite levels of discretization. However, a displacement discontinuity can be obtained as the limit of two parallel singular lines r- and I+ (see Figure 2 ) which tend to coincide with each other. We shall call the band delimited by both lines the singular band, and we shall define h as its width. Let us consider an orthogonal curvilinear co-ordinate system ( x , y ) in the interior of the band, where the y co-ordinates lines are parallel to the singular lines r- and I, and x are straight co-ordinates lines (see Figure 2). Let u + ( y ) and u - ( y )be the displacement vectors on I+ and r-. We define
o ( y )= u + ( y ) - u - ( y )

(3)

singular line

Figure 1. Singular line in a continuous medium

SMEARED CRACKING MODELS

463

as a vector representing the displacement jump between the two singular lines, and

6() = lim w ( y j = lim [ u + ( y )- u - ( y j ]

h-0

h PO

If 6 # 0, the singular band is modelling a discontinuous displacement field as a limit of a continuous one. This allows us to idealise a crack as the limit (with mesh refinement) of a band of finite elements where, by means of some numerical mechanisms, condition (6 # 0) is satisfied. DISPLACEMENT AND TRACTION VECTORS IN THE SINGULAR BAND Let us consider a singular band in the solid, with an infinitesimal width h (see Figure 3 (a)). Along a co-ordinate line x , the displacement vector u may be expanded from its value in the r - line as
u(x, y ) = u- (1 j

[g] +
-

Ax

O(h2)

(5)

and, consequently, for a point in the

I line

u + ( y )= u- ( y )+
a)

[g]
-

h ( y )+ 0 ( h Z j

(6)

bl

Figure 3 . Analysis within the singular band

464 In equations (5) and (6) the superscripts respectively. From equations (3), ( 5 ) and (6)
U(X

J . OLIVER

and - denote values in the I+ and

r- lines,

,y ) = U - ( y )+ -- [ U + (v) M - ( u ) ] + O (h2) = u-(y)

Ax h

Ax + __ o(v)+ O ( h 2 ) =u - ( Y ) + 4 ( ~ y , ) w ( Y ) h

(7)

where 4 is a function, to be determined below, which approximates A x / h when h+O. From equations (3) and (7) it can be seen that

4=0 onr-,

4=1 o n r +

(8)

Moreover, equilibrium across the singular band will be enforced by assuming that the traction vector t acting on the plane defined by the normal n,
ti =

alp,

(9)

is constant in the x direction; that is, t ( x , y ) = t + ( y ) =- ( y ) t

(10)

It is worth noting that equations (7) and (10) are valid only for infinitesimal bands. However, they will be assumed to hold for a finite ideal band whose width tends to zero.

ENERGY DISSIPATION WITHIN THE BAND

Let us assume a quasi-static deformation process which takes place over a time ~ ( < T < co). 0 We admit that, from a certain instant, the constitutive model leads to the appearance of a singular infinitesimal band, as described above. Let us consider the energy dissipation in a closed domain 0 , inside the band, with a boundary I* (see Fig. 3) following co-ordinate lines y (I7*+ and F*-) and x. Let gl be the specific energy (energy per unit volume) dissipated during the deformation process:
il-

n m

In a uniaxial deformation process gf would be, for a given point, the area under the stress-strain curve at that point (see Figure 4.).

Figure 4. Typical uniaxial stress-strain path; g is the cpccific energy c

SMEARED CRACKING M O D t L S

465

Ccj

From equation (1 I), and taking into account the IineariLed geometric equations = f ( u r , j + u,,,), we obtain

The last integrand in equation (12) is zero, being the product of a symmetric and an antisymmetric tensor, so that

where the Cauchys equations for quasi-static processes and negligible body forces (au,/ax, have been considered. From equation (13), the total dissipated energy in the domain Q* is

= 0)

and applying Gausss theorem l 3 , I 4 to equation (14) gives, using equation (9)

Owing to the infinitesimal width of the band, the curvilinear integral (15) can be evaluated only o n the lines r*+ I*- (see Fig. 3(b)): and

and, taking into account equations (7) and (lo),

The first integral vanishes because the contributions on F*+ and Thus, the dissipated energy on 0* is

r*-cancel each other out.

Remark I
Let us consider the case where Q* = 0; that is, the whole band between points A and B in Figure 3(b). Then, from equations (8) and (18), the total energy dissipated within the band between points A and B is
W = i,gf d Q =
f r - ( y , r G ; ( y , r )d r d y )

(19)

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J . OLIVER

Equation (19) establishes that the energy dissipated within the idealized band can be written as a curvilinear integral along its length. The integrand of equation (19) represents the energy dissipated per unit area, which, in terms of fracture mechanics, is the fracture energy Gf:

We shall assume Gf to be a material property independent of the spatial position of the point (Gr = constant). Thus, from equations (19) and (20),

Remark 2
From equations (18) and (20),

w=

*+

By applying Greens theoremi3 to equation (22), and taking into account equation (14),

The local form of equation (23) is

where
I*(X,

y) =

(2)
-I

The parameter I plays the role o f relating the specific energy (per unit of volume) and the fracture energy (per unit of area) by means of equation (24). From equation (24) and Figure 4, I can be identified as the characteristic length or crack band width used in many existing cracking models. 1 * 5 3 6 , 8 , 9 , 1 1 APPLICATION TO THE DISCRETIZED MEDIUM: CHARACTERISTIC LENGTH. Let us now consider a mesh of Co continuous finite elements (see Figure 5(a)). We assume that the cracking model allows us to determine a set of cracked elements and the crack direction at each point by means of the localization condition (equation (2)) or any equivalent expression. The set of cracked elements will be assimilated to a finite singular band for which the ideal band behaviour defined in previous sections is adopted, in the expectation that mesh refinement will, in the limit, approximate the actual behaviour at the crack.

SMEARED CRACKlNG MODELS

467

Figure 5. Finite element band modelling a singular band

Determination of the function

and the characteristic length I*

From equation (25) the function @ has to be a continuous, derivable, function satisfying equation (8). A simple function defined in the isoparametric co-ordinates t; and 11 (Reference 13) which fulfils these requirements is

where nc is the number of corner nodes of the element (n, = 3 for triangular elements and n, = 4 for quadrilateral elements), N are the standard Coshape functions of an element of nc nodes : and Q;is the value of the function @ at corner node i. If it is assumed that the crack location inside the element is known, @i takes the value i -1 if the corner node i is ahead of the crack, and 0 otherwise (see Figure 5(b)). The function 4 defined by equation (26) then fulfils the required conditions of continuity within and between elements and takes the values -t1 and 0 in I? and I?-, respectively (see Fig. 5(a)). In general, however, the exact crack location is not known, and usually only some indication of the onset of cracking and the crack directions is obtained at the integration points. In the examples presented below, the following algorithm for determining the characteristic length at each integration point j has been used (see Figure 6):
A set of local Cartesian axes x , y is defined at the centre C of the element, this being identified by the values of the isoparametric co-ordinates (t = 0 and 7 = 0 in quadrilateral elements, = f and 9 = in triangular elements). The direction of the local axis x is defined by the angle O,, this being the angle between the normal to the crack and the global axis x at the integration point j . Values of C#J at each corner node are established according to their position with respect to the local axes x,y ( @ L = 1 if x2 0 , otherwise 4 = 0). From equations (25) and (26) the characteristic length, at the present integration point j

468

J. 01 IVER

(with isoparanletric co-ordinates 4, and

~j

and cracking angle 0,) is obtained as

It is worth noting the dependence o r I" on the crack direction from equations (25) and (27).

Equivalent crack length

We can now define the 'equivalent crack length' d(') for each element e within the singular band as the crack length which dissipates the same energy as the whole element. Thus, from this definition and equation (21),
w(c) =

JPl,) gi d a = GI d")

(28)

Then, by taking into account equations (24) and (28), together with Green's theorem,

are where R(') and r(er the surface and boundary of the element, respectively. In Figure 7 explicit values for the equivalent crack length, computed using equations (26) and (29), are given for several linear elements and different crack patterns. It is worth noting that once the values (corresponding to the corner nodes) in equation (26) are given, the $ function, and consequently the d'" values in equation (29), are completely defined. Thus, the equivalent crack length d'" depends only on the qualitative position of the crack with respect to the corner nodes of the element. The d ( e ) values in Figure 7 ( a ) , for instance, would not change with changing crack position as long as the crack maintained the same orientation and cut the sides 1-2 and 3- 4; sides 1-4 and 2-3 would remain as parts of the 1'and rc lines, respectively (see Figure 5(a)), and the singular band would not be modified. Note also that the values given in Figure 7 are fully consistent when a general singular band such as the one shown in Figure 5(a) is considered. According to these values, the sum ot the equivalent crack length5 of the different elements crossed by the crack % o d d give the total length of the crack.

SMEARED CRACKING MODELS

469
Cl

b)
a)

0 3 =O

0. 30

0 0 1 . .

0, =o

Figure 7. Explicit values of the equivalent crack length for quadrilateral and triangular linear elements arid different crack patterns

Moreover, by averaging the specific energy gf over the element, the 'mean' specific energy
gffe)is obtained:

and from equations (29) and (30) an elemental characteristic length 1''' emerges naturally as
Gf d" = I(e)

with

Equation (32) is an alternative, at the element level, to equation (25). The local form of equation (32) is ( 2 5 ) ; consequently, with mesh refinement (when Q(') do")), Iie) converges to I". Thus, identical numerical results using both expressions should be expected in the limit.
+

NUMERICAL EXAMPLES
The scheme described above and the characteristic length given by equation (27) have been implemented in a two-dimensional smeared cracking model, similar to that developed by Rots et al. Some numerical examples are now presented which show the efficiency of the characteristic length obtained.

Example I: Constant stress field

The first example considers a bar subjected to an ideal constant stress path. The geometric and material properties are shown in Figure 8(a). For a constant stress field, the solution obtained using Co elements is exact and independent of the mesh size. However, this constant stress field does not produce localization, which has to be induced artificially. In the meshes shown in

470

J . OLIVER

Figure 8(b), the elements in which localization has been induced by means of a small reduction of the maximum stress tension f; are shaded. In Figure 8(b) the mesh sequence A1 to A5 corresponds to quadrilateral elements with progressive irregularity in the meshes. Sequence A6 to A corresponds to triangular elements with different mesh irregularities. Figures 8(c) and 8(d) X show, respectively, force-displacement and dissipated energy-displacement curves. Results for all the meshes, A1 to A8, coincide with the theoretical solution and are indistinguishable in the plots. Consequently the results are completely mesh independent.
a)

bpiF
+

E: 100M30 kp/crnz

v.00

~ _ _ _ _
100cm

125crn +
Gf =0125 kp/crn fi.100 kp/crnz
e = thickness = 50 crn

b)

C) 160 [F(kp)X1O2

d)

- W ( k p crnl 160-

40

c
6km)

000

001

002

003

Figure 8. Example 1 : Constant s t r e ~ fic!d. (a) Geometrical and material description, (h) different finite dement meshes s and (c) Force-displacement and dissipated cncrgy~displacementresults

SMEARED CRACKING MODEIS

47 1

Example 2: Tension specimen test This example tries to simulate a case where localization is produced by a non-uniform stress field. The specimen shown in Figure 9(a) has a neck in the centre which induces localization in the zone with minor cross-section. Figure 9(b) shows several regular meshes of linear quadrilateral elements (B 1 to B3), and corresponding irregular meshes (B4 to B6). The last mesh, B7, contains a finer row of elements close to the localization zone.
a)

I--

50 cm
~

1
E = 200000 kp/cm2 v.02
f't
I

10.0 kp/cmz

Gt

= 0.125 kp/crn e =thickness = 20 cm

Figure 9. Example 2: Tenvon specimen test. (a) Geometrical and material description, and (b) diffcrent linite element
meshes

472

J . OLIVER

In all the meshes, elements where localization is produced (with no external induction) are shaded. Several numerical tests have been performed with these meshes in order to determine convergence with mesh refinement and the influence of the order of the Gauss-Legendre integration rule.

Convergence with the size and deformation of the mesh. In Figures 10(a) and 10(b) force-displacement and dissipated energy-displacement curves arc presented for the different meshes. These results show a monotonic convergence of the results, with mesh refinement, to the theoretical solution (mesh objectivity), and the small influence (indistinguishable in the plots) of the mesh irregularity on the results. Influence of the integration rule. In Figures 1O(c) and 10(d) the influence of the integration order is analysed using a Gauss-Legendre rule on mesh B7. Two different schemes for the characteristic length are considered:
I. A Gaussian scheme, in which the characteristic length is taken as the square root of the area corresponding to a Gauss point.

a)

bl

,-El

and B4

160-

/ 62 and 65
j L B 3 and 86 //,I67 ////Theoretical

,81 and 84

t 480;
160}

120 -

3201
1

002

003

0.04

OOE

Cl

d)

800 F(kp)xlO MESH 8 7

640 -

W(kp/cml
160

MESH 6 7

1*1-2~2-3~3 (11) 1201

0.00

L -

001

002

0.03

0.04
0.05

O L 0 00

001

002

003

004

DO!3

Figure 10. Example 2 (continuation): Convergence analysis for different meshes. (a) Force-displacement and (b) dissipated energy-displacemcnt results. Numerical integration analysis with the Gaussian scheme (I) and the proposed schcnic (11): c) Force -displacement and d j Dissipated energy-displacement results

SMEARED CRACKING MODELS

473

11. T h e scheme proposed here, using equation (27) t o evaluate the characteristic length. In Figure 1O(c) force-displacement curves for both cases (I a n d 11) and different integration orders (1 x 1, 2 x 2, 3 x 3) are presented. The corresponding dissipated energy-displacement curves are presented in Figure 10(d). It can be observed that the proposcd scheme (11) is coinpletely independent of the integration rule and produces results which coincide exactly with the theoretical ones. The Gaussian scheme (I), however, is highly senqitive to the integration rule, producing a less steep force-displacement response and a higher energy dissipation when the integration order is increased.

CONCLUSIONS
Modelling a crack as the limiting of an infinitely narrow singular band (between two singular lines) allows one t o obtain the relationship between the dissipated energy per unit surface area (fracture energy) and per unit volume (specific energy) within the band. T h e characteristic length then emerges naturally as the ratio between both energies at each point, for which a mathematical expression depending on the crack direction (equation (25)) can be obtained. By assuming an idealized behaviour of a singular band for the cracked elements, an expression for the characteristic length can be deduced which depends on the mesh size, crack direction and spatial position (equation ( 2 7 ) ) . By using this characteristic length t o assign the amount of specific energy to each cracked point, objectivity, convergence with mesh refinement, and insensitivity of the result with respect to the integration rule can be achieved. REFERENCES
1. 2 . P. Bazant and B. H. Oh, Crack band theory for fracture of concrete. Muter. Constr., 16(93),

155-177 (1983). 2 . R. Glemberg, Dynamic analysis of concrete structures, Ph.D. Thesis, Chalmers University of Technology, Publication 84: 1 (1984). 3. A. Hillerborg, Numerical methods to simulate softening and fracture of concrete, in Fracture Mechanics of Concrete. Structural Application and Numerical Calculation, (G. C. Sih and A. Di. Tommaso, Eds.), Martinus Nijhoff, Dordrecht; 1985, pp. 141-169. 4. A . R. Ingrafea and V. Saouma, Numerical modeling of discrete crack propagation in reinforced and plain concrete, Fracture Mechanics of Concrete. Structural Application and Numerical Calculation, (G. C. Sih and A. Di Tommaso, Eds.), Martinus Nijhoff, Dordrecht, 1985 pp. 171-225. 5. Z . P. Bazant, Mechanics of fracture and progressive cracking in concrete structures, in Fracture Mechanics of Concrete, Structural Application and Numerical Circulation, (G. C . Sih and A. Di Tommaso, Eds.), Martinus Nijhoff, Dordrecht, 1985, pp. 1-94. 6. J. G. Rots, P. Nauta, G. M. A. Kusters and J. Blaauwendraad, Smeared crack approach and fracture localization in concrete, Heron, 30(1), 1-47 (1985). 7. R. De Borst, on-linear analysis of frictional materials, Ph. D . Thesis, Technische Hogeschool Delft, 1986. 8. E. Ofiate, S. Oller, J. Oliver and J. Lubliner, A constitutive model for cracking of concrete based on the incremental theory of plasticity, in Proc. Int. Con5 on Computational Plasticity, Models, SoftwareandApplications, (D. R. J . Owen, E. Flinton and E. Oiiate Eds.), Pineridge Press, Swansea, 1987, pp. 1311-1330. 9. M. Cervera, E. FIinton and 0. Hassan, on-linear analysis of reinforced concrele plate and shell structures using 20-noded isoparametric brick elements, Computers Struct., 25, 845-870 (1987). 10. K. C. Valanis, On the uniqueness of solution of the initial value problem in softening materials J . App/. Mech., 52, 649-653 (1985). 11. M. A. Crisfield, Difficultieswith current numerical models for reinforced concrete and some tentative solutions in Proc. Int. Conf. on Computer-Aided Analysis and Design of Concrete Structures, (F. Damjanic, E. Hinton, D. R. J . Owen, N. Bicanic and V . Simovic Eds.) Pineridge Presn, Swansea, 1984, pp. 331--358. 1984.

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12. . . Rice, The localization of plastic deformation in Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, Proc. I R. 14th IUTAM Congr. (N. T. Koiter, Ed.), North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1976, pp. 207-220. 13. 0. C. Zienkiewicz, The Finite Element Method, McCraw-Hill, New Y o r k , 1979. 14. L. E. Malvern, Introduction to the Mechanics of a Continuous Medium, Prentice-Hall, Englewoud Cliffs, N J , 1969.