Speak Memory II

War and War Crimes: On Memorials and Documentaries: 1919 2011

How can you make peace when what you really want is revenge?

Memorials are visual structures set in public spaces to recall history and remember the dead. Documentaries can serve a similar purpose. But in contrast to the effect documentaries have on us, how often do we walk by memorials without deeply acknowledging the suffering and sacrifice they are intended to remind us of? And how little do we know of the events memorialized in either case? For the most part, are we largely unaware, unmoved and distanced from the history of war, even of recent paroxysms of organized human malice as considered in the Serbian and Congo cases in this essay. How often do we pass by such memorials or pass over showing such films in classes, the multitude of wars and war crimes, rampant human rights violations ongoing, safely out of sight and out of mind? To begin then, when I pass by memorial sculptures such as the one above (this photograph having been taken at dusk in front of the United States Holocaust Museum in Washington D.C.) images of the Holocaust, history books, novels and documentaries capturing and creating historical memory come constantly to my mind. Beyond the images seared into my consciousness, I recall authors and books such as Elon Amos The Pity of It All (2003), Margaret McMillans Paris 1919 (2003), Niall Fergusons 1914-1918 (1998) and most recently

Adam Hochschilds To End All Wars (2011) and Deborah Lipstadts reflections on Hannah Arendt in The Eichman Trail (2011) though the list is endless. These more recent works which revisit World War One and Two return us to immensely powerful films such as Captain Ryan and the magnificent novel by Sebastian Faulks Bird Song (1994), to recall earlier generation of histories and novels gathering dust on octogenarians book shelves such as the dark tome by Herman Wouk for instance. These books and films keep alive our collective memory of the late 19th and early 20th Century and the consequences. So when last in Washington, DC I found myself by the memorial sculpture in front of the U.S. Holocaust Museum. But I just could not bring myself to go inside. The memories of what I saw and felt in the Holocaust Memorial Museum Yad Vashem (The Hand of God) in Israel remain forever, as vivid as if it was yesterday. I am still, after all these years, still standing in front of that map of Europe spreading forth across the darkened gallery floor with everlasting candles burning in place of each population erased, still looking into the eyes of those being sent to the death camps and at the photographs of each stage of their journeys to ash, lampshades and fertilizer, the meticulous ledgers. Paris 1919, Milosevic on Trial and One Womans Struggle to Heal World War One and Two, the Serbian genocide, the First African World War, the current use of mass rape as a weapon of war in the Democratic Republic of Congo, these and the litany of other past and ongoing crimes against humanity keep burning away or igniting and flaming something inside me. I often wish it was otherwise. With the Holocaust in mind then, consider the three documentaries Paris 1919: Inside The Peace Talks That Changed The World (2008), Milosevic on Trial (2007) and Lumo: One Womans Struggle to Heal in a Nation Beset by War (2006). I have reviewed them at greater length individually at Leonardo on-line (see Zilberg 2011 a and b, 2009) and looking back on them here I realize that most of the documentary films I have reviewed for Leonardo archive injustice of one sort or another whether it be the story of Edward Said and Palestine, impossible love in Kabul or the rampant murder of women in Guatemala. These films record the facts of wars and their consequences, the death and destruction incurred, the atrocities committed and typically the denials of the accused, the strength and dignity of the victims recollections. They are about three wars and their consequences. Though each of these documentaries concern very different conflicts in different times and places, they are intensely relevant to each other. The films are especially relevant to postconflict peace settlements, reparations, justice and the prosecution by the International Criminal Court (henceforth ICC) at The Hague of individuals accused of war crimes. Finally, they are important perhaps for hope and healing. Each of these films speaks to two difficult questions in particular. Can political settlements create sustainable peace after catastrophic conflict? Can even partial symbolic justice be achieved for the countless victims of crimes against humanity including genocide and rape as a weapon of war? Can either goal be achieved through symbolic trails of architects of death at the ICC while the countless individuals who actually committed the crimes enjoy complete impunity? Without the scale and reach of war crimes trails, without public memorials, justice is perpetually deferred. This condition of impunity rules in Africa, Asia and Latin America

where one must by and large suffice with the rare showcase trail for the sake of foreign aid. There war crimes, crimes against humanity and genocide are judged ultimately as the incidental and necessary price of nation building and dignified as forms of transitional justice. Imagine the waste, the pity of it all for the multitudes of children, men and women who probably never even dreamed of going to a library never mind the liberty of paging through illustrated books and contemplating things like art history. Memory, Archives and War Crimes Trials

Though it could be useful to begin in Plymouth and consider the long litany of war and war crimes that followed in Drakes colonial Christian wake, it is more useful for the sake of what follows to begin by returning to the 1995 Oxford Amnesty Lectures. There the Nigerian author Wole Soyinka, sought to bring attention to the trials going on at that time of former President for life of Malawi Hastings Kamuzu Banda and Mariam Mengistu of Ethiopia. Soyinka, describing the latter as being of a dimension that is little short of that of the Nuremberg trials, writes thus: These are trails that unborn children all over the world, and in the African continent especially, should learn about, but we are more concerned about the living, the tortured, and the dying, and the possible amelioration of their condition, even their salvation, by placing such trials on the world stage, side by side perhaps with that of the Serbian President Slobodan Milsoevic and his agents, with General Leopoldo Galtieri of Argentina probably thrown in for geographic spread. . . . I cannot envisage the failure of the trial of Mariam Mengistu, at least, to rivet the attention of television addicts worldwide. Instead of films such as Milosevic on Trial, what kind of trials does the average citizen watch?

What indeed, is touted as the trial of the century, into which the entire world has been assiduously programmed like docile drug addicts? Here is Soyinkas answer: The tawdry, commonplace pseudo-drama of a faded football hero called O. J. Simpson. . . . . While Soyinka was hoping for justice and calling attention to [T]he trials of the Century . . . taking place right now in the heart of Africa . . . trials that serve as a moral and a warning both to surviving dictators and their international props of the left and the right those trials have arguably achieved nothing in terms of justice, just as with the botched Simpson trail prior to the civil case and his ultimate demise through his own stupidity and arrogance. But what do most of us remember if anything? Merely this: the slick legal mendacity: If the glove does not fit, you must acquit! Paris 1919 differs from Milosevic on Trial and Lumo in that it is a film which restages events and incorporates archival footage while the latter two are purely documentary films which will become archival material. With its narration and staged scenes, as fascinating and informative as it is, and as beautifully produced as it is, it is not emotionally arresting. This is not the case with the others. In Milosevic on Trial the cold blooded, utterly recalcitrant, Slobodon Milosevic makes a mockery of his trial to the prosecutions frustration as Radec Mladic no doubt now will as well. In the very different case of a documentary relating to war, Lumo is the story of a victim and survivor. Through her we learn something of the ongoing horror of mass rape as a weapon of war in the eastern DRC. As the DRC conflict is a continuation of both the First African World War and the Berlin partition of 1878, and as the use of mass rape as a weapon war was a key Serbian tactic, the three have certain congruencies and even links. The issues of economic resources, international relations and human rights run through these rivers of blood as currents in a stream. Paris 1919 portrays the immensely complicated process of drafting and signing the Treaty of Versailles, the terms of the ending of The Great War. This was the peace conference through which maps of the world were again re-drawn and through which Woodrow Wilson sought in vain to create a League of Nations in order to prevent future such catastrophic conflicts. Only two decades later, the World was again at War and thereafter facing the same questions as regards reparations, economic revival and prevention of future conflict - but with the additional issues of genocide and war crime tribunals at hand. Paris 1919 and Milosevic on Trial thus recalls the intervening Second World War and the Nuremberg trials and the scale of violence and horror that trial sought to bring some sense of justice to. In both trials, the purpose was to document the nature and scale of the crimes against humanity during these European conflicts. The aim was to hold the architects as a nation and as an individual to account. In. Milosevics case, an unrepentant symbol of defiance, he portrays himself as an innocent victim who had merely acted in his own words according to the wishes of his people. Yet from the peace talks in Paris in 1919 to the indictment of Milosevic in 2002, from the First African World War and the Rwandan Genocide in 1994 which led to Lumos plight, the larger issues of territorial competition over resources and human consequence remain. In Africa, despite the Lusaka Peace Accords which formally ended this war in the Eastern DRC the conflict continues unabated. In the same way the Treaty of Versailles and the end of World War Two merely laid the background context for

innumerable other conflicts continuing to this day in different incarnations. In the case of the former Belgian Congo, where complete impunity and virtual certainty that no justice will ever to be served except perhaps for the most exceptional instances, there is an unchecked situation of mass murder, rape and torture. Lumos story will leave you as cold as the opening day of the Milsoevic trial and years later that bitter winter day when justice denied he returned a corpse to Belgrade as a much beloved hero as Mladec will replay in turn. Thus in maps drawn in 1887 and redrawn in 1919 ending the 19th Century Age of Empire, issues raised then as regards Yugoslavia and the Serbs, the Kurds and the Zionist dream, Italy, Japan and Germany aligning, Chang Kai Shek and Emir Faisal, the African and Asian affairs, historys horror spread across the maps. When one watches the film of the map makers marking and remarking boundaries upon the tables in Paris, one cannot but help think of the carnage to follow across those spaces. Take the un-prosecuted war crimes of Unit 731 in World War Two committed in China, the so called water born disease research, the heart wrenching memorial arts to that experiment on the logs, the vivisections in particular. The way in which the Japanese took Nazi cruelty to levels of organization and extremity beyond that which you can imagine found me waking in the middle of the night three nights in a row. I could not but help go outside and gently weep. Perhaps you think me over emotional, unstable even with this obsession with war crimes and justice. But should you ever see that BBC documentary, Ill spare you the gory detail, you will I am sure forgive me the rage which drove me to write this essay. For Unit 731, there were to be no war crimes trials. There was not even an official admission or apology thanks to the scientific value of their crimes despite the Nuremberg convention. The Americans had no interest in it. The research was too valuable. Instead the only Japanese professor who dares to lecture about Unit 731 in history classes lives in constant fear for his life. As for the DRC, through the film Lumo we gain a small window into her world at war. There women and girls, babies and octogenarians, boys and men are as you read this being gang raped, individually, in groups and en masse. In two recent cases under the nose of the largest United Nations force in the world (MONUC), two singular incidents involved 300 victims and then 150 victims. The numbers and the nature of the crimes defy the imagination. Savaged with knives and sticks and bayonets, their vaginas and rectums torn apart in front of their families and fellow villagers, they sometimes beg to be killed during the ordeal. The guns exploding into their insides usually maim the victims but do not kill them, probably calculated not to kill however one dose such things. Victims recount that their tormentors laugh at them for the agony of their suffering and humiliation, at how they beg to be put out of their misery. To kill them would defeat the point of the exercise. The message exacted through this sexual terrorism and torture is that resistance is futile. That is the goal. To watch films such as Lumo and the other films and plays emerging on the subject is to enter in a small and safe way into this Heart of Darkness and its sordid trail in history. So then: How can you make peace when all you really want is revenge? This is the first sentence of the blurb on the back of the Milosevic DVD. It is a sentence that says it all. It is as relevant to the pursuit of justice and peace in the DRC today as it is to any conflict past and present. These three films will do much to introduce college and high school students

to the history of war and jurisprudence relating to crimes against humanity. They appear to be irresolvable problems imperfectly solved. They are all too rarely dealt with in courts of law. The rule rather than the exception is impunity. This is reality of the world in which the victims are condemned to live. And yet perhaps for victims such as Lumo and countless others revenge is not part of the question at all. I would not know. Perhaps all that they care for is to be healed and to survive. Regardless, war crimes and crimes against humanity require redress if only by symbolic measure and for the historical record. Towards that consider the film Milosevic on Trial. It consists of seven parts: the indictment itself, the defendants strategy, the field investigations to gather the evidence for prosecution, the choice of witnesses and the problems therein, the crimes of genocide themselves, and finally, Milosevics response and his premature death in custody delivering him from justice. Unless you are a Serbian nationalist or a neo-Nazi, a Mengistu or Mugabe supporter, it is infuriating to watch Milosevic making a mockery of the court, of each and every document, witness and charge, the failure to do any justice to 125 000 deaths and 3 million displaced. The way in which the Director Michael Christoffersen deftly uses the music and the pacing of the evidence intensifies the unfolding drama - the frozen winter opening day of the trial in February 2002, the presiding Judge May dying, Milosevic sickening and refusing counsel, playing the victim to the end, his body heroically returned to Belgrade in 2006. Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow: Lumos Challenge Today at The Hague, other war crimes trials are underway at the International Criminal Court at The Hague, this time men chosen as having particular symbolic value. In the case of the DRC conflict, Laurent Kabila is the dark star in the dock. Radik Mladic is next in line. With that in mind, the film Milosevic on Trial could inspire a series of such films in the future. The list could be endless: Kabila on Trail or Duc on Trial. There could even be futuristic sadistic documentary thrillers like Mugabe on Trial: Hatred and Ruination in Zimbabwe. More likely there will soon be films like Mubarak on Trial: Murder in Fatahilla Square and Gaddafis Last Stand: The Green Book Testament. Imagine. This series is endless: Sudanic Nights: How Bashir Evaded the ICC; Nkunda: The Dark Trails of the Lords Resistance Army; Gbagbo: Je Refuse; Charles Taylor: Blood Diamonds Are a Mans Best Friend. As for Latin America, dont miss Pinochet: How to Dispose of Inconvenient Bodies and best of all Bush on Trial: Damn Saddam. More realistically there might one day quite soon be a Taliban archival production: The Last Days of Karzai in Kabul: Gods Justice in the Rose Garden But seriously, returning to the issue in Paris 1919 of how one conflict leads to another and of how local conflicts become regional conflicts and even world wars, the film Lumo is sobering. It is the story of the healing of one victim in the aftermath of the First African World War. To date the war has claimed approximately 6 million lives. It is the consequence of the Rwandan genocide in 1994 after which the Hutu rebels, known as the genocidaires, shifted their attention to rape, murder, pillage and slavery in the eastern DRC so as to profit from the blood minerals we need for our cell phones, computers and jet planes. Yes, we are all complicit in a sense in every sms and email we make, in every document we

create. But our consciences can live as safely with that as one did with sugar and rum and slavery in Ruskins day. As one might move effortlessly from one image to another on a panel in the Warburg Mnemosyne Atlas, the academic context out of which this essay emerged, from the price of international relations, money and power, on the currency exchange of sheer malice and hatred we can move seamlessly from World War One to World War Two and more recently the break up of Yugoslavia and on to the eastern DRC today. There Lumos story shows how one victims instance can be symbolic of all Slobodan Milosevics escape from justice speaks to other impunities and failures of justice. Globally, victims are forced to accept the complete refusal of the state to acknowledge past wrongs, the Rome Statute rejected. In instances they continue to struggle for the sake of memory, whether it be creating documentaries about the half a million murders and decades of social death imposed of suspected communists in Indonesia or with largely isolated show case trials such as that of Cambodias Duc finally sentenced in 2009. From Rwanda to the DRC and all across Africa, from Vietnam to Indonesia and all across Asia from Kandahar to Shanghai, across Latin America from Guatemala to Brazil and Chile, these three films will invoke countless other litanies in all those spaces in-between. But Lumo is a documentary film above all about courage and hope. It is also about rape as a weapon of war and the surgical repair of resultant fistula, an account of the remarkable work being done at the Goma Hospital. It is an activist film project which introduced the conflict to the world community in 2006 in an effort to galvanize international attention. Relating one victims account of healing to illustrate the plight of many, it will be especially useful for introducing high school and college students to the ongoing nature and scale of the sexual violence being perpetrated in the region. The brutality and scale of the situation defies the imagination. Five years later impunity continues to rule despite the best efforts of the ICC and multiple UN Security Council Resolutions, conflict minerals acts and global campaigns. While showcase war trials continue at The Hague, there is no end in sight of war crimes being committed every day in the DRC despite the largest UN militarized presence ever mounted. In that unresolved and ever deteriorating context, Lumo will inspire awe as to how anyone can survive the physical and psychological trauma that the victims have endured. Besides being a testament to the power of goodness and hope it speaks on the other hand to the very heart of human darkness itself. Ultimately it is an unusual documentary film in serving as a medium for recruiting people to donate funds to the Goma Hospital and to become politically engaged in the HEAL Africa campaign. Justice was then and is now deferred in Africa. Mengistu serves as President Robert Mugabes security advisor, his lovely daughters sipping Capuccinos in the Italian Bakery in Harare. Bashir of Sudan accused of genocide makes a far more effective and sophisticated mockery of the ICC than Milosevic. All this speaks to the Serbian wall of silence, the tinkling of bells in the wind on crosses at JNA and Skorpion execution sites and mass graves, to Milan Babic the traitor swinging gently in his cell and Geoffrey Nices depressed last words while wanly packing up the trial documents: At this point the record is available to it is a satisfactory conclusion. Milosevic shamelessly abusing the ICC died triumphant in not

being found guilty, buried as a national hero in frozen ground. And now, does Mladics lone and politically expedient trail offer much more? And what hope does Lumo and all the other DRC victims really have with rape as a weapon of war as rampant as the impunity for the crime? From the wars and peace treaties to end all wars which set the stage for political repression, unanswered for crimes against humanity, genocide and mass murder, war after war across Asia, Africa and the middle East, extraordinary impunity across the board, hypocrisy everywhere, these films are sadly prescient and instructive. They simply must be watched. Evil can never be banal whatever the celebrated and controversial philosophical musings of Hanna Arendt about Eichmann as an ordinary person just doing his job in extraordinary times.

A Leonardo Challenge It is with all this in mind that I find reviewing documentary films for Leonardo such a personally and professionally rewarding experience. It allows me the opportunity, as Soyinka would, to bring attention to trials and the massive foreclosure of justice for war crimes, for crimes against humanity and other ongoing injustices. At least it adds to the awareness and archival record of it all. So how then do archives and documentary films based on archival materials or witness accounts allow future generations to be able to distinguish fact and fiction in history? Does my work through using Leonardo as an on-line platform allow them to be better advertised for classroom use - to be more effectively used as sort of moral compass against denial and the condition of impunity victims have to live with and perpetrators enjoy when peace descends? Towards closure then, let us return to World War II, to the holocaust denials and the virtually systematic global failure to bring justice to those who perpetrate human rights abuse and war crimes.

As the 1919 peace conference, the Milosevic trial and Lumos life variously show, the above discussed films constitute documentary records of humanity seeking peace and justice against all odds. They will sadly perhaps be far less often seen than they deserve to be as Achebe would agree. And similarly they will probably achieve as little as the trial of Milosevic and Mengistu. But again as the prosecutor Geoffrey Nice relates - at least the trial accorded the opportunity to record the facts for history. Each of these films do so for different periods of immense darkness and suffering over the last century.

By drawing attention to them in this context, butterfly-like by moving across space and time from one flowering of evil to another, I hope to have drawn attention to the power of archives, documentaries, memorials and ultimately art to consider and document war crimes. The suffering reaped upon the victims can never be requited. Art might not help the victims in any of that I think but it helps to communicate their history to those who might care - and ultimately for the sake of historical memory. The quality of mercy might be strained, justice measured for a few figureheads, an occasional unlucky stooge. Forgiveness is simply not something I can bring myself to understand, only the incandescent purity within my soul of an abiding and bitter hatred for those who so gladly torture and murder, a constant and seething desire for the most primitive revenge. That said, only love, only the uplifting beauty of the morning light on embankment tulips helps me set it aside when overwhelmed. Art, books and natural beauty soothe this violent anger and bitter frustration at war crimes committed and justice denied. It reminds me of an old and faded blue copy of Volume One of The History of Ideas I once found in Harare and lost. There was an essay in there by Ian Crighton and his missive only connect. And so I have tried to do with you through word and image.

Conclusion

These two essays, Speak Memory I and II came about through an engagement with the Mnemosyne seminar on Aby Warburg in the Department of Trans-technology at the University of Plymouth. The logic of all that and the details have not been included here, especially ramifications that it had for my appreciation of German Jewish history, but the lateral creative result of that work is at least immanent as explored above and as given in the bibliography. My research and reflection for that seminar caused me pause to realize something about my reviews of image based media for Leonardo. Reading back over them I realize that what I am in part trying to achieve is to invoke the power of images through the written word. There is a fetishistic element to that creative aesthetic process. The purpose is to attempt to memorialize the dead and the suffering inflicted upon them and the survivors through art. As for forgiveness and the epigraph of this paper - forgiveness is a concept that I abjure. I cannot understand how people can forgive war crimes and crimes against humanity. It simply makes no sense to me. Perhaps in time I will learn how to do so.

Bibliography
Arendt, Hana. (2006) The Banality of Evil. New York: Penguin. Ascheim, Steven E. (2007) Beyond the Border: The German Jewish Legacy Abroad. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Bauman, Zygmunt (1998) The Holocausts life as a ghost, Tikun 13(4):33-38. Bent-Jorgen Perlmutt and Walker III,.Nelson (2006) Lumo: One Womans Struggle to Heal in a Nation Beset by War. The Goma Film Project, 72 mins, DVD Berghahn, Marion (2007) Continental Britons: German-Jewish Refugees from Nazi Germany. New York: Berghahn Books. Boskovic, Aleksanar (2011) Ratko Mladic: Relativism, myth and reality. Anthropology Today 27(4):1-3. Brenner, Michael (2011) Renaissance of Jewish Culture in Weimar Germany. Yale: Yale University Press. British Broadcasting Corporation (2011) The Horror of Unit 731. BBC Films. Britt, David (trans.) (1999) Aby Warburg: The Renewal of Pagan Antiquity. Los Angeles: Getty Research Intsitute. Bruhn, Mathias Aby Warburg (1866-1929). The Survival of an Idea. Enciclopedia Hipertexto. [Online]. Available at: http://www.educ.fc.ul.pt/hyper/resources/mbruhn/. (Accessed June 1, 2011)

Burucua, Jose Emilio et al. (1992) Historia de las Imagenes e Historia de Los Ideas. La Escuela de Aby Warburg. Buenas Aires : Centro Editor de America Latina. Carr, Edward Hallett (1961/1987) What is History? New York: Penguin. Chernow, Ron (1993) The Warburgs: The 20th Century Odyssey of a Remarkable Jewish Family. New York: Random House. Confino, Alon (1997) Collective Memory and Cultural History: Problems of Method. American Historical Review. Pp 1386-1403. [Online] Available at: http://www.uwo.ca/thecity/Course%20Descriptions/Confino.pdf (Accessed: 5 September, 2011) Cowan, Paul (1989) 1919: Inside the Peace Talks That Changed the World. National Film Board of Canada, 2008 94 mins, DVD, French with subtitles. Elon, Amos (2004) The Pity of It All. A Portrait of Jews in Germany, 1743-1933. London: Penguin. Faulks, Sebastian (1994) Birdsong. London: Vintage. Ferguson, Niall (1998) The Pity of War, 1914-1918. London: Penguin. Field, Andrew (1977) The Life and Art of Vladimir Nabokov. New York: Crown Publishers. Forster, Kurt W. (1996) Aby Warburg: His Study of Ritual and Art on Two Continents. Trans. David Britt. October 77, Summer. pp. 5-24. Forster, Kurt W. (1976) Aby Warburgs History of Art: Collective Memory and the Social Mediation of Images. Daedalus 105 (1). pp. 169-76. Forster, Kurt W. (1995) Warburg and the Warburgerian Tradition of Cultural History. New German Critique. Spring-September. Freedberg, David. (2005) Warburgs Mask: A Study in Idolatory. in Westermann, Mariet (ed.) Anthropologies of Art. Williamstown: Clark Institute, pp 3-25. [On-line]. Available at: http://www.columbia.edu/cu/arthistory/faculty/Freedberg/Warburgs-Mask.pdf (Accessed July 1, 2011) Freedberg, David. (2004) Pathos a Oraibi: Ci che Warburg non vide, in Cieri Via, Claudia and Montani, Pietro. (ed.) Lo sguardo di Giano: Aby Warburg fra tempo e memoria. Turin: N. Aragno, pp 569-611. Fromkin, David (1989) A Peace to End All Peace. New York: Henry Holt and Co. Gay, Peter (1978) Freud, Jews and Other Germans: Masters and Victims in Modernist Culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Gombrich, Ernst. H. (1970/1986) Aby Warburg: An Intellectual Biography, with a memoir on the history of the library by F. Saxl. Oxford: Phaidon. Gordimer, Nadine (1999) Living in Hope and History: Notes From Our Century. New York: Farrar, Straus, Giroux. Gray Denis D. (2009) Cambodia: Wheels of justice slowly begin to turn Associated Press/The Jakarta Post. Jakarta. 28 January 2009, p. 27. Guidi, Benedetta Cestelli and Mann, Nicholas eds. (1998) Photographs and the Frontier: Aby Warburg in America 1895-1896. London: Merrell Holberton. Hitchens, Christopher(2011) Insatiable appetite of World War I, The New York Times, 14-15 May, 2011, p. 17. Hobwbawm, Eric (1987/2003) The Age of Empire, 1875-1914. London: Abacus. Hochshild, Adam (2011) To End All Wars: A Story of Loyalty and Rebellion. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Hogg, Jonny (2011) Some 170 women raped in attack on Congo villages. The Jakarta Post, Jakarta, 25 June, 2011, p. 10. Jacoby, Russell (2010) Bloodlust: On the Roots of Violence from Cain to Abel to the Present. New York: Free Press. Jensen, Eric. (2008) Justice and the Law. in Call, Charles (ed.) Building States to Build Peace, Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Reinner, pp 119-142. Kimmelman, Michael (2011) In Germany, Eichmanns case is far from closed, International Herald Tribune, 10 May, 2011, p. 1. Kwiatkowski, Nicolas (2003) Culture, change, and intellectual relations. Review of Jose Emilio Burucua, Historia, Arte, Culture. De Aby Warburg a Carlo Ginzburg. Buenas Aires: Fondo de Cultura Economica. [On line] Available at: http://www.arthistoriography.files.wordpress.com/2011/02/media_139145_en.pdf (Accessed: August 1, 2011) Lang, Karen Ann (2006) Chaos and Cosmos: On the image in aesthetics and art history. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Lerm, Christa Maria (1994) Das judische Erbe bei Aby Warburg. Menora. Jahrbuch fur deutschjudisch Geshiche, pp 143-171. Lipstadt, Deborah E. (2011) The Eichmann Trial. New York: Next Book/Schocken.

Maurer School of Law (2010) The Milosevic Trial: An Autopsy. Conference. Bloomington: Indiana University. [Online] Available at http://www.law.indiana.edu/front/special/2010_milosevic/ (Accessed: September 5, 2011) McMillan, Margaret (2010) The war to end all wars is finally over, The International Herald Tribune, December 27, 2010, p. 8. McMillan, Margaret (2001) Paris 1919: Six Months that Changed the World. New York: Random House. Meyer, Anne-Marie.(2008) Aby Warburg in His Early Correspondence in Schoell-Glass, Charlotte (ed.) Aby Warburg and anti-semitism political perspectives on images. Detroit: Wayne State University, pp 445-449. Michaud, Philippe-Alain (2004) Aby Warburg and the Image in Motion. New York: Zone Books. Rees, Lawrence (2005) Auschwitz: A New History. New York: Public Affairs. Robertson, Geoffrey (2006) Crimes Against Humanity. London: Penguin. Russell, Mark A. (2007) Between Tradition and Modernity: Aby Warburg and the public purpose of art in Hamburg, 1896-1918. New York: Berghahn Books. Schoell-Glass, Charlotte (2001) The Last Plates o Warburgs Picture Atlas Mnemosyne. in Woodield, Richard (ed.) Art history as Cultural History: Warburgs Projects. Amsterdam: G+B Arts, pp 183-208.. Schoell-Glass, Charlotte (2008) Aby Warburg and Anti-Semitism: Political Perspectives on Images and Culture. Detroit: Wayne State University. Seng, Theary C. (2005) Daughters of the Killing Fields. London: Fusion Press. Stearns, Jason K. (2011) Dancing on the Glory of Monsters. New York: Public Affairs. Warnke, Martin and Claudia Brink ed. (2000) Der Bilderatlas: MNEMOSYNE. Berlin: Akademie Verlag. Williams, Peter., Wallace, David. (1989) Unit 731: Japans Secret Biological Warfare in World War II. New York: Free Press. Wole Soyinka. (1995) Unholy Words and Terminal Censorship. in Engdahl, Horace (ed..) The Dissident Word. The Oxford Amnesty Lectures. Stockholm: The Swedish Academy, pp 61-9. Woodfield, Richard (date) Review of Aby Warburg and the Image in Motion, Philippe-Alain Michaud (2004) New York: Zone Books. [Online] Academia.edu. Available at: http://birmingham.academia.edu/RichardWoodfield/Papers/154061/Review_of_PhilippeAlain_Michaud_Aby_Warburg_and_the_Image_in_Motion (Accessed August 1, 2011)

Thiongo, Ngugi wa (2009) Something Torn and New: An African Renaissance New York: Basic Civitas Books. Tolstoy, Leo (2009) Hadji Murad. Mineola, New York: Dover. Venrella, Francesco (2011) Under the Hat of the Art Historian: Panofsky, Berenson, Warburg. Art History, 34(2). pp 310-331. Walia, Shelley (2001) Edward Said and the Writing of History. Cambridge: Icon Books. Woodward, Christopher (2003) In Ruins: A Journey Through History, Art and Literature. New York: Vintage. Zilberg, Jonathan (2011) Review of Lumo: One Womans Struggle to Heal in a Nation Beset by War. Bent Jorgan Perlmutt and Nelson Walker, The Goma Film Project, 2006, DVD. [Online] Available at: http://www.leonardo.info/reviews/may2011/zilberg-perlmutt.php. Zilberg, Jonathan (2011) Review of Paris 1919: Inside the Peace Talks That Changed The World. Michael Christoffersen, National Film Board of Canada, 2007. [Online] Available at: http://www.leonardo.info/reviews/may2011/zilberg-cowan.php. Zilberg, Jonathan (2010) Combating Rape as Weapon of War in the Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and the Campaign to End Fistula. in Narrating War and Peace in Africa, eds. Toyin Falola and Hetty ter Harr, Rochester: University of Rochester Press. 2010, pp. 113-140. Zilberg, Jonathan (2009) Review of Milosevic on Trail, Michael Christoffersen, New York: Icarus Films 2007. DVD. [Online]. Available at: http://www.leonardo.info/reviews/may2011/zilberg-milosevic.html Zilberg, Jonathan (2009) Memorials, State Domination and Inclusion versus Exclusion: The Case of the Tsunami Museum in Banda Aceh. The International Journal of the Inclusive Museum 2(2). pp 99-110.