HIGH PERFORMANCE LEADERSHIP

Leadership Theories - I

Leadership Theories Leadership has been described as the process of social influence in which one person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task" Leadership is "organizing a group of people to achieve a common goal." Students of leadership have produced theories involving traits, situational interaction, function, behavior, power, vision and values, charisma, and intelligence among others. A review of the leadership literature reveals an evolving series of 'schools of thought' from Great Man and Trait theories to Transformational leadership (see table). Whilst early theories tend to focus upon the characteristics and behaviours of successful leaders, later theories begin to consider the role of followers and the contextual nature of leadership. Based on the belief that leaders are exceptional people, born with innate qualities, destined to lead. The use of the term 'man' was intentional since until the latter part of the twentieth century leadership was thought of as a concept which is primarily male, military and Western. This led to the next school of Trait Theories The lists of traits or qualities associated with leadership exist in abundance and continue to be produced. They draw on virtually all the adjectives in the dictionary which describe some positive or virtuous human attribute, from ambition to zest for life These concentrate on what leaders actually do rather than on their qualities. Different patterns of behaviour are observed and categorised as 'styles of leadership'. This area has probably attracted most attention from practising managers This approach sees leadership as specific to the situation in which it is being exercised. For example, whilst some situations may require an autocratic style, others may need a more participative approach. It also proposes that there may be differences in required leadership styles at different levels in the same organisation This is a refinement of the situational viewpoint and focuses on identifying the situational variables which best predict the most appropriate or effective leadership style to fit the particular circumstances This approach emphasises the importance of the relationship between leader and followers, focusing on the mutual benefits derived from a form of 'contract' through which the leader delivers such things as rewards or recognition in return for the commitment or loyalty of the followers The central concept here is change and the role of leadership in envisioning and implementing the transformation of organisational performance

Great Man Theories

Trait Theories

Behaviourist Theories

Situational Leadership

Contingency Theory Transactional Theory Transformational Theory

1 Compiled by Prof.Prerna Dandona

HIGH PERFORMANCE LEADERSHIP

Leadership Theories - I
Leadership Theories can be broadly classified into four consisting of a variety of theories as under: I. Early Theories Great Man Theory Trait Theory Behavioural Theories Ohio State Studies Michigan University Managerial Grid Theory Theory X and Theory Y Situational Theories Fiedlers Contingency Theory Hersey and Blanchards Theory Path Goal Theory Contemporary Theories Charismatic Transformational Superleadership

II.

III.

IV.

2 Compiled by Prof.Prerna Dandona

HIGH PERFORMANCE LEADERSHIP

Leadership Theories - I
I] Early Theories: 1. Great Man Theory: Assumptions: Leaders are born and not made. Great leaders will arise when there is a great need. Description: Early research on leadership was based on the study of people who were already great leaders. These people were often from the aristocracy, as few from lower classes had the opportunity to lead. This contributed to the notion that leadership had something to do with breeding. The idea of the Great Man also strayed into the mythic domain, with notions that in times of need, a Great Man would arise, almost by magic. This was easy to verify, by pointing to people such as Eisenhower and Churchill, let alone those further back along the timeline, even to Jesus, Moses, Mohammed and the Buddah. Discussion: Gender issues were not on the table when the 'Great Man' theory was proposed. Most leaders were male and the thought of a Great Woman was generally in areas other than leadership. Most researchers were also male, and concerns about androcentric bias were a long way from being realized. 2. Trait Theory: Assumptions: People are born with inherited traits. Some traits are particularly suited to leadership. People who make good leaders have the right (or sufficient) combination of traits. Description: Early research on leadership was based on the psychological focus of the day, which was of people having inherited characteristics or traits. Attention was thus put on discovering these traits, often by studying successful leaders, but with the underlying assumption that if other people could also be found with these traits, then they, too, could also become great leaders. Stogdill (1974) identified the following traits and skills as critical to leaders. Adaptable to situations Alert to social environment Ambitious and achievement-orientated Assertive Cooperative Decisive Dependable Dominant (desire to influence others) Energetic (high activity level) Persistent 3 Compiled by Prof.Prerna Dandona

HIGH PERFORMANCE LEADERSHIP

Leadership Theories - I
Self-confident Tolerant of stress Willing to assume responsibility

McCall and Lombardo (1983) researched both success and failure identified four primary traits by which leaders could succeed or 'derail': i. Emotional stability and composure: Calm, confident and predictable, particularly when under stress. ii. Admitting error: Owning up to mistakes, rather than putting energy into covering up. iii. Good interpersonal skills: Able to communicate and persuade others without resort to negative or coercive tactics. iv. Intellectual breadth: Able to understand a wide range of areas, rather than having a narrow (and narrow-minded) area of expertise. Discussion: There have been many different studies of leadership traits and they agree only in the general saintly qualities needed to be a leader. For a long period, inherited traits were sidelined as learned and situational factors were considered to be far more realistic as reasons for people acquiring leadership positions. Paradoxically, the research into twins who were separated at birth along with new sciences such as Behavioral Genetics have shown that far more is inherited than was previously supposed. Perhaps one day they will find a 'leadership gene'.

II] Behavioural Theory: Assumptions: Leaders can be made, rather than are born. Successful leadership is based in definable, learnable behavior. Description: Behavioral theories of leadership do not seek inborn traits or capabilities. Rather, they look at what leaders actually do. If success can be defined in terms of describable actions, then it should be relatively easy for other people to act in the same way. This is easier to teach and learn then to adopt the more ephemeral 'traits' or 'capabilities'. Discussion: Behavioral is a big leap from Trait Theory, in that it assumes that leadership capability can be learned, rather than being inherent. This opens the floodgates to leadership development, as opposed to simple psychometric assessment that sorts those with leadership potential from those who will never have the chance. A behavioral theory is relatively easy to develop, as you simply assess both leadership success and the actions of leaders. With a large enough study, you can then correlate statistically significant behaviors with success. You can also identify behaviors which contribute to failure, thus adding a second layer of understanding. 4 Compiled by Prof.Prerna Dandona

HIGH PERFORMANCE LEADERSHIP

Leadership Theories - I

A Behavioral Approach to Leadership: The results of the trait studies were inconclusive. Traits, among other things, were hard to measure. How, for example, do we measure traits such as honesty, loyalty, or diligence? Another approach in the study of leadership had to be found. The most prominent studies were those undertaken by the University of Michigan and by Ohio State University. Interestingly, both studies arrived at similar conclusions. Both studies concluded that leadership behaviors could be classified into two groups. Researchers at Ohio State leadership found results which suggested two basic leader behaviors. i. Initiating structure behavior: when the leader clearly defines the leader-subordinate, establishes formal lines of communication, and determines how tasks are to be performed. ii. Consideration behavior: the leader shows concern for sub-ordinates and attempts to establish a warm, friendly, and supportive climate. These two behaviors were viewed as independent variables. Thus the leader can exhibit varying degrees of both initiating structure and consideration at the same time. The University of Michigan studies (Rensis Likert) identified two styles of leader behavior: i. Job or Production centered behavior: when a leader pays close attention to the work of sub- ordinates, explains work procedures, and is keenly interested in performance. ii. Employee centered behavior: when the leader is interested in developing a cohesive work group and in ensuring employees are satisfied with their jobs. These two styles of leader behavior were believed to lie at the ends of a single continuum. Likert found that employee- centered leader behavior generally tended to be more effective.

Ohio State leadership behaviors (i) Initiating Structure (ii) Consideration

University of Michigan (i) Job or Production Centered (ii) Employee Centered

Rather than concentrating on what leaders are, as the trait approach did, the behavioral approach forced looking at what leaders do. The main shortcomings of the behavioral approach were its focus on finding a dependable prescription for effective leadership.

5 Compiled by Prof.Prerna Dandona

HIGH PERFORMANCE LEADERSHIP

Leadership Theories - I

Identified Tow leadership Behaviors

Identified Tow leadership Behaviors

Initiating Structure

Consideration

Employee centered

Production centered

1-Leader of Group With high moral 2-Leaders of group With lower Productivity

1- Leaders of high production group 2-leaders rated highly by superior 3-Lower morale, High grievance Rates, high turnover

1- Leaders interested 1- Leaders in their subordinate emphasized as people, encouraged technical workers participation in aspects of job the organizational goal standards, close setting process supervision of subordinates

Both the production-oriented and the people-oriented leadership behaviors appear to offer positives and negatives. However, since showing high concern for both people and production need not necessarily be inconsistent in one leader, it was concluded that such leaders might have an edge over those who show a propensity to act in only one of these dimensions.

3. Managerial Grid Theory The results of behavioral studies were incorporate into a grid proposed by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton. The Managerial Grid utilizes the concern for people versus concern for production dichotomy proposed by both the Ohio State and university of Michigan studies. The assumption made by Blake and Mouton is that there is a best leadership style (behavior). By scaling each axis from 1 to 9, one can plot 81 different leadership styles.

6 Compiled by Prof.Prerna Dandona

HIGH PERFORMANCE LEADERSHIP

Leadership Theories - I

The Blake Mouton Managerial Grid (Blake & Mouton, 1964) Impoverished management (Good for nothing Boss): Minimum effort to get the work done. A basically lazy approach that avoids as much work as possible. ii. Authority-compliance (Task Leadership Autocratic Boss): Strong focus on task, but with little concern for people. Focus on efficiency, including the elimination of people wherever possible. iii. Country Club management (Friendly Boss): Care and concern for the people, with a comfortable and friendly environment and collegial style. But a low focus on task may give questionable results. iv. Middle of the road management (Compromising boss): A weak balance of focus on both people and the work. Doing enough to get things done, but not pushing the boundaries of what may be possible. v. Team management (Developer Team Maker): Firing on all cylinders: people are committed to task and leader is committed to people (as well as task). Discussion: This is a well-known grid that uses the Task vs. Person preference that appears in many other studies, such as the Michigan Leadership Studies and the Ohio State Leadership Studies. Many other task-people models and variants have appeared since then. They are both clearly important dimensions, but as other models point out, they are not all there is to leadership and management. The Managerial Grid was the original name. It later changed to the Leadership Grid. i.

7 Compiled by Prof.Prerna Dandona