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Viruses
General Characteristics
Viral Components
Viral replication
• Viruses multiply by taking over the metabolic machinery of the host cell
• Key steps in a viral replication cycle
o Adsorption and attachment to specific receptor sites on a host cell surface
o Penetration of viral DNA or RNA into the host cell
o Biosynthesis of viral components using the metabolic machinery of the
host cell
o Release of new viral particles from the host cell
• Cytopathic effects (CPE) of viral infection: e.g., multi-nucleation (formation
of cell with multiple nuclei) and transformation (becoming cancer cells)
Viral Taxonomy
• Viral classification is based NOT on symptomatology (the disease they cause), but
on:
• Nucleic acid type (e.g., DNA or RNA viruses)
• Morphology (e.g., enveloped or non-enveloped)
• Strategy for replication (e.g., retroviruses uses reverse transcriptase)
Emerging Viruses
• HIV-1
o Is closely related to SIV (simian immunodeficiency virus) and likely
evolved from SIV recently (about 100 years ago) by gaining human
specificity
o Infects the CD4 type of T-helper cells, using CCR5 molecule on the cell
surface as receptor
o There is rapid turnover of viral populations during the course of infection,
due to the killing of viruses by the host immune response and rapid re-
generation of new viral particles
o AIDS develops when viral replication overcomes T cell re-generation
o Patients die from opportunistic infections (pathogens suppressed in
healthy individuals)
• Influenza viruses
o Three main types (A, B, C)
o Viral types determined by spikes on the viral envelop: H spike
(hemagglutinin is used for attachment to host cells) and N spike
(neuraminidase is an enzyme used for cutting the new viral particles loose
from the host cell, to release the virus)
o Reservoirs (non-symptomatic carriers) include human, birds (wild
migratory birds or domestic poultry), and swine
o Rapid evolution due to antigenic "drift" (point mutations in spikes) and
antigenic "shift" (reassortment of RNA segments)
• SARS (Sever acute respiratory syndrome) virus
o Caused by a new type of coronavirus (similar to the common cold virus)
o Maintained in wild life reservoir-species like civet cats and recently
gained human infectivity
• Summary: Causes of emerging viruses
o Ecological disruption: increasing contact with wild life creating
opportunities for viruses to jump hosts from wild animals to humans. HIV,
SARS, "bird flu" are examples of "zoonosis" (infectious diseases
originated from wild animals)
o "Boeing Effect": increasing global transportation of goods and people
facilitate rapid dissemination (e.g., SARS and West Nile viruses)
o Rapid evolution: HIV evolves within a single individual due to a high
mutation rate, flu viruses change from year to year due to antigenic drift
and antigenic shift.
Viral multiplication
• Multiplication of bacteriophages
o (+) RNA viruses (example: polioviruse): (+) RNA is used for translation of
viral proteins, as well as for making a complementary (-) RNA, which is
used for replicating new copies of (+) RNA
o Retroviruses (example: HIV-1): (+) RNA is reverse-transcribed into
ssDNA, which replicates into dsDNA; viral dsDNA is incorporated into
host cell chromosome, becoming "provirus"; new viral (+) RNA is made
from incorporated DNA