INTRODUCTION TO

BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING
Why Biomedical Engineering?
Promising future developments
Improve medicine, save lives
Numerous possibilities based upon level of biology and
engineering specialty
Hybridization of skills and knowledge
Types of problems
Interface between biological and non-biological materials
Design, modeling, and construction of biologically-analogous
technologies
Understanding and improving upon biological limitations
Medical tools and diagnostics
Terminology
Biomedical engineering
Bioengineering
Also, biological engineering and others . . .
Biotechnology
Often used interchangeably with biomedical engineering. When distinguishing
between the two, typically bioengineering tends to refer to engineering using
biological substances, often at a higher level of biology than biotechnology.
The use of engineering science and math to tackle problems in medicine. When
distinguished from bioengineering, focuses more on the machine/device/non-
biological type of research.
Term that is generally similar to bioengineering, but, in comparison, refers most
specifically to direct manipulation and use of living biological substances.
UNIT I


Physiology and Transducers
Human Anatomy & Physiology
Cell
Human body develops from union of
SPERM + OVUM=FIRST CELL OF HUMAN
BODY



Group of cells


Tissues


Organs


Systems
Structure of Cell
Cell is a structural & Functional unit of human body, capable of
carrying out functions of life independently.
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Cell Membrane
Functions of Cell
- Production of Bio-Energy
- Storage
- Multiplication
- Specific function according to location

Membrane Potentials
1. Resting Membrane Potential
2. Excitatory Post-synaptic Potential (EPSP)
3. Inhibitory Post-synaptic Potential (IPSP)
4. Action Potential
Levels of Investigation
Organism
Systems
(e.g. Vision)
Cell
Synapsis
Next weeks
Today
Molecule
Next weeks
Click on animation website or main website (here)

Neurons have a selectively permeable membrane
During resting conditions membrane is:
permeable to potassium (K
+
) (channels are open)
impermeable to sodium (Na
+
) (channels are closed)
Diffusion force pushes K
+
out (concentration gradient)
This creates a positively charged extra-cellular space.
Electrostatic force pushes K
+
in
Thus, there is a dynamic equilibrium with zero net
movement of ions.
The resting membrane potential is negative (- 60mv)

1. Resting Membrane Potential
Copyright Allyn & Bacon 2004
Cell Membrane
15
OUTSIDE
INSIDE
K
+
= Potassium; Na
+
= Sodium; Cl
-
= Chloride; Pr
-
= proteins
Na
+
Na
+
K
+
K
+
Force of Diffusion
Electrostatic Force
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - -
Cl
-
Force of Diffusion
Cl
-
Electrostatic Force
Pr
-
Closed
channel
open
channel
open
channel
no
channel
3Na/2K
pump
Resting Membrane Potential
- 65 mV
Resting membrane potential:
(things you need to know)
a. Concept of Selective membrane
b. How permeable the membrane is to proteins, K+, and
Na+
c. Diffusion and electrostatic forces and how they act on
K+ and Na+
d. Concept of Dynamic equilibrium
e. Concept of Membrane potential
f. ATP Na/K pump and its role in maintaining the
membrane potential

Copyright Allyn & Bacon 2004
Copyright Allyn & Bacon 2004
Membrane Potentials
1.
Resting
Potential
(just
described)

2.
Excitatory
Post-
synaptic
potential
threshold
4.
Inhibitory
Post-synaptic
potential
3.
Action
Potential
2. Excitatory Post-synaptic Potential (EPSP)
Post-synaptic neuron
Pre-synaptic neuron
1. The pre-synaptic neuron releases a
neurotransmitter.

2. Neurotransmitter diffuses across
extra-cellular space - synaptic cleft.

3. Neurotransmitter binds to post-
synaptic receptor.

4. Binding of neurotransmitter causes
Na+ channels in post-synaptic
membrane to open.

5. Depolarization occurs (excitatory
potential)


Post-synaptic neuron
Pre-synaptic neuron
Excitatory Post-synaptic Potential (EPSP)
21
OUTSIDE
INSIDE
K
+
= Potassium; Na
+
= Sodium; Cl
-
= Chloride; Pr
-
= proteins
Na
+
Na
+
K
+
K
+
Force of Diffusion
Electrostatic Force
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - -
Cl
-
Force of Diffusion
Cl
-
Electrostatic Force
Pr
-
Closed
channel
open
channel
open
channel
no
channel
OPEN Na+
CHANNEL
+ + +
- 65 mV
- 50 mV
1. Resting Membrane Potential
Excitatory Post-Synaptic Potential (EPSP)
EPSP
EPSP is a graded potential
Multiple EPSPs are integrated across
space and time.
Excitatory
Post-synaptic
potential
Integration
Once the threshold is
reached, voltage-
dependent sodium
channels are opened

The cell is depolarized
(action potential)
3. Inbibitory Post-synaptic Potential (IPSP)
Human Anatomy & Physiology
Nervous System
Nervous system
Central processing unit of body. Controls and
balance of body functions.
Divisions
Central nervous system (CNS)
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

Components
Nerve cell
Sensory nerve
Brain
Motor nerve
End organ
Functions of Nervous system

Control over voluntary and involuntary
functions / actions.
To control body movements, respiration,
circulation, digestion, hormone secretion,
body temperature
To receive stimuli from sense organs,
perceive them and respond accordingly
Higher mental functions like memory,
receptivity, perception & thinking.

Parts of CNS
Cerebrum
Cerebellum
Mid brain
Pones
Medulla oblongata
Spinal cord



Brain
Protected by skull
Three coverings of brain called meninges
Dura
Arachnoid
Pia matter
Cerebro spinal fluid (CSF) between the Pia
meter and Arachnoid
CSF acts as a shock absorber and provides
nutrition to the brain

Cerebrum
Biggest part of brain, divided into two hemispheres
Contra lateral control
Outer surface is grey due to cells
Internally white due to fibers
Surface is folded to increase the area
Functions of cerebrum
Intellect, memory, will power, imagination, emotion &
other psychological functions
Receive and perceive the stimuli
To give command for reaction with the help of past
experience
To control over other parts of nervous system
Cerebellum
Situated below and behind the cerebrum
Functions of cerebellum
Controls tone muscles
Helps coordination of body movements
Helps balancing the body

Mid brain
Underneath the cerebrum and above pons
Functions of mid brain
To control involuntary functions
Pons
Below mid brain
Functions of pons
Control of consciousness
Control level of concentration

Medulla oblongata
Lowest part of CNS just above the spinal cord
Functions of Medulla oblongata
Control of respiration
Control of circulation
Control of swallowing and vomiting
Spinal cord
Located safely in spinal canal
Length is 45cm, which extends up to first
lumber vertebra
31 pairs of peripheral nerves starts from
spinal cord
Functions of spinal cord
To propagate sensory stimuli from organs to
the brain
To carry commands from the brain towards
the organs
Reflex action
Reflex action
Protective function of the spinal cord

Sensory organ
Afferent nerve
Sensory cell in posterior horn of spinal cord
Connector nerve
Motor cell in anterior horn of spinal cord
Efferent nerve
End organ of reaction

Autonomic nervous system
(Involuntary nervous system)
It has control over
Digestion
Respiration
Circulation
Hormone secretion
Maintenance of body temperature
Maintenance of water balance

Peripheral nervous system
12 pairs of cranial nerves from brain (cranial
nerves)
31 pairs of spinal nerves from spinal cord
(spinal nerves)
Billons of nerve cells
Billons of connections

Maximum utilization of brain is 10%
90 % brain is in dormant state
Human Anatomy & Physiology
Circulatory System
Components of blood
Total volume of blood 5 to 6 liters
Components
Plasma 55-60 %
Blood cells 40-45 %
RBC
WBC
Platelets
R.B.C. (Red blood cells)
Colour of blood due to RBC
4 to 5 millions / c.c.
Hemoglobin carry 90% Oxygen
Dumbbell shaped cells with no nucleus
W.B.C. (White blood cells)
White colored
6000 to 9000 / c.c.
Kills the bacteria (protective role)
No specific shape, with central nucleus

Platelets
1,00,000 to 2,00,000 / c.c.
Helps in clotting of blood
(Enzyme Thrombokinase)
Circular shape
Plasma
90 to 92 % water
8 to 10 % dissolved organic & inorganic
matter (proteins, glucose, salts & hormones)
Presence of antibodies


Functions of Blood
To carry Oxygen from lungs to cells and to
carry CO
2
from cells to lungs
To carry nutrients from Digestive system to
cells
To carry excretory products (waste material)
from cells to excretory organs
To carry hormones
To maintain water balance in the body
To maintain body temperature
To protect the body from infections
Clotting the blood after injury

Difference between Arteries & Veins
Arteries
Carry blood from heart
to other organs
Carry oxygenated
blood
Have thick walls
Do not have valves
Veins
Carry blood from other
organs to heart
Carry de-oxygenated
blood
Have thin walls
Presence of valves
Heart
Situated in the rib cage of chest on the left
side
Embedded in lungs
Size of heart is equal to the size of clenched
fist
Connected with many big (giant )blood
vessels
Made up of involuntary muscle
Heart starts beating from 4
th
month of IU life.
Duration of one heart beat is 0.8sec.
4 Chambers of Heart
Auricles to receive blood
Ventricles to pump blood
Left side oxygenated blood
Right side deoxygenated blood
Circulation of Blood
Continuous circulation
Force of circulation due to pumping action of
heart
From left ventricle Aorta Branches &
Sub branches Artery Small artery
Arteriole Capillaries CELLS Venouls
Small veins union of many veins
Superior & Inferior venacava Right auricle
Right ventricle Pulmonary artery
Lungs (oxygenation) Pulmonary veins
Left auricle Left ventricle
Human Anatomy & Physiology
Respiratory System
Importance of Respiratory System
Sign of Life
The most Vital function
Respiration
is
INDEPENDENT
Copyright 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Structure and function of the respiratory pumps
How gases are exchanged with blood
The role of pressures and surfactants in rate of
exchange
How respiration is regulated
Copyright 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Respiratory System: Overview
Lungs: exchange surface
75 m
2

Thin walled
Moist
Ribs & skin protect
Diaphragm & ribs pump air
Copyright 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Respiratory System: Overview
Figure 17-2 b: Anatomy Summary
Functions
Supply of Oxygen
To remove CO
2
and water vapour
Purification of blood
Protective function- coughing, sneezing
Talking
Organs of Respiration
Nose
Throat
Larynx
Trachea with its branching system
lungs
(diagram of Respiratory System)

Nose
Two nasal cavities separated by nasal septum
The Nasal Septum is made up of cartilage &
bone
Function
Warming of Air
Filtration of Air
To keep nasal passage moist
Sensation of smell
Throat & Larynx
Throat (seven passages)
Larynx
Oesophagus
Mouth
Left Eustachian tube
Right Eustachian tube
Left nostril
Right nostril
Trachea
Made up of cartilage and muscles
Two main branches- Left and Right bronchus
Branching and sub branching ending in alveoli
Inspiration
Active process by muscular action
Contraction of diaphragm
Increase in vertical diameter
Contraction of intercostals muscles
Elevation of ribs and sternum
Increase in antero-posterior and transverse diameter
Expansion of lungs due to negative pressure
Air drawn inwards
Expiration
Passive process
Elastic recoil of the lungs due to Relaxation of diaphragm and
inter costal muscle.
Positive pressure created in lungs

Control of Respiration
Control of Inspiration and Expiration by medulla oblongata

Lung Volumes
Tidal capacity : 500c.c.
Dead space : 150c.c.
Vital capacity : 4500c.c.
Total lung capacity : 6000c.c.
Residual volume : 1350c.c.
Expiratory reserve : 1500c.c.
Inspiratory capacity : 3000c.c.
Analysis of gases in respiration
O
2
N
2
CO
2
Inspired air 21% 79% -
Exhaled air 16% 79% 5%
Effects of Pranayama
More oxygenation of blood
Improvement in function of all organs
Life span increases because of more supply
of oxygen

Copyright 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Functions of the Respiratory System: Overview
Figure 17-1: Overview of external and cellular respiration
Exchange O
2

Air to blood
Blood to cells
Exchange CO
2

Cells to blood
Blood to air
Regulate blood pH
Vocalizations
Protect alveoli
Copyright 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Filter, warm & moisten air
Nose, (mouth), trachea, bronchi & bronchioles
Huge increase in cross sectional area
The Airways:
Conduction of Air from Outside to Alveoli
Figure 17-4: Branching of the airways
Signal Acquisition
Medical Instrumentation typically entails
monitoring a signal off the body which is
analog, converting it to an electrical
signal, and digitizing it to be analyzed
by the computer.
Types of Sensors:
Electrodes: acquire an electrical signal

Transducers: acquire a non-electrical
signal (force, pressure, temp etc) and
converts it to an electrical signal

Active vs Passive Sensors:
Active Sensor:
Requires an external AC or DC electrical
source to power the device
Strain gauge, blood pressure sensor

Passive Sensor:
Provides it own energy or derives energy
from phenomenon being studied
Thermocouple
Sensor Error Sources
Error:
Difference between measured value
and true value.
5 Categories of Errors:
1. Insertion Error
2. Application Error
3. Characteristic Error
4. Dynamic Error
5. Environmental Error
Insertion Error:
Error occurring when inserting a
sensor
Application Error:
Errors caused by Operator
Characteristic Error:
Errors inherent to Device
Dynamic Error:
Most instruments are calibrated in static
conditions if you are reading a thermistor it
takes time to change its value. If you read
this value to quickly an error will result.
Environmental Error:
Errors caused by environment
heat, humidity
Sensor Terminology
Sensitivity:
Slope of output characteristic curve y/ x;
Minimum input of physical parameter will
create a detectable output change
Blood pressure transducer may have a
sensitivity of 10 uV/V/mmHg so you will see a
10 uV change for every V or mmHg applied to
the system.
Input
Output
Input
Output
Which is more sensitive? The left side one
because youll have a larger change in y for a
given change in x
Sensor Terminology
Sensitivity Error = Departure from ideal
slope of a characteristic curve
Ideal Curve
Sensitivity Error
Output
Input
Sensor Terminology
Range = Maximum and Minimum values
of applied parameter that can be
measured.
If an instrument can read up to 200 mmHg
and the actual reading is 250 mmHg then you
have exceeded the range of the instrument.
Sensor Terminology
Dynamic Range: total range of sensor for
minimum to maximum. Ie if your instrument
can measure from -10V to +10 V your dynamic
range is 20V
Precision = Degree of reproducibility denoted
as the range of one standard deviation
Resolution = smallest detectable incremental
change of input parameter that can be
detected
Accuracy
Accuracy = maximum difference that
will exist between the actual value and
the indicated value of the sensor

Xo
Xi
Offset Error
Offset error = output that will exist
when it should be zero
The characteristic curve had the same
sensitive slope but had a y intercept
Zero offset error
Offset Error
Input
Input
Output
Output
Linearity
Linearity = Extent to which actual
measure curved or calibration
curve departs from ideal curve.
Linearity
Nonlinearity (%) = (Din(Max) / INfs) * 100%
Nonlinearity is percentage of nonlinear
Din(max) = maximum input deviation
INfs = maximum full-scale input
Input
Output
Din(Max)
Full Scale Input
Transducers and other Sensors
Transducers: sensors and are defined as
a device that converts energy from some
one form (temp., pressure, lights etc) into
electrical energy where as electrodes
directly measure electrical information
Wheatstone Bridge
Basic Wheatstone Bridge uses one resistor in
each of four arms where battery excites the
bridge connected across 2 opposite resistor
junctions (A and B). The bridge output E
o

appears across C and D junction.
Es
R1
R2
R4
R3
E
C
E
D
+
-
A
B
Eo
Eo
R1
R3
R2
R4
E
C
E
D
Es
+
+
Strain Gauges
Definition: resistive element that
changes resistance proportional to an
applied mechanical strain
Strain Gauges
Compression = decrease in length by AL and
an increase in cross sectional area.
Rest Condition
L = length
L - AL = length
Compression
Strain Gauges
Tension = increase in length by AL and a
decrease in cross section area.
Rest Condition
L = length
Tension L + AL = length
Resistance of a metallic bar is
given in length and area
where
R = Resistance units = ohms ()
= resistivity constant unique to type of
material used in bar units = ohm meter (m)
L = length in meters (m)
A = Cross sectional area in meters
2
(m
2
)
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
A
pL
R
Resistance of a metallic bar is
given in length and area
Example: find the resistance of a copper bar that has a cross
sectional area of 0.5 mm
2
and a length = 250 mm note the resistivity
of copper is 1.7 x 10
-8
m

( )
( )
O =
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
O =
|
.
|

\
|
=

0085 . 0
1000
1
5 . 0
1000
1
250
10 * 7 . 1
2
2
8
mm
m
mm
mm
m
mm
m
A
L
R
Piezoresistivity
Piezoresistivity = change in resistance for a
given change in size and shape denoted as h

Resistance in tension =

Resistance increases in tension
L = length; L = change in L; = resistivity
A = Area; A = change in A
|
.
|

\
|
A
A +
= +
A A
L L
h R

Resistance in compression =

Resistance decreases in compression
L = length; L = change in L; = resistivity
A = Area; A = change in A

|
.
|

\
|
A +
A
=
A A
L L
h R
Note: Textbook forgot the in equations 6-28 and 6-29 on page 110
Gauge Factor
Gauge Factor (GF) = a method of comparing one
transducer to a similar transducer

Gauge Factor
where
GF = Gauge Factor unitless
R = change in resistance ohms ()
R = unstrained resistance ohms ()
L = change in length meters (m)
L = unstrained length meters (m)

|
|
.
|

\
|
A
A
=
L
L
R
R
GF
Gauge Factor
Where strain which is unitless
GF gives relative sensitivity of a strain gauge where the
greater the change in resistance per unit length the
greater the sensitivity of element and the greater the
gauge factor.
L
L
R
R
GF
A
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
A
=
c
c
Types of Strain Gauges: Unbonded and
Bonded
Unbonded Strain Gauge : resistance
element is a thin wire of special alloy
stretch taut between two flexible
supports which is mounted on flexible
diaphram or drum head.

Types of Strain Gauges: Unbonded and
Bonded
When a Force F1 is applied to
diaphram it will flex in a manner that
spreads support apart causing an
increase in tension and resistance
that is proportional to the force
applied.
When a Force F2 is applied to
diaphram the support ends will more
close and then decrease the tension
in taut wire (compression force) and
decrease resistance will decrease in
amount proportional to applied force

Types of Strain Gauges: Unbonded and
Bonded
Bonded Strain Gauge: made by cementing a
thin wire or foil to a diaphragm therefore
flexing diaphragm deforms the element
causing changes in electrical resistance in
same manner as unbonded strain gauge
Types of Strain Gauges: Unbonded and
Bonded
When a Force F1 is applied to
diaphram it will flex in a
manner that causes an
increase in tension of wire
then the increase in resistance
is proportional to the force
applied.
When a Force F2 is applied to
diaphram that cause a
decrease the tension in taut
wire (compression force) then
the decrease in resistance will
decrease in amount
proportional to applied force
Comparison of Bonded vs. Unbonded
Strain Gauges
1. Unbonded strain gauge can be built
where its linear over a wide range of
applied force but they are delicate
2. Bonded strain gauge are linear over a
smaller range but are more rugged
Bonded strain gauges are typically used
because designers prefer ruggedness.
Typical Configurations
R2 = SG2
R4 = SG4
R3 = SG3
C
+
-
A
B
Vo
R1 = SG1
D
ES
Electrical Circuit
Mechanical
Configuration
4 strain gauges (SG) in Wheatstone Bridge:
Transducer Sensitivity
Transducer Sensitivity = rating that
allows us to predict the output voltage
from knowledge of the excitation
voltage and the value of the applied
stimulus units = V/V*unit of applied
stimulus
Transducer Sensitivity
Example if you have a force transducer calibrated in
grams (unit of mass) which allows calibration of force
transducer then sensitivity denoted as = V/V*g
(another ex = V/V*mmHg)

Transducer Sensitivity
To calculate Output Potential use the
following equations:


where
Eo = output potential in Volts (V)
E = excitation voltage
= sensitivity V/V*g
F = applied force in grams (g)
F E E
o
* *
Inductance Transducers
Inductance Transducers: inductance L can
be varied easily by physical movement of a
permeable core within an inductor 3 basic
forms:
Single Coil
Reactive Wheatstone Bridge
Linear Voltage Differential Transformer LVDT:
LVDT:
Diaphragm
C
o
r
e

External
Load
L2
L3
L1
Axis of Motion
AC Excitation
Capacitance Transducers
Quartz Pressure Sensors: capacitively
based where sensor is made of fused
quartz
Capacitive Transducers: Capacitance C
varies with stimulus
Capacitive Transducers:
Three examples:
Solid Metal disc parallel to flexible metal
diaphragm separated by air or vacuum (similar to
capacitor microphone) when force is applied they
will move closer or further away.
Stationary metal plate and rotating moveable plate:
as you rotate capacitance will increase or decrease
Differential Capacitance: 1 Moveable metal Plate
placed between 2 stationary Places where you
have 2 capacitors: C1 between P1 and P3 and C2
between P2 and P3 where when a force is applied
to diaphragm P3 moves closer to one plate or vice
versa
Temperature Transducers
3 Common Types:
Thermocouples
Thermistors
Solid State PN Junctions
Thermocouple:
Thermocouple: 2 dissimilar conductor joined
together at 1 end.
The work functions of the 2 materials are different
thus a potential is generated when junction is
heated (roughly linear over wide range)
Thermistors:
Thermistors: Resistors that change their value
based on temperature where
Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) device will
increase its resistance with an increase in
temperature
Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) device will
decrease its resistance with an increase in
temperature
Most thermistors have nonlinear curve when plotted
over a wide range but can assume linearity if within a
limited range

BJT = Bipolar Junction Transistor
Transistor = invented in 1947
by Bardeen, Brattain and
Schockley of Bell Labs.
I
C

V
CB
V
CE
V
BE
+
+
+



I
B

I
E

B = Base
C = Collector
E = Emitter
I
E
= I
B
+ I
C
BJT = Bipolar Junction Transistor
Transistor rely on the free travel of
electrons through crystalline solids called
semiconductors. Transistors usually are
configured as an amplifier or a switch.
Solid State PN Temperature
Transducers
Solid State PN Junction Diode: the
base emitter voltage of a transistor is
proportional to temperature. For a
differential pair the output voltage is:
q
I
I
KT
V
C
C
BE
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
= A
2
1
ln
K = Boltzmans Constant = 1.38 x10
-23
J/K
T = Temperature in Kelvin
I
C1
= Collector current of BJT 1 mA
I
C2
= Collector current of BJT 2 mA
q = Coulombs charge = 1.6 x10
-19
coulombs/electron
V
CB
V
EE
-
V
BE
+
+
+



V
CB
V
CC
+

V
BE
+
ccs1

ccs2

I
c1
I
c2
AV
BE