Review of Techniques to Detect Harmonic Injection into the Distribution System

EGGN 580 Final Project 5/12/2011

Alexander Reznik Ricardo Estvez Saurav Bhattarai

Table of Contents
1. 2. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 3 Methods .............................................................................................................................................. 5 Single point method based on different nonactive power quantities ..................................................... 5 A Norton approach ................................................................................................................................. 7 Harmonic current vector evaluation method ....................................................................................... 10 Critical impedance method ................................................................................................................... 11 Possible candidate method. .................................................................................................................. 13 Method based on waveform characteristics ......................................................................................... 14 Neural Networks based method of predicting harmonics .................................................................... 14 3. Conclusion......................................................................................................................................... 17

References ................................................................................................................................................ 18

List of Figures
Figure 1 Fourier series representation of a distorted waveform [1] ........................................................... 3 Figure 2 Norton Equivalent Circuit .............................................................................................................. 7 Figure 3 Decomposed Norton Equivalent ................................................................................................... 8 Figure 4 Customer Equivalent Circuit .......................................................................................................... 8 Figure 5 Implementation procedure for the RLC method ........................................................................... 9 Figure 6 Proposed method for predicting true harmonic current [16] ..................................................... 15 Figure 7 Results of training (RNN1). Actual current and estimated current are overlaid [16] .................. 16 Figure 8 Harmonic distortion caused by device. (Estimated current - Pure sinusoid) [16] ....................... 16

1. Introduction
Harmonic distortion in power systems is an issue that has been acknowledged as a problem in terms of maintaining good power quality since the 1930s. Even though voltage waveforms produced at the generation site are very close to being purely sinusoidal, distortion can be seen in current waveforms when they are analyzed closer to the load. This distortion is caused by the presence of non-linear loads on the system. Unlike linear loads, in which the current waveform is proportional to the voltage waveform, non-linear loads might cause the current waveform to take a completely different shape than the applied voltage. Most of the distortion seen in the current waveform are periodic or is an integer multiple of the power system fundamental frequency (50 or 60Hz) [1]. Also, unlike transients on the power system that last for a few cycles, harmonics are associated with the continuous operation of a load. Due to their periodic nature, the analysis of distorted waveforms is possible with the use of the Fourier series. Using the fourier series, a periodic waveform can be represented as a sum of sinusoids consisting of different frequencies, which are integer multiples of the fundamental frequency. With this property, a distorted current or voltage waveform can be broken down into a sum of pure sinusoids of the harmonic frequencies present. Figure 1 illustrates the fourier series representation of a distorted waveform; here, 60Hz is the fundamental frequency and the other waveforms (h=3, 5, 7 etc) are the different harmonics present.

Figure 1 Fourier series representation of a distorted waveform [1]

When the problem of harmonics was first analyzed, the main sources of harmonic distortion were the transformers that were facing problems of inductive interference with open-wire telephone systems as well as arc lighting devices [1]. The problem today is more to do with power electronics device, mainly used for power conversion. Modern power converters based on power electronics rely heavily on high frequency switching, which introduce harmonics. Another commonly used device that introduces harmonics in the power systems are adjustable speed drives. With the presence of harmonics in the system, calculation of power in the system becomes complicated. The apparent power (S) is calculated as follows:

In a purely sinusoidal case (with no harmonics), this is a straight forward calculation as . But, with the presence of harmonics, the RMS voltage and RMS current have to include the contributions from the harmonic frequencies as well. They are calculated as follows: and Since active power (P) is only concerned with the rate at which energy is consumed by the load (which are designed to consume power at the fundamental frequency), the calculation is not complicated:

The total reactive power (Q) that is flowing the system is a combination of contributions from all different harmonics present in the system and is calculated as follows:

Even though Q is not used by any of the loads, it is very important in terms of sizing the power system. Power factor is another important measure in power systems. It is the ratio between the active power (P) to the apparent power (S). As we can see from the equation above, the presence of harmonics in the system causes an increase in Q as compared to the case with no harmonics, which will in turn increase S and decrease the power factor. To maintain a good power factor, harmonics have to be reduced. Utilities do not have control over the harmonics injected by the loads into the power system, and can only see the deviation in power factor. To resolve the problem of a low power factor in the system, they have to incur additional costs such as installing power factor correcting capacitors in the system. This cost is then propagated to the users as a penalty for low power factor. The problem with this is that the harmonics injected by a load propagate throughout the utility system, along with the harmonics that were present in the source as well. So, the lower power factor at Customer 1 might not be totally due to the harmonics injected by Customer 1, but also because of the harmonics injected by loads at other customers, causing unfair billing to the customer. The utility companies recognize this, and they have to bear the cost of the harmonics in the system because they cannot bill the customers properly. To solve this problem, a device or scheme is required to measure the harmonics contribution by each customer on a utility system. In this paper, we discuss three such devices and schemes, and analyze them.

2. Methods
Single point method based on different nonactive power quantities
This is a single point method based on different nonactive power quantities, deduced from the IEEE Std. 1459-2000 [2]. These quantities are the following (1): , the fundamental reactive power , a fictious reactive power , nonactive power

and where DH is the harmonic nonactive power, and are the squared rms value of the harmonic current and voltage according to the IEEE Std. 1459-2000. These values can be obtained by separation of the fundamental components of voltages and currents from all the other components in real time domain. The authors proposed a method to do it in previous paper (2). The following block diagram shows how

By two consecutives transformations (, and Park), applying a low pass filter and doing the inverse transformations, fundamental line to line voltages can be obtained. Then, by subtracting them to the input, we have the harmonic components. Harmonic real power can then be calculated easily. It can be demonstrated that of harmonics. and by comparing these 3 values can determine the source

1) In sinusoidal conditions, all 3 values are equal.

2) If a predominant nonlinear load exists, Q1 and N assume values that are really different, with Qx closer to N than to Q1. 3) If the supply is responsible, the difference between Q1 and N are negligible , with Qx closer to N than to Q1 This method can be extended for a three-phase power system, by calculating Q1, Qx and N as the sum of the respective phase quantities. Simulations are made on an IEEE standard test power system (3) and results are reported. As the effectiveness of this method is based on the interpretation of the quantitative values of the considered quantities, authors proposed relative standings (RS) instead of their absolute values.

The criteria used to determine the source of harmonics is: The more the load is polluting, the more the RS values differ from 100%. In fact, if RS values are higher or lower than 100% (1-2%), the distortion is due to the load. The major contribution to the distortion is due to the network when RS values are almost equal to 100% (1-2%).

Critical situations can appear when RS values are equal to the threshold values. They proposed to do a deeper investigation with measurements of traditional parameters (THD, and other quantities defined by IEEE Std. 1459-2000). They also proposed to extend this single point measurement method to a multipoint strategy, by performing a comparison among the considered quantities in more than one point) in this extreme case. Measurement uncertainty is a key aspect to validate any method. The transducer is the main contributor to uncertainty and an assumption that the frequency-response approach is not always reliable for the evaluation of the performances of the transducers, and other methods have been introduced for the characterization of the measurement transformers under nonsinusoidal conditions is made. (4). However, the simulations made in this method show that measurement uncertainty do not compromise the final decision. This method has several advantages. On one hand, it has an easy implementation because it consists on direct measurements and time-domain calculations that do not cost an excessive effort. On the other hand, as nowadays a unique nonsinusoidal power theory is not yet accepted, the designers of this method based their work on an IEEE standard and deduced some power quantities from it. Moreover,

they are the only ones that have done a deeper investigation on uncertainty, key aspect of any measurement method. Finally, they have a good experience on the subject, as several papers can prove it. There is a progression on their work, admitting the limitations of their method and trying to update it at each new article. However, as we will see with the next method, other researchers have already found another method less than one year after this publication which is supposed to be more accurate than the presented here.

A Norton approach
In this method, the utility harmonic source is represented by its short circuit impedance (Norton equivalent) and a current source whereas the customer impedance is modeled in terms of its parallel R, L and C components [3] This is illustrated in Figure 2. .

Utility

Customer

Figure 2 Norton Equivalent Circuit where

(1)

(2)

Harmonic current sources can be obtained from measured harmonic voltage Vpcc and current Ipcc at the PCC and then apply superposition theorem to decompose the harmonic contributions (Figure 3) from the utility and the customer in two terms.

Figure 3 Decomposed Norton Equivalent

(3)

(4) (5)

As these parameters are in phasor mode hence difficult to compare so the authors calculate the scalar values of each contribution. They do the same for voltages. Variations on the reference impedance can easily be represented by a new harmonic source. The equations are: (6) (7) (8) (9)

RLC model (5) :

Figure 4 Customer Equivalent Circuit

Using the measured voltage and the current at the PCC, the RLC parameters of the customer load can be calculated based on Fryzes power theory (6). The equations are:

for Rc>0

(11)

for Cc>0

(12)

for Lc>0 Where

(13)

(14)

(15) (16) The method is resumed in the next figure:

Figure 5 Implementation procedure for the RLC method

Two types of simulations have been done and results are compared with the results of the IEEE 1459-2000 standard based method with four different scenarios. A good report is made on these results with tables, figures and graphics showing that this method can accurately determine voltage and current harmonic distortions and locate sources even at resonance situations.

This method presents several advantages. First, it describes precisely what is the state-of-art and criticize all the other methods (Real power direction method, Critical impedance method, voltage magnitude comparison method, THD method and IEEE 1459-2000 ) with good arguments. Second, it explains well why in their opinion it is better to use a single point measurement rather than a multipoint one. Third, it has an excellent report with several scenarios and configurations. And finally, it is a very actual paper (2011) which means that it is the newest step in the research. However, it also has some disadvantages. Clear explanation of measurement of harmonic voltages and currents is not provided.

Harmonic current vector evaluation method

This approach is based on the harmonic current vector method where reference impedances are introduced [4] [5]. Resistance defined at fundamental frequency with measurements is used as the customer-side reference impedance. The presented method allows calculation of harmonic contributions without knowing the actual customer impedances which is determined on the basis of the measurements at PCC. The utility-side impedance can usually be obtained. The customer impedances vary accordingly to the customer loading conditions, which makes the customer impedances determination even more demanding. Therefore, reference impedances were introduced as equivalent impedances. The customer impedance can be represented as a parallel connection of a resistor and a reactance. With the proposed approach the current through the reactance is transformed into an additional harmonic current source. Impedance evaluation 1. On the utility, side the sum of the short circuit network impedance and the last transformer impedance before the connection point was proposed as the utility-side reference impedance. The utility reference impedance can also be based on contract agreement where utilities are encouraged to provide the reference impedances values that are close to the actual impedances and avoid unnecessary additional responsibility for harmonic distortion. 2. Costumer load resistive component was proposed as the costumer reference impedance:

Measurements at PCC Iph and Vph. Calculations for current impact: 1. Customer reference impedance Zch-ref, calculated from active power P and fundamental frequency voltage. 2. Calculating harmonic current source: utility and customer (Ich and Iuh) 3. Measured harmonic current Iph at PCC is vector sum of utility and customer harmonic currents. 4. Decomposition Iph on vectors Ich and Iuh 5. Scalar components of Ich and Iuh Calculations for voltage impact: 1.Thevenin equivalent circuit 2. Customer reference impedance Zch-ref, calculated from the active power P and fundamental frequency current and voltage. 3.Utility and customer voltage harmonic sources(Vuh and Vch) 4.Utility and customer harmonic voltage contributions to measured Uph. 5.Scalar components of Vuh and Vch

With this method, two conclusions can be made: 1. Harmonic source can be evaluated without known costumer impedance calculation. 2. Proposed method assumed that there is no active power generation at costumer side. Taking into account all renewable energy sources and distribution generating, this kind of assumption could be too approximate.

Critical impedance method

Utility and customer sides are represented by Norton circuits (Iu, Zu, Ic, Zc) [6] [7]. The problem of harmonic source detection is to determine if Ic or Iu has a larger contribution to the PCC harmonic current Ipcc. Theoretically this problem equivalent to examine the magnitude of Iu*Zu and Ic*Zc. If first

is greater than second, utility contributes more to Ipcc, and vice versa. Circuit transformed to Thevenin circuit Z=Zu+Zc, Eu=IuZu and Ec=IcZc. Phase angel is set to zero Eu and that of Ec is denotes as d. The harmonic source detection problem is to identify which voltage source Ec or Eu has a higher magnitude. Utility side impedance Zu is approximately known. The approximate range of the customer side impedance Zc is known. The range of customer impedance estimated using frequency scan analysis on a simulation model of the customer plant or by field measurements. Method focused on case when customer generates reactive power. Eu=Upcc-IpccZu=Upcc-Ipcc*jXu. Key idea of proposed method is to find how far the reactive power generated by source Eu can travel along the impedance jX. CI=2*Q/I2 Q reactive power absorbed by Eu. CI and Q have the same sign. CI>0 utility absorbs reactive power customer side is the dominant harmonic source and vice versa.

CI>0 utility source absorbs reactive power, the customer side is the main harmonic contributor. CI<0 utility generates reactive power: |CI|>Xmax, Xmax maximum possible value, utility side is the main harmonic contributor. Utility side has high source voltage and can push its generated reactive power far deep into the customer side. If |CI|<Xmin, Xmin- is the minimum of all possible X values, the customer side is the main harmonic contributor. This case implies that the customer side source pushes its reactive power deep into the utility side. If Xmin<|CI|<Xmax, no definite conclusion can be drawn. Authors say that in this condition the utility and customer have comparable contributions to the PCC current.

Some conclusions can be made for this approach to solving the problem: 1. There is no exact way to calculate costumer impedance. Authors used range of costumer impedance. This fact makes problem more scientific but not practical. It is impossible to make measurements and field study for every costumer. 2. Can be useful for constant load big costumers (factories, plants). 3. Impossible to use for residential customers.

Possible candidate method.

In the rst stage of this method, weighted least square estimation technique is used to nd possible candidate buses (where the harmonic sources may be connected) among the system buses [8] [9] and in the second stage, using the concept of Euclidean norm, the exact buses (where the harmonic sources are present) among the possible candidate buses are obtained. Busses where the non-linear loads are connected, the value of Ih is non-zero and at the other busses where there are no harmonic loads, the value of Ih is zero. If the vector Ih can be estimated accurately, the harmonic busses would be identified correctly.

Moreover, as the bus admittance matrix Yh can be determined accurately from the known system data, the vector Ih can be estimated from the knowledge of the vector Vh. Therefore, the problem of determination of harmonic buses reduces to the problem of estimation of harmonic bus voltages, or, in other words, to the problem of harmonic state-estimation [10]. STEP 1: After estimating the injection vector Ih, a set of candidate buses where the harmonic sources may be present are determined. The buses at which the estimated values are close to zero are treated as non-harmonic source buses. Let m be the number of candidate harmonic buses. Obviously m<= n; where n is the number of system buses. Now, out of these m candidate buses, the harmonic source may be present on only one bus. In this case, the total number of possibilities of harmonic bus is mC1: Similarly, the harmonic source may be present on any two of the m candidate buses, thus giving rise to mC2 possibilities of harmonic buses. Proceeding as above and collecting all the possibilities, the total number of possibilities of harmonic buses is mC1 mC2 .. mCp. STEP 2: After the current injections at the m buses are obtained, harmonic load-ow studies are carried out for all the possibilities. The input current injection values required for carrying out the harmonic load-ow studies have been taken as same as the values of the current injections at the m buses obtained from Step 1. After each harmonic load-ow study, the vector of the estimated values of the measurements is obtained. This constitutes the vector of estimated line power and current flows Z. STEP 3: For each estimated vector Z the norm Zm-Z is calculated, where Zm is the vector of actual measured line power and current ows in the lines. Now, this norm is minimum when Zm vector is closest to Z or, in other words, Z corresponds to the actual combination of harmonic buses in the system. Thus the combination of harmonic buses for which the norm (Zm-Z) is minimum is the actual combination of the harmonic buses present in the system. In Section 3, the above algorithm is illustrated with the help of numerical results. Some conclusions that are drawn are: 1. Power flow analysis for harmonic power flow is need for harmonic source evaluation. Difficult to realize real time analyze. Power flow analyze should be done for final decision. 2. Good for laboratory study, impossible in real life. For practical use all sensors should be interconnected and connected to analyzing server

Method based on waveform characteristics

Proposed technique is based on the measurement of the waveforms of the three-phase voltages and currents at the PCC. The first step in the data processing consists of estimating the frequencies in each waveform. A modified Prony analysis [2] has been used for estimating the frequencies. The voltage and current phasors at each frequency and for each phase are estimated using a Kalman filter [1,2]. At the end of this step, samples of the voltage phasor at the PCC and the load current phasors are both available at each angular frequency w.

. where Ex0 real part of the source voltage phasor RT - Real part of the source impedance. Ey0 imaginary part of the source voltage phasor Ix - Real part of the current phasor in a singlephase circuit or sequence network. Iy - imaginary part of current phasor in a singlephase circuit or sequence network. Using principle of superposition principle, authors calculate the contributions to the voltage at the PCC at frequency w. Some of the observations made with this method are: 1. Main difficulties are impedance of costumer and utility evaluation. This task was solved without direct measurements of costumer impedance. Authors propose to use voltage and current measurement with least-square method to determine parameters of the load. 2. Probably such a device will be very difficult to realize, a lot of math analysis is need. 3. Method can be useful if such a device will be realized. The only data need for analysis is measured and analyzed current and voltage at point of common coupling. No interconnection and additional network is need. Device could work locally. 4. Getting utility side impedance can be problematic. Need additional aid of a short-circuit analysis program. For some cases it is not a problem, system impedance can be very small compare to costumer and also it usually known.

Neural Networks based method of predicting harmonics

Intelligent control strategies involving Neural Networks are used in this method to detect the harmonic injection by the different loads connected to the system. In this method, data collected from

different non-linear loads are treated as a unique signature of the device, distinct from that of other devices. The waveform distortion caused by nonlinear loads is quantified in the frequency domain by applying Fourier analysis, and used to non-intrusively detect the presence of various devices in the electrical installation [13]. The unique device signature can be used to provide accurate information to power-quality management and enhancement systems so that appropriate remedial action can be taken. There are several neural network based schemes that can be used to solve the problem of detecting harmonic disturbances from non-linear loads. These model include the recurrent neural network (RNN), the multi-layer preceptors (MLP), radial basis function (RBF) network, support vector machines (SVM) with linear, polynomial, and RBF kernels , as well as Echo State Networks (ESN). These models were trained using spike train data gathered from Fourier analysis of the input current waveform in the presence of multiple devices and instructed to produce corresponding output to indicate the devices present in electrical installation. Once trained, these models could identify the devices present when presented with the current harmonics of the power source. The first scheme we will discuss is based on RNNs. RNNs are feedback networks in which the present activation state is a function of the previous activation state as well as the present inputs [14]. This feeding back of information from the previous activation states builds memory in the system, and thus gives the system an ability to learn from previous actions [15].

Figure 6 Proposed method for predicting true harmonic current [16]

Figure 6 is a one-line diagram of a three-phase supply network with a sinusoidal voltage source , network impedance , and several loads (one of which is nonlinear) connected to a PCC. The nonlinear load currents ,ia, ib, and ic (denoted by iabc), are composed of load harmonics as well as supply harmonics. Even though the currents are individual currents from individual loads, the utility only sees the combined iabc and does not have the ability to distinguish between the different harmonic injections from the loads. As seen in Figure 6, there are two RNNs implemented in this scheme, the first one, RNN1 is the identification neural network is trained to identify the non-linear characteristics of the load (for

each phase individually when 3 phase loads are concerned). The second RNN, RNN2, using data from the weights trained in RNN1, estimates the distorted waveform, and subtracts it from a purely sinusoidal wave to get only the harmonic frequencies injected by the non-linear loads. This is an online training method, the system never has to be disconnected, and is continually trained based on the current patterns. Initially, random weight values are applied to a delayed current (t-1), and are compared to the current at time t. This provides an error, which is used to change the value of the weights. This process initially causes the weights to fluctuate a lot, as the weight values are chosen at random, but will converge very fast to give a very accurate representation of the current. After convergence, the waveform of (delayed current x weight) will be very similar to the current at time t. The weights are basically characterizing the load; they represent the admittance of the load in question. These weights are then sent to another neural network (the combination of two networks makes this system a Recurrent Neural Network). These weights are used to transform a pure sinusoidal voltage waveform. The output of this NN will give us the harmonic distortion that would be present if the loads were connected to a pure sinusoidal voltage waveform. The calculation of THD of this new waveform gives us the harmonic distortion applied by the load. Before the Neural Network is in place to calculate the harmonic distortion injected by the load, two scenarios are run, one with a utility voltage source, and one with a pure sinusoidal voltage source (the same used later for the input of the second neural network). The THD values for different loads are calculated. This gives an idea of the harmonic pollution from only the source.

Figure 7 Results of training (RNN1). Actual current and estimated current are overlaid [16]

Figure 8 Harmonic distortion caused by device. (Estimated current - Pure sinusoid) [16]

Figure 7 shows the output of RNN1 after it has been trained; the estimated current waveform follows the actual current waveform identically, with very little errors that can be seen. This proves that the training algorithm of the RNN is working very effectively. Figure 8 is the difference between the estimated current waveform and a pure sinusoid supplied to RNN2. The result is the harmonic distortion injected by the non-linear load. A fourier transform of this waveform will give the magnitudes of the different frequencies present in the signal, i.e the injected harmonics.

A similar scheme, but using an advance neural network than the RNN, called the Echo State Network (ESN) is used to perform the same task as before. The model structure remains the same except for the RNNs (RNN1 and RNN2) being replaced by ESNs (ESN1 and ESN2). The fundamental difference between the ESN and the RNN is the connectivity of neurons within the dynamic reservoir. The ESN is a sparsely connected RNN with weights Win (input weight) , W (internal weights), and Wfb (feedback weights) fixed a priori to randomly chosen values [17]. In contrast to RNNs where the input and output weights are adjusted based on the minimization of the mean squared error (MSE), ESNs only calculate the output weights Wout leading from the dynamic reservoir to the output layer. This scheme results in faster training of the NN and in turn faster detection of the harmonic currents injected into the system. With both schemes, a good overview of the harmonic distortion injected by loads from a certain PCC is observed. The training algorithms are robust enough to predict the current waveforms with a lot of accuracy, as seen in the experimental results. The major disadvantages of this system are cost and ease of installation. While highly accurate, the cost for installing such devices will be very high in a distribution system. As the system stands now, to calculate harmonic distortion of individual loads, separate systems will be required. For billing purposes, this might be OK, as a system can be installed at the PCC right before the customer, and see how the particular customer is affecting the power quality. Even then, the requirement of a pure sinusoidal voltage source for the second NN makes the system expensive to install. For purposes of seeing which load is actually causing the power quality to deteriorate, multiple systems will have to be installed at a customer location as one system can only process information for one particular load. This increases the cost dramatically as industrial customers will have a lot of non-linear loads connected to the system.

3. Conclusion
We discussed and analyzed a lot of approaches of solving the problem of detecting harmonics injected into the utility system. In conclusion, we find that no one solution is the best for all the different scenarios present on the utility system. Some of them are very useful for big industrial customers with known configurations. For such cases, methods which require known costumer impedance or at least range of costumer impedance can be used. However, these methods are completely useless for residential customers or for costumers whose impedance difficult to evaluate. Several methods can evaluate origins of harmonics in laboratory conditions but these are not very useful when implemented on a practical utility system. One of the analyzed methods assumes that there is no active power generation on costumer side, but nowadays this assumption is probably mistaken because of wide spread of distribution generation. The methods using Neural Networks show very high accuracy rates, and fast operation, but the installation of such systems is just not feasible for the utility. Expensive components such as the pure sine wave generator are required, as well as multiple devices required for detection of harmonics from individual loads. The second problem is not of big concern for residential customers, but for industrial customers, they might want to know of the harmonic disturbance caused by each load, which would raise the cost of installation of the system to very high levels. One approach is to use different methods for different purposes. However, after analyzing all the methods, a more universal method which can be implemented for all scenarios, is the method proposed in the paper: Estimation of the Utilitys and Consumers Contribution to Harmonic Distortion by G. V. de

Andrade, Jr., S. R. Naidu, Senior Member, IEEE, M.G.G.Neri, and E.G.da Costa The proposed approach doesnt need any information of costumer impedance, which calculated from measured current and voltage of different frequencies. Prony analysis was used for frequency estimation and Kalman filter for current and voltage phasors at each frequency and for each phase. Computer simulation and field test were also done and they yielded good results.

References
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