Any of a class of natural or synthetic substances composed of macromolecules that are multiples of monomers.

The monomers need not all be the same or have the same structure. Polymers may consist of long chains of unbranched or branched monomers or may be cross-linked networks of monomers in two or three dimensions. Their backbones may be flexible or rigid Polymers are light in weight their specific gravity is from 1 to 2, easily cast formed or machined and are generally corrosion resistant. Many of them are transparent and have the properties of insulators ,semiconductors or conductors. They may be rigid highstrength, plastic or even elastic. However there some major concerns in their usage- we have to be sure that they wont reach softening temperature in working conditions and that creep at room temperature will not be a factor. In addition to the covalent bonds within a molecule, there are van der Waals bonds between molecules and in overlapping parts of the same molecule. These are much lower in strength than the covalent bonds, but they are very important because in most cases, the stress required for fracture is related to the force needed to separate molecules rather than to that required to break bonds within the molecule. The bonds within the long-chain molecule do not break during fracture; they are covalent. The hydrogen bond deserves special attention because it is very strong in a number of cases, especially in cellulose (cotton) and polyamides (nylon and protein). The basic unit of a polymer is a molecule or more accurately a macromolecule composed of thousands of atoms which may be in amorphous state or form a crystalline lattice. The spine of this molecule is a carbon chain of atoms and there are three basic forms that the chain may follow separating the three main divisions of polymers : -linear structure the name does not refer to the geometrical form of the chain, but more to the fact that the molecules slide by each other and upon heating form thermoplastic polymers. -the space network structure which forms the thermosetting polymers -the coiled structures which exhibit elastic extension of as much as 1000%. One of the great contributions of chemistry to engineering materials is the process called polymerization in which we change a substance such as ethylene into the useful

continuous, solid polymer known as polyethylene. An individual C2H4 molecule is called a monomer, but when present as a basic building block, the C2H4 molecule is called a mer. Polymer therefore means "many mers." The basic mechanism lies in unlocking one of the double bonds between carbon atoms in each monomer and linking it to a bond in a carbon atom in an adjacent molecule. The polymer can crystallize if the mers are linear and possess no side groups on the chain or if they have only small, regularly oriented side groups. The crystalline structure is important in the linear polymers: it leads to stiffer, stronger materials and usually makes an amorphous material translucent or opaque because light scatters at grain boundaries. The yield strength increases because the molecules in the amorphous regions become stretched out and aligned in the direction of the applied stress, forming crystals. Recent research using electron microscopy has given more detailed information on the crystalline regions. Researchers have grown single crystals of a number of polymers and have found that the chain structures of the molecules fold back and forth in regular fashion to build up the crystal. Amorphous polymers exhibit behavior similar to that of glasses, passing from a viscous to a rigid structure on cooling through the glass transition temperature Tg. They have a rubbery range above Tg. When a linear polymer is made of several different monomers, it is called a copolymer; generally copolymers do not crystallize. We can devide the polymers in 4 main groups by their physycal and chemical properties: -thermoplastics -thermosets -elastomers -blends Thermoplastic are high polymers with linear structure which flow and melt when heated. If we take a look at the mers bonding in thermoplastics we see that as the side group of the chain becomes more compex we gain strength, but lose ductility. The physical properties of thermoplastics is related to the operational temperature - at low temperatures we have better strength and brittle behaviour, while at higher ones we see ductile performance and lower strengths. The most used thermoplastic polymers are

polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyamides and polyvinylchloride . They are relatively cheap and very used. Thermosetting polymers main difference from the thermoplastics is that they have space network structure. When heated they do not melt but decompose in a process called degradation and can not be reused. They have heat distortion temperatures which are 150200 Co higher than the thermoplastics. They have higher tensile strength and several times the elasticity of thermoplastics, but lower ductility. They are less used than thermoplastics mainly bacause are more difficult to produce, although their price difference is small. Thay are used whenlower creep rates and higher temperature resistances are needed. The process of degradation is often accompanied by evolution of poisones gases and must be avoided and occurs at high temperatures at which the polymer degradates to momomer. The most used thermosets are phenolics, ureamelamine, polyesters, epoxies, urethans and others. The elastomers provide the greatest elastic strain of any group of materials. Elastomer by definition is polymer which will retain its original form after being continuesly streched to twice its original length. This elastic strain differs from the elongation of other materials where the extension is permanent and is possible bacause of the unique coiled structure.the most prominent method for modifying elastomers is crosslinking by vulkanization and was discovered by Charles Goodyear who found that rubber heated with sulfur becomes harder and stronger but retained its elasticity.If elastomers are not heavily crosslinked they have similar bahaviour to thermoplastics . They become brittle with low temperature and age in service due to further crosslinking by oxygen. They are used for rubebr tires, foams and seals. The most used ones are natural rubber, nitrile, neoprene, urethane and others. Blending is a mechanical mixture of several polymers. It is allso caleld alloying and is used when we want to have a new polymer whith the mixed mechanical properties of several existing ones. This is cheaper than creating a completely new polymer for the purpose which may take up to 15 years. The bonding is a result of the van der Waals forced via mixing of two sets of large molecules. In the case of blending of a polymer with crystalyne structure with one with amorphous structure we may get as a resut polymer with crystalyne lattice only at a proper cooling rate.

Construction is one of the largest markets for polymer materials. Polymer materials are rarely used in pure form; they offer a great range of valuable material properties due to the compounded additives. Commonly, base polymer is mixed with fillers such as talc, silica, glass powder or fibre, or graphite. Fillers may serve just to bulk the material and reduce unit cost, or provide colour or opacity, but can also serve to increase stiffness, hardness and durability, or to reduce thermal expansion. Polymer materials have become indispensible in construction engineering because of their wide application and huge variety. Polymer concrete, known also as resin concrete, is a constructional composite, a variation of concrete, in which traditional binder - cement, has been completely replaced with synthetic resins with a hardening agent and filler: mixture of sand-and-gravel and quartz powder. Advantages of polymer concrete should be mentioned as well: the tensile strength of hardened resin binder is much higher than that of ordinary concrete, and the compressive strength is similar to the strength of the rocks from which the aggregate was obtained; impervious to liquids, small number of pores; high frost resistance; high resistance to corrosive chemical substances; high abrasion resistance, no erosion; higher mechanical resistance to loads than traditional concrete, environment friendly material, may be recycled; good adhesion to essential constructional materials (steel, traditional concrete); possibility to obtain very smooth surfaces; resistance to changing weather conditions and atmospheric factors; very short time to achieve installation and usage efficiency. Disadvantages: monomers can be volatile, combustible, and toxic; significantly more expensive than conventional concrete. Application of Polymer concrete: production of prefabricated products for bridge and linear drainage systems; production of industrial tanks and catch basins and channels to drain aggressive industrial wastewater; execution of chemical resistant cladding. Polymer-modified cement concrete is Portland cement concrete with polymer solutions added to the mix to achieve certain properties. Like Portland cement concrete, the primary curing mechanism for polymer-modified concrete is hydration of the cement binder. Polymer modified concretes are typically less expensive than polymer concretes and are often used for concrete restoration work when construction time is limited. They

can be used to quickly repair structural concrete and allow acid-proofing work to begin sooner. Advantages: excellent abrasion resistance to heavy loads and traffic; high early strength for fast repair; non-shrink for maximum durability and adhesion; good resistance to freeze-thaw and impact; high compressive, bond and flexural strengths; thermal expansion similar to concrete for long-term durability; versatile. Fibre reinforced polymeric materials are gaining market share from traditional construction materials due to their low weight combined with high strength. Mechanical properties can be tailor-made by careful selection of fibre and direction of reinforcement. Applications include bridge construction, pipes, column reinforcing wraps and reinforcing bars for concrete. They can also offer better fire resistance than most other materials, for example, phenolics are used in firewalls. Advantages: friendly to the environment as it could easily be recycled and reused; very durable and resists degradation; easy to produce; may be shaped or molded into different forms; FRP building composites could be built off-site and then easily transported to the construction site for quick installation. Pipework Large-diameter polymer pipes, predominantly made of High-density polyethylene (HDPE) and of Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), with some use of polyester glass fibre composite pipes, are used widely for water and gas distribution, drainage and sewerage, and for handling industrial effluents and slurries. Smaller-diameter polymer pipes are used in rainwater and waste systems, and for water services. Polymer materials are also used as liners for sewer repair and pipeline renovation. Thermoplastic manufacturing methods also allow double-wall or multi-layer pipes to be produced. Materials selection is based primarily on long-term strength and creep resistance, service temperature and durability. Thus PVC-C may be used for hot water services up to 908o C, and ABS can be used at temperatures as low as -408o C. In all cases, special precautions must be taken when pipe systems are specified for use in contaminated land, as external attack and penetration by chemicals may occur. Polymer materials can also be combined in composite construction with other established pipe materials. Because of viscoelastic stress relaxation, polymer pipes are tolerant of deflections and deformations caused, for

example, by ground movements. However, they are subject to static fatigue and slow crack growth. Membranes and geotextiles Polymers are readily formed into continuous membranes, sheets, meshes and textiles, the use of which in civil engineering has been an important recent area of innovation. Membranes are synthetic materials manufactured in impermeable sheet form from thermoplastic polymers or bituminous materials; both materials can be unreinforced or reinforced with a textile or mesh. Advantages: impermeable, resistant to puncture, high tear strength and durability; resistant to biological decay; chemical resistant. Application of Membranes: serve as reservoir, tank, tunnel and landfill liners, for water and for chemical and waste containment, as roofing materials, and as barriers to capillary water movement in floor and wall construction; Geotextiles are polymer fabrics now widely used for ground stabilisation, separation and for drainage and filtration in the construction of roads, drains, harbor works, and breakwaters, and for land reclamation and many other civil engineering purposes. These are commonly made of polyethylene, polyester and polypropylene. Advantages: resistant to water and corrosion; high specific strength; high impact resistance. Polymeric Poured (Seamless) Floors A floor surfacing material composed of polymeric materials applied to the substrate in liquid form alone or in combination with mineral or plastic aggregates, desiccants, or fillers. The polymeric poured (seamless) floor must meet the following conditions: be well cured and free of any residual solvent, structurally sound and well bonded to a concrete subfloor , have no history of moisturerelated problems and be smooth. Adhesives Polymers are the basis of all engineering adhesives. High-performance adhesives are formulated to set and develop strength by chemical reactions and so are thermoset materials. Epoxies are especially versatile and can be formulated for application on many substrates. Other structural adhesives are based on polyester, polyurethane, acrylic and cyanoacrylate polymers. For laminated timber and other wood products, such as particle

board made under factory conditions, the long-established adhesives based on ureaformaldehyde (UF) (aminoplastic), phenol-formaldehyde (PF), or phenol-resorcinolformaldehyde resin systems are widely used. These resins provide excellent adhesion to timber and proven performance. Advantages: durable and provide good bond; easy to apply; resistant to temperature changes; resistant to expansion and shrinkage. Coatings and paints Surface coatings (paints) are widely used in the construction industry to protect timber surfaces and to prevent or reduce the corrosion of metals. Coatings may be applied on site or during manufacture or fabrication. Paints are among the most compositionally complicated polymer-based materials. Normally they contain: base polymer, solvent or dispersing medium, pigment (or several), dispersing agent and other additives to ensure the stability of the dispersion in transport and storage, additives to improve spreading and to control viscosity during application. There have been strong environmental and safety pressures in recent years to reduce the quantities of volatile organic solvents released in painting operations. ICE Manual of Construction Materials; 2009 Construction Materials; J. M. Illston; 1994 Engineering Materials; Flinn, Trojan; 1995 http://www.sytec.pl/en/polimerobeton-en.php http://www.tech-faq.com/reinforced-plastics.html