What is Plastic?

A PLASTIC material is any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic solids that can be molded into shape while soft and then set into a rigid or slightly elastic form. The name is derived from the fact that in the semi-liquid state, plastic is malleable, or have the property of plasticity. Plasticity is the deformation of a material undergoing non-reversible changes of shape in response to applied forces. For example, a solid piece of metal being bent or pounded into a new shape displays plasticity if permanent changes occur within the material itself.

History
The development of plastic has come from the use of natural plastic materials (e.g., chewing gum, shellac) to the use of chemically modified natural materials (e.g., rubber, nitrocellulose, collagen, galalite) and finally to completely synthetic molecules (e.g., bakelite, epoxy, polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene).

Plastic material started in 1839, when an American inventor, Charles Goodyear was experimenting with the sulfur treatment of natural rubber when, according to legend, he dropped a piece of sulfur-treated rubber on a stove. The rubber seemed to have improved properties, and Goodyear followed up with further experiments, and developed a process known as "vulcanization" that involved cooking the rubber with sulfur. Compared to untreated natural rubber, Goodyear's vulcanized rubber was stronger, more resistant to abrasion, more elastic, much less sensitive to temperature, impermeable to gases, and highly resistant to chemicals and electric current.

The first human-made plastic, parkesine had an inauspicious birth. An Englishman, Alexander Parkes, looking for collodion in his medicine cabinet to staunch a wound, discovered that it had gelled into a tough rubbery substance. He was an enterprising man who saw the possibilities, if this substance could be molded. Unfortunately, molding required heat, and heating always made the substance explode. Licking his wounds, Parkes worked on, and finally produced a suitable mixture of collodion, camphor, and ethanol. Parkesine, the first synthetic plastic, was launched in 1865, and the Xylonite company was formed a year later.

The next major revolution of plastic is celluloid. Celluloid is derived from cellulose and alcoholized camphor. John Wesley Hyatt invented celluloid as a substitute for the ivory in billiard balls in 1868. He first tried using collodion a natural substance, after spilling a bottle of it and discovering that the material dried into a tough and flexible film. However, the material was not strong enough to be used as a billiard ball, until the addition of camphor, a derivative of the laurel tree. The new celluloid could be moulded with heat and pressure into a durable shape.

Next, the first plastic based on a synthetic polymer, was made from phenol and formaldehyde by synthesis methods invented in 1907, by Leo Hendrik Baekeland, a Belgian-born American. He called the new material Bakelite.

Bakelite was a purely synthetic material, not based on any material or even molecule found in nature. It was also the first thermosetting plastic. Conventional thermoplastics can be moulded and then melted again, but thermosetting plastics form bonds between polymers strands when cured, creating a tangled matrix that cannot be undone without destroying the plastic. Thermosetting plastics are tough and temperature resistant.

The next major thrust in the development of plastics took place in the 1920s with the introduction of cellulose acetate (which is similar in structure to cellulose nitrate (celluloid), but safer to process and use), ureaformaldehyde (which can be processed like the phenolics, but can also be molded into light colored articles that are more attractive than the blacks and browns in which phenolics are available), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC, or vinyl, as it is commonly called). Nylon was also developed in the late 1920s through the classic research of W.T. Carothers.

The decade of the 1950s saw the introduction of polypropylene and the development of acetal and polycarbonate, two plastics that, along with nylon, came to form the nucleus of a subgroup in the plastics family known as the "engineering thermoplastics." Their outstanding impact strength and thermal and dimensional stability enabled them to compete directly and favourably with metal in many applications.

The Development of Plastic

1868 - Cellulose Nitrate 1909 - Phenol-Formaldehyde 1927 - Cellulose Acetate 1927 - Polyvinyl Chloride 1929 - Urea Formaldehyde 1935 - Ethyl Cellulose 1936 - Acrylic 1936 - Polyvinyl Acetate 1938 - Nylon 1942 - Polyester 1943 - Silicone 1947 - Epoxy

Types of Plastic
As of now, there exist hundreds of different types of plastics, in terms of its chemical formula. Generally, plastics can be classified into two, namely thermosetting and thermoplastic. The thermosetting plastics are those that cannot be soften again, after being exposed to heat and pressure. On the action of heat and pressure, the molecular chain of thermosetting plastics become cross-linked and therefore forbids the slippage when pressure & heat are reapplied.

On the other hand, the thermoplastic are those that can be soften again and again & remade by the action of heat and pressure. On the action of heat and pressure, the molecular chain of thermoplastics undergoes change and the polymers slide past each other, which result in the property of plasticity.

Thermosetting materials are generally stronger than thermoplastic materials due to this 3-D network of bonds (cross-linking), and are also better suited to high-temperature applications up to the decomposition temperature. However, they are more brittle. Many thermosetting polymers are difficult to recycle.

Some examples of thermosetting materials are:

Polyester fibreglass systems: Vulcanized rubber Bakelite, a phenol-formaldehyde resin

Melamine resin Epoxy resin Polyimides Cyanate Esters or Polycyanurates Mold or Mold Runners

Duroplast Urea-formaldehyde

Some examples of thermoplastic materials are:

Acrylonitrile (ABS)

butadiene

styrene

Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) Polyketone (PK) Polyester Polyethylene (PE) Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) Polyetherketoneketone (PEKK) Polyetherimide (PEI) Polyethersulfone (PES) Polyimide (PI) Polylactic acid (PLA) Polymethylpentene (PMP) Polyphenylene oxide (PPO) Polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) Polyphthalamide (PPA) Polypropylene (PP) Polystyrene (PS) Polysulfone (PSU) Polytrimethylene (PTT) terephthalate

Acrylic (PMMA) Celluloid Cellulose acetate Fluoroplastics (PTFE, alongside with FEP, PFA, CTFE, ECTFE, ETFE)

Kydex Liquid Crystal Polymer (LCP) Polyacrylonitrile Acrylonitrile) (PAN or

Polyamide (PA or Nylon) Polyamide-imide (PAI) Polyaryletherketone Ketone) (PAEK or

Polybutadiene (PBD) Polybutylene (PB) Polybutylene terephthalate (PBT) Polycaprolactone (PCL) Polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE)

Polyurethane (PU) Polyvinyl acetate (PVA) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) Styrene-acrylonitrile (SAN)

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) Polycarbonate (PC)

Material properties of some Thermoplastics

Expansi Thermal stability [C] on 20C [10^6/C] 120 126 at

Name

Symb ol

Density [g/cm^3 ]

Tensile strength [MPa]

Flexural Elastic Strengt h [MPa] Modul us [GPa]

Elongati on at

rupture [%]

High

Density

Polyethylene Low Density

HDPE

0.95

31

40

1.86

100

Polyethylene Polyvinyl Chloride Polypropylene Polyethylene terephthalate Polymethylmet hacrylate Polycarbonate Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene Polyamide Polyimide Polysulfone Polyamideimide, electrical grade Polyamide-

LDPE

0.92

17

14

0.29

500

90

160

PVC PP PET PMM A PC

1.44 0.91 1.35

47 37 61

91 49 105

3.32 1.36 1.35

60 350 170

80 150 120

75 90 70

1.19 1.2

61 68

103 95

2.77 2.3

4 130

100 120

65 66

ABS

1.05

45

70

2.45

33

70

90

Nylon 6 PI PSF

1.13 1.38 1.25

60 96 68

91 143 115

2.95 3.1 2.61

60 7 75

110 380 160

66 43 56

PAI

1.41

138

193

4.1

12

260

30

imide, bearing PAI grade Polytetrafluoro PTFE

1.46

103

159

5.5

260

25

2.17

24

33

0.49

300

260

95

ethylene Polyetherimide Polyether ether ketone Polyaryletherk etone (strong) Polyaryletherk etone (tought) Self-reinforced polyphenylene Polyamideimide PEI PEEK 1.27 1.32 105 100 151 2.9 3.6 60 50 210 343 31

PEAK

1.46

136

213

12.4

2.1

267

PEAK

1.29

87

124

40

190

SRP

1.19

152

234

5.52

10

151

PAI

1.42

152

241

4.9

15

278

Apart from this classification, plastics have also been divided into seven different types by the plastic industry. These seven types of plastics are:

Polymer Types Polyethylene Terephthalate

Examples of applications

Symbol

Fizzy drink and water bottles. Salad trays.

High Density Polyethylene

Milk bottles, bleach, cleaners and most shampoo bottles.

Polyvinyl Chloride

Pipes, fittings,

window and

door frames

(rigid

PVC). Thermal insulation (PVC foam) and automotive parts.

Low Density Polyethylene

Carrier bags, bin liners and packaging films.

Margarine

tubs,

microwaveable meal

trays, also

Polypropylene produced as fibres and filaments for carpets, wall coverings and vehicle upholstery.

Yoghurt pots, foam hamburger boxes and egg cartons, Polystyrene plastic cutlery, protective packaging for electronic goods and toys. Insulating material in the building and construction industry. Unallocated References Any other plastics that do not fall into any of the above categories - for example polycarbonate which is often used in glazing for the aircraft industry

Manufacturing of Plastic
In the process of manufacturing plastic, there are two major types; manufacturing of thermoplastics and manufacturing of thermosetting plastics.

Thermoplastics
In the making of thermoplastics, there are several techniques that can be used: - Extrusion - Moulding - Thermoforming - Recycling - Coating

Extrusion
Extrusion has 7 types: - Sheet extrusion - Co-extrusion - Profile extrusion - Cast extrusion - Pipe extrusion - Foam extrusion - Blown film extrusion

Profile extrusion is the process to manufacture plastic products with a continuous crosssection such as, drinking straws, plastic eves roughing, and a wide variety of other products. The polymer melts into the hollow mould cavity under high pressure. Steps of the process are as follows:

1) Plastic is fed into the extruder machines and being softened by friction rotating screw inside a heated barrel and heat. 2) The softened plastic then is forced out through a die and directly into cool water where the product solidifies. 3) It is conveyed onwards into the take-off rollers. 4) The die is a metal plate placed at the end of the extruder with a section cut out of its interior, this cut out, and the speed of the take-off rollers, determines the cross-section of the product being manufactured.

Typical Materials for Profile Extrusion - HDPE (High Density Polyethylene) - LDPE (Low Density Polyethylene) - LLDPE (Linear Low Density Polyethylene) - PETG - Flexible PVC - Butyrate - Polypropylene - Polystyrene - ABS

Moulding
Moulding has 8 types: - Injection moulding - Blow moulding - Rotational moulding - Compression moulding - Insert moulding - Dip moulding - Transfer moulding - Structural foam moulding

There are two types of gas assist injection moulding; Internal Gas Injection (most widely used) and External Gas Injection (used to improve surface details). Gas-assist injection moulding is a process that utilizes an inert gas (normally nitrogen) to create one or more hollow channels within an injection-moulded plastic part. Steps of the process are as follows:

1) At the end of the filling stage, the gas (N2) is injected into the still liquid core of the moulding. The gas will follow and create the shape of the product. 2) Gas pressure packs the plastic against the mould surface until the part solidifies. 3) The gas is vented to atmosphere or recycled.

Benefits of Gas Assist Injection Moulding: Lower cost The use of the gas transmits the pressure uniformly throughout the moulding. Elimination of sink marks. Avoidance of plastic packing from the moulding machine. Reduce in-mould pressures by up to 70% and therefore reduce press lock forces enabling larger mouldings on smaller machines. Reduce power consumption. Reduce moulded in stress, and therefore improves dimensional stability with no distortion.

Typical Materials for Gas Assist Injection Moulding - Polypropylene (PP) - ABS - HIPS - Polycarbonate (PC) - PPC - Nylon (including glass filled grades).

Thermosetting plastics
In the making of thermosetting plastics, there are several techniques that can be used: - Pultrusion - Resin transfer Moulding - SMC and DMS Moulding - Other GRP Moulding Techniques

Pultrusion
Pultrusion is a manufacturing method for obtaining high quality composite profiles with consistently repeatable mechanical properties. It is mainly used for the production of solid or hollow cross-section products. Pultrusion process can use a wide range of materials to provide a large type of composite properties. Pultruded products are essentially composed of high performance fibres such as glass, carbon, or aramide, individually or in combination, combined with a polymer matrix such as polyester, vinyl-ester, epoxy. Steps of the process are as follows:

1) Pulling continuous reinforcements through a resin impregnation system. Each fibre is coated with a specially formulated resin which is to ensure a good condition of the fibre reinforcement.

2)

Excess resin is then removed to expel any trapped air and to compact the fibres. The coated fibres are passed through preforming guides to align reinforcement and preform the part to the desired shape before entering the heated die.

3) The shape and dimensions of the end product are ultimately determined by the die cross section. The temperature of the die is carefully controlled to ensure that the composite is fully cured; the rate of reaction is controlled by heating and cooling zones in the die. 4) The fully cured section can be cut to the length according to the size and shape.

Typical Materials for Pultrusion - Polyester is suitable for most industrial applications. - Vinyl-ester affords improved corrosion resistance and physical properties. - Epoxy offers superior thermal stability and corrosion resistance. - Modar improves fire performance and smoke emissions. - Phenolic maximises fire performance and is offered as an alternative to Modar

Benefits of Pultrusion Consistent quality Low weight High strength & stiffness Good surface finish Continuous length Excellent corrosion properties Electrical and thermal insulation Maintenance free Non magnetic attraction Fire retardant properties Excellent creep and fatigue performance Transparent to radio frequencies Pigmentability

Why do we need different kinds of plastics?

Copper, silver and aluminium are all metals, yet each has unique properties. We do not make a car out of silver or a beer can out of copper because the properties of these metals are not the best choice for final product. Likewise, while plastics are all related, each resin has attributes that make it best suited to a particular application. Plastics make this possible because as a material family they are so versatile.

Plastics in Building and Construction

From the construction of new homes to the retrofit and renovation of commercial buildings, and from hospitals to schools, civil engineers, architects and designers rely on plastics to help maximize energy efficiency, durability and performance. In addition to potentially lightening a structures environmental footprint, properly installed plastic building products can help reduce energy and maintenance costs, improve aesthetics and safety over many years.

A one-year study found that the use of plastic building and construction materials saved 467.2 trillion Btu of energy over alternative construction materials. Thats enough energy saved over the course of a year to meet the average annual energy needs of 4.6 million U.S. households. Savings vary by material and products. (Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd., U.S. DOE and U.S. Census Bureau).

Below are some examples of plastic building products that promote the efficient use of energy and other resources:

1) Plastic Pipes and Fittings

2) Plastic Structural Insulated Panel

3) Plastic Pipe Radiant Floor Heating

4) Plastic Trims and Wall Coverings

5) Plastic Decking, Fencing & Railings

6) Plastic Roofing

Latest Technology of Plastic used in Construction

We are on the verge of a technology and materials revolution that promises lower construction costs and a solution to problems such as global warming, waste and housing for the masses. Construction techniques and materials that have not changed much since the time of the Romans are all set to change. With the rapid development of technology, new materials are designed to meet the demand of the construction. Plastic or polymer materials have developed so much since its invention in the 19th century. Composite materials which combine polymer and other building materials such as ceramics, glass and concrete are a norm and a must in this 21st century.

1)

TiO2 (Titanium Dioxide) Photocatalytic Membrane

Applications

2)

ETFE Film

Applications

Conclusion
The future of plastic or polymer materials are very promising. In the 20th century, many people would not have thought about what plastic can become nowadays. With rapid development of technology, such as nanotechnology, plastics that once used only for items that do not require much strength, have changed. Plastics can now become the main structure of a building, and can be used more dynamically especially in the civil engineering field. Plastic will truly someday become the main material in our daily life.