THE COMMAND AND GENERAL STAFF COLLEGE

LIBRARY

94Ov5337 Call Number

_i.j56c ________ -

v*j5 67771

FL Form 887 (Rev) 22 Oct 52 USACGSC-P2-4277-15 June 62-5M

C
ARMY SERVICE FORCES MANUAL
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CIVIL AFFAIRS HANDBOOK

BELGIUM
SECTION 9: LABOR
-L - L- -----~ ~---~-~ I-~--~--- -~ -- ~ I

0 RN L
Dissemination of restricted matter. - The information contained in restricted documents and the essential characteristics of restricted material may be given to any person known to be in the service of the United States and to persons of undoubted loyalty and discretion who are cooperating in Government work, but will not be communicated to the public or to the press (See also par. 18b, except by authorized military public relations agencies. AR 380-5, 28 Sep 1942.)

I JAN30 4

HEADQUARTERS,
24-62033ABCD

ARMY SERVICE FORCES, 13 DECEMBER 1943

BELGIUI

uL/

II 361-1

27 Apr. 1944 Section 1: Geographical & Social Background

lvi 361-2A

16 May 1944 Section 2A: German Military Govto over

Europe - Belgium

M 361-5 M 361-8
M 361-9

15 Jun 1944 Section 5: Money and Banking 1 Jan 1944 Section 8:. Industry and Commerce 13 Dec 1943 Section 9: Labor 13 May 1944 Section 17: Cultural Institutions

M 361-17

M 361-17(Supplement) 30 Jun 1944 Atlas on Churches, Museums, Libraries and other Cultural Institutions in Denmark Belgium, Holland, and

ARMY SERVICE FORCES MANUAL

II I -I I I

M 361-9
Civil Affairs

CIVIL AFFAIRS HANDBOOK

BELGIUM
SECTION 9: LABOR

-I

--

HEADQUARTERS,

ARMY SERVICE FORCES,13 DECEMBER 1943

. Dissemination of restricted matter. - The information contained in restricted documents and the essential characteristics of restricted material may be given to any person known to be in the service of the United States and to persons of undoubted loyalty and discretion who are cooperating in Government work, but will not be communicated to the public or to the press except by authorized military public relations agencies. (See also par. 18b, 4R 380-5, 28 Sep 1942.)

NUMBERING SYSTEM OF ARMY SERVICE FORCES MANUALS

The main subject matter of each Army Service Forces Manual is indicated by consecutive numbering within the following categories:

Ml M4100
1200 M4500 M400 M500 1600

M499

1199
M299
M399

1499
M4599

1699

M4700

14799
1899
up

M800 1900 -

Basic and Advanced Training Army Specialized Training Program and PreInduction Training Personnel and Morale Civil Affairs Supply and Transportation Fiscal Procurement and Production Administration Miscellaneous Equipment, Materiel, Housing and Construction

HEADQUARTERS,

ARMY SERVICE FORCES,

Washington, 25, D. C., 13 December .9!3

Army Service Forces Manual M 361-9, Civil Affairs Handbook, Belgium:

Labor has been prepared under the supervision of the Provost Marshal General, and is published for the information and guidance of all concerned.

LSPX

500.7

(18 Nov. 43)J/

By command of Lieutenant

General SOMERVELL:

Major

W. D. STYER, General, General Staff Chief of Staff.

Corps,

OFFICIAL: J. A. ULIO, Major General, Adjutant General.

CIVIL

FF TOP I C A L

OU TL IN E

1. 2. 3. 4.
5. 6.

Geographical

and Social Background

Government- and Administration Legal Affairs Government Finance

Money and Banking Natural Resources

7.
8.
9.

Agriculture Industry and Commerce

Labor

10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

Public Works and Utilities Transportation Systems Communications Public Health and Sanitation Public Safety Education Public Welfare Cultural Institutions

This study on Labor in Belgium was prepared for the Military Government Division of the Office of the Provost Marshal General by the BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS of the U. S* DEPARTMENT OF LABOR, and includes a Supplement on
Labor in Belgium under German Occupation prepared by the LABOR BRANCH of the INDUSTRIAL PERSONNEL DIVISION, ARMY SERVICE FORCES.

INTRODUCTION

Purposes of the Civil Affairs Handbook. The basic purposes of civil affairs officers are (1) to assist the Commanding General by quickly establishing those orderly conditions which will contribute most effectively to the conduct of military operations, (2) to reduce to a minimum the human suffering and the material damage resulting from disorder and (5) to create the conditions which will make it possible for civilian agencies to function effectively. The preparation of Civil Affairs Handbooks is a part of the effort to carry out these responsibilities as efficiently and humanely as possible. The Handbooks do not deal with plans or policies (which will depend upon It should be clearly understood changing and unpredictable developments). They are that they do not imply any given official program of action. rather ready reference source books containing the basic factual information needed for planning and policy making. This study on Labor in Belgium was prepared for the Military Government Division of the Office of the Provost Marshal General by the BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS of the U. S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR, and includes a Supplement on Labor in Belgium under German Occupation prepared by the LABOR BRANCH of the INDUSTRIAL PERSOMNEL DIVISION, ARMY SERVICE FORCES.

OFFICERS USING THIS MATERIAL ARE REQUESTED TO MAKE SUGGESTIONS AND CRITICISMS INDICATING THE REVISIONS OR ADDITIONS WHICH WOULD MAKE THIS MATERIAL MORE USEFUL FOR THEIR PURPOSES. THESE CRITICISMS SHOULD BE SENT TO THE CHIEF OF MILITARY GOVERNMENT DIVISION, PMGO, 25, D. C. 2807

THE LIAISON AND STUDIES BRANCH, MUNITIONS BUILDING, WASHINGTON,

n C C w
c

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page SUMMARY 1

LABOR AND ECONOMIC BACKGROUND

1. EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS

5
6

Pre-war employment
Regional distribution of industry Industrial distribution of the gainfully occupied Distribution by important industries and trades Foreign workers Trend of Employment

6
6 7 8 9 10

Unemployment, pre-war and war

Unemployment relief measures Wartime employment conditions

10
11 12 13 16

Employment conditions after the occupation 2. EMPLOYMENT AGENCIES

German occupation (May 19403.

17
19

WAGES, HOURS, AND WORKING CONDITIONS General level of pre-war wages

Trend of wages 1929 1939

19
20 20 21 21 22 23

After the occupation Factors affecting wages Family allowances Vacations with pay Social-insurance contributions

-i

Page

Pre-war wages by industry and occupation Wages after German occupation Hours of labor

23 29 30

Pre-war hours
Wartime hours Hours in coal mines Wage and hour regulations

30
31 32 32

Pre-war wage regulation

Home workers Regulation after the German occupation Overtime hours and rates of pay Employment of women Employment of young persons 4. LABOR LEGISLATION AND LABOR POLICIES (a) Governmental Ministry administrative and social agencies welfare

32
32 33 36 37 38 39 39 39 40 42 52

of labor

Labor inspection (b) 5. Labor laws and regulations

LABOR ORGANIZATIONS

Pre-war developments
Membership in 1939 and 1940 Dissolution of labor unions and employerst

52
53

associations after the occupation

53

ii

Page 6. INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS Collective agreements Strikes Conciliation and arbitration 7. COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT Pre-war development Consumers' cooperation Agricultural cooperation Trend of development of retail and central associations Consumers' cooperatives just prior to the outbreak 70 56 56 58 59 61

61
66 70

of war
Cooperatives ,during the war Federations in Belgian cooperative movement 8. SOCIAL INSURANCE Summary Invalidity, old age, and death Wage earners Salaried employees Miners Seamen Sickness, maternity, tuberculosis, invalidity, old-age and widows' and orphans'
General system

-71
72 75 74 76 75 75 79 80 82

84
84

Unemployment insurance Trade-union system Seamen -iii-

86 86 88

Page Workmen's compensation General system Seamen 89 89 90

Supplement: I.

Labor in Belgium under German Occupation. 92 92 92 94 94 94 94 95 95 96 97 98 98 99 99 99 100 100 102 102

The Effect of German Occupation A. B. Introduction Curtailment of Industry

II.

Principal Industrial Controls A. Requisitioning and Regulation 1. Central Commodities Office 2. Employer Trade Associations

B. Commissaires

or Management Commissioners

4. Further Industrial and Manpower Control 5. Groupement Principal de l'Artisanat III. IV. The Agricultural Controls Labor Controls A. Agencies of Control 1. Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare 2. Commissioner of Wages and Prices 5. General Labor Regulation Officer 4. Committees of Social Experts 5. B. Labor Exchange & Unemployment Bureau

Private Employment Exchanges 1. German Employment Exchanges

iv

Page C. Compulsory Labor Service 1. D. Belgians Employed in Germany 102 105 104 104 105 105 105 106 106 108 108 109 110 110

Regulation of Wages 1. 2. Decrees of 1940 and 1941 Wages Paid to Belgians in Germany

E.

Regulation of Hours 1. 2. Spreading the Work Lengthening Hours in 1942

F. V.

Social Insurance

Industrial Relationships A. Unions 1. B. C. Strikes

Discontinuance of Joint Relations Discriminatory Measures

C1

ca

TABLES
Page Industrial Distribution of Gainfully Occupied Gainfully Occupied in Mining, Manufacturing and Transportation Number of Insured Unemployed and Time Lost Index Numbers of Wages, Cost of Living, Real Wages 8 11 20 24 29 53 7

Wages in Specified Occupations Average Earnings in Coal Mining Principal Belgian Trade Unions Socialist Unions Affiliated with the Confederation Generale du Travail de Belgigue Strike Activity Number, Membership and Business of NonAgricultural Cooperatives Wage Classes and Contributions under WageEarners Insurance German Labor Decrees in Belgium Belgian Union Affiliated with the International Federation of Unions Membership Figures of Christian Central Unions

55 59

63, 65

76 111

115 117

-vi

#iCLA S F!ED
BELGIUM: LABOR

SUVIARY

Belgium is a highly industrialized country with its production normally geared to the export trade. Prior to the war there were very few industries in which less than a third of the total production was exported and, in almost half, the proportion was over 50 percent. The country has an area of 11,775 square miles, or about the size of Maryland, and in 1937 had a population of 8,361,220, nearly 4 times as great as in that State. Without an active industry the country could not have maintained such a dense population as the lands available for agriculture are not extensive enough to provide food. for the Belgian people. Employment--The gainfully employed population in of the last census, numbered 3,750,285, or 46.4 percent population. Of this number only 637,604 were engaged agriculture, and fishing as compared with 1,570,108 in 221,692 in mines and quarries. Wage earners numbered about 48 percent of the gainfully employed. 1930, the date of the total in forestry, industry and 1,810,408, or

Unemployment.--The industrial expansion in Belgium following the first World War wes checked by the world-wide depression beginning in the middle of 1929, and the effects of the depression were intensified After a short period of in each of the following years up to 1936. revival, unemployment again increased in 1938 and 1939. The high point of unemployment among insured members of the voluntary unemployment insurance funds during the depression was reached in 1934 when 235,000 were unemployed but in January 1940, 241,336 were reported as jobless. By April 1940, the month preqeding invasion, the number of insured unemployed had fallen to 151,112. Immediately after the invasion of the country the number in this group was estimated at 600,000 but in the following months unemployment was reduced as a result of partial economic recovery and the transfer to Germany of a growing number of the unemployed. In some industries, such as coal mining, an actual shortage of labor developed, but in other industries, such as textiles, unemployment became chronic, although the unemployed in all industries formed a reservoir for impressment for work in the Reich. Employment Exchanges.--Employment offices were first established following the Armistice in 1918. The work of the offices was put on a uniform basis in 1924 and was linked with the voluntary unemployment A National Employment insurance funds maintained by the trade unions.

0 <o

-1-

and Unemployment Office was established in 1935, and free employment services for all persons whether or not they were members of an unemployment insurance fund in 1936. Under German occupation the general structure of the employment exchange system was maintained, but in 1940 and 1941 the German employment exchanges set up offices in Belgium, next to the Belgian employment offices, as recruiting centers for German industry. The Belgian offices were instructed to refer all applicants for employment to the recruiting centers. Wages and hours of labor.-Hourly wages of gale industrial workers in 1938 ranged in general from 5 to 7 francs with only a few specialised trades paying more than 7 francs, and unskilled laborers receivThe exchange value of the franc ing, as a rule, from 4i to 5 francs. at that time was roughly equivalent to 3 cents in United States currency so that the general pre-war wage level for male workers was from 15 to 21 cents an hour for most skilled and semiskilled occupations and from 12 to 15 cents for common labor. Wages of female workers were generally lower than for male workers. Wages were frozen at the rates paid on May 10, 1940, the date of the invasion of the country, by a decree of the German occupying authIn May 1941,minimum gross rates of pay were orities in August 1940. fixed for industrial and agricultural workers, and salaried employees. The minimum hourly rate for men in industrial enterprises was 5 Belgian francs and for women, 3.50 francs; cash wages of male agricultural workfrancs per hour and for women, 2.70 francs. The minimum ers were .380 monthly rates for salaried employees were 1,000 francs for men and 800 francs for women. The basic 8-hour day and 48-hour week were made effective in mines and quarries, industrial establishments, commercial offices, etc., in 1921, and for employees in wholesale and retail establishments in 1935. The minimum overtime rate was 14 times the regular rate. Weekly hours in industries in which work is carried on under dangerous, unhealthy, or offensive conditions were fixed at 40 in 1936, and a 5-day, 40-hour week were also provided for in the diamond industry. A 7 -hour day, including travel time, and a 45-hour week for underground work in coal and metal mines were put in effect in 1937. Hours regulations issued by the German Military Command in October 1942 provided for a minimum 8-hour day and a general maximum of 11 hours for men, although longer The maximum hours of women were fixed at hours could be authorized. 10 per day and 8 on Saturdays. Administrative organizations.--The Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare had general supervision of labor matters in Belgium. A Superior Labor and Social Welfare Council was set up within the Ministry in 1935 to deal with questions relating to the regulation of employment and with social insurance and social welfare. Employers, wage-earning
0

-22 .

and salaried employees were represented on the Council. Under the German occupation a General Labor Regulation Officer was appointed under the Ministry with power to regulate conditions of employment other than wages and salaries which were to be fixed by the Wages and Prices Commissioner. Labor organizations.--The principle of trade-union liberty was established in Belgium by an act of 1921. Trade-unions were organized along political or religious lines and the close union between political and trade-union elements is one of the chief characteristics of the trade-union movement. Another distinctive characteristic of Belgian trade-unionism is its close association with mutual benefit societies and cooperative societies. The largest national organization was the General Confederation of Labor of Belgium. The majority of the employers were organized in the Central Industrial Committee. In addition employers in different industries had their own associations. Conciliation and arbitration.--Official conciliation and arbitration committees were first established in 1926. Voluntary committees could also be set up by groups of employers and workers in separate industries or groups of industries. If approved by the Minister of Labor they had jurisdiction over disputes arising between the parties concerned to the exclusion of the official committees. If conciliation failed, recourse was had to arbitration. A distinctive feature of industrial relations in Belgium was the formation of joint industrial committees or councils which the Government encouraged industry to set up. Although the councils had an official character, as they were instituted by decree, they had no legal basis and the Government had no power to make their decisions binding. In 1937 there were about 110 national and regional councils which had been instituted by either royal or ministerial decree. Cooperative movement.-There was no general unified cooperative movement in Belgium although the first cooperative law was passed in 1873. The cooperatives like the traderunion movement were divided along political and religious lines. The cooperatives have taken a wide variety of forms. In 1938 there were 3,482 associations among the nonagricultural cooperatives representing a large number of types of organization. A large proportion of the agricultural cooperatives belonged to the Belgische Boerenbond. All members of the cooperative movement in Belgium have been concerned with the members' cultural and social welfare as evidenced by the Peoples Houses (maisons du peuple) created all over Belgium as community centers and supported by the cooperatives out of their earnings.

5 -

Social insurance.--Compulsory insurance, under State auspices,

against old age and death is provided under different systems for Sickness, mawage earners, salaried employees, miners,and seamen. ternity, tuberculosis, invalidity, old-age and widows' and orphans' insurance is organized on a voluntary basis for members of mutual benefit societies, which are subsidized by the State. Unemployment insurance, subsidized by the State is also organized on a voluntary Compensation is paid for industrial accibasis by the trade-unions. The Belgian laws providing dents and listed occupational diseases. for workmen's compensation, old-age and survivors' insurance, and family allowances were continued by the German occupying authorities.

O CV

LABOR AND ECONOMIC BACKGROUND

In the second half of the nineteenth century industry in Belgium underwent a fundamental change through the greatly increased number of industrial workers and more especially the increase in the amount of motive power. At the beginning of the period of greater industrialization Belgium had an advantage over its continental neighbors because of its flourishing textile industry and the favorable geological conditions for the development of the heavy industries. Thus, Belgium joined England as an industrial exporting country; it also became a country with one of the densest populations in the world, with an agricultural basis that became far too small to support its population. About four-fifths of the grain requirements of the country were normally met by imports. Belgian industries were typical export industries; there were very few industries in which less than a third of the total production was exported and in nearly half the industries of the country the proportion was over 50 percent. The importance of foreign trade for the Belgian economic system is shown by the fact that this small country came immediately behind Great Britain, Germany, and France in the list of European exporting countries. The value of its exports per head of the population were far ahead of those of any other industrial country. However, after the industrial expansion following the first World War, Belgium began to suffer from the competition of countries of more recent industrial development. The country (including the districts of Eupen and Malmedy) has an area of 30,506 square kilometers (11,775 square miles) and in 1937 had a population of 8,361,220. In area it was thus about the size of Maryland but with 4 times the population of that State. Two languages are spoken in the country--French and Flemish. The latter language is used in East and West Flanders and the provinces of Antwerp and Limburg. French was first the official language of the country but in 1898 equality of the two languages was established. Prior to the German invasion there were three principal political parties-Catholics, Socialists, and Liberals--the minority parties being Flemish Nationalists and Communists. A Catholic-Liberal Government with Hubert Pierlot as Prime Minister was in power when war broke out but it was then decided to form a National Government, Mr. Pierlot remaining as Prime Minister but with the Socialists included. The Government-in-exile established in London after the invasion of the country performs the legislative functions normally belonging to Par-

g
C

Sliament.
cq

1.

EMrPLOYMENT CONDITIONS Pre-ar Employment

The latest data regarding the industrial distribution of the pop-

ulation are contained in the 1930 General Census. Of the total population of 8,092,004 in that year,/ 3,750,285 or 46./4 percent were
gainfully occupied. 1,570,108. Forestry, agriculture, and fishing accounted for

637,604 persons; mines and quarries, for 221,692; and industry for
The extent of industrialization is shown by the fact that

approximately 42 percent of the gainfully-occupied persons were employed in industry.

Regional Distribution of Industry

Agricultural production, which is much less important in Belgium than industrial production, is carried out mainly in the lowlands near the coast. Farms are small but intensively cultivated. The principal agricultural products are cereals-wheat, barley, oats, and rye-potatoes and sugar beets.

The southern and eastern parts of the country are hilly and contain most of the industrial centers and mining regions. Coal and iron are the most important mineral products bi t zinc, lead, and copper The production of coal formerly mines are also worked in the Ardennes greatly exceeded the country's needs and part of it was exported, principally to France. The production of industrial coal, particularly for making coke, was deficient, however, and important quantities were imported Before bhe war coal output amounted from Germany and England. to about 2.5 million tons a month, After a drastic reduction in May and June 1940 (i.e. at the time of the German invasion) production began

to rise again and by January 1941

million tons. reports in

had

attained the level of 2.4

Statistics have since been discontinued but unofficial

1942 put the monthly production at about 2 million tons.

Liege, which is important in The principal industrial centers are: the production of metallurgical products and arms manufacture, textiles, Namur, in coal mining, iron and steel tobacco, and leather products; manufacture, glasewares, and soap; and Ghent, in textiles. Antwerp with extensive port facilities is one of the greatest seaports in Europe and is also the center of the diamond cutting industry. In addition it

has sugar refineries, famous for its laces,

distilleries, and textile industries. Bruges i and Brussels, the capital has many manufacturs,

including lace and carpets.

to 8,361,220.

By 1937, it

was estimated,

that

the population had increased

Industrial

Distribution of the Gainfully Occupied

The distribution of the gainfully ocoupied in 1950 in five employment groups, by type of activity and by sex is shown in table 1.

Table l.--Gainfully Occupied Population by Occupational Groups, Sex, and Industrial Status, 1930

Agriculture, Forestry Fishing

Mines and Quarries

Industry

Commerce

Banking,
Insurance (Including hotels)

Transport and Communi-' cation

Total

Total Gainfully employed /

637,604
497,072 140,552

Males Females
Personnel of Establishments A. Managers or employers

221,692 215,299

1,570,108 1,210,590

545,757 315,299

6,393

359,518

228,458

256,105 244,292 11,813

3,750,285 2,757,955 992,330

Males
Females B. Salaried Empl oyees Males

242,840
24,518

1,284
20

161,8)4
33,998

159,816
109,531

18,676
894

584,457
168,761

Females
C. Wage Earners

624 71 117,909 12,554

8,128 497 205,756 5,859

651000 20,056 955,271 292,701

94,553
41,791 42,217 11,635

56,248 5,399 165,627 2,519

224,553

67,814
1,484,780 325,268

Males Females

Unpaid Family Workers

Males Females

135,699 103,589

131 17

30,478 12,763

18,713 65,701

3,7)4 3,001

188,762 184,871

The total includes 275,403 males and 245,616 females in public adminlstra tion, liberal professions, domestic and personal services, and insufficiently des, cribed occupations.

Source:

IUD Yearbook of Labor Statistics,

1942.

-7-

Distribution

by Important

Industries

and Trades

In 1930, (which, as noted above, is the latest date for which such information is available) 2,757,955 or 75.5 percent of the gainfully

occupied workers were males and 992,330. or 26,5 percent, females,

the general population, females formed 50.5 percent of the total. information is available on the number of employed children.

In
No

Belgium produces most of its coal but imports a large proportion of the raw materials used in manufactures. Work in the mining industry is skilled and in addition to the skilled labor enxployed in this industry much of the industrial work in Belgium consists of turning the imported raw materials into finished products, requiring a relatively higher proportion of skilled workers than in countries where employment in the For example, production of raw materials forms a larger part of the total. with crude metals, while 277,970 were employed in only 65,935 were employed Textiles and clothing together accounted the manufacture of metal products. In all industries except textiles and the clothing indusfor 426,920 workers. In the clothing tries, male workers were greatly in excess of females, females outnumbered males by about three to one, industries Details are shown in the following table.

Table 2.-Distribution of Gainfully Occupied Mining, Manufacturing, and Transportation Personnel,

by sex, 1930

Group

Total

Male

Female

Total Mines Quarries Crude metals Metal working Ceramics Glass Chemicals Food Textiles Clothing
Construction

2,047,905 178,850 42,842

1,670,181 173,540 4,959

377,724i

5,510
383 1,529 17,253 4,501 4,912
.10,684

65,935
277,970 36,554 31,517 60,713 113,595 269,286 157,654
230,122

64,406
260,717 32,053 26,.405 50,029 95,791 136,612 38,129
227,982

17,802 132,674 119,505

2,140

Wood and furniture Hides and skins Tobacco

Paper

152,210 65,022 16,186

18,660

1)45,837
148,0.1 7,724
12,478

6,373 14,978 8,1,62

6,182

Books Art and precision instruments Transportation

26,092 50,814 256,105

21,519 412,864 244,292

4,573 7,950 11,813

Cl

i II9i .

i !

...

s1

Foreign Workers There was a considerable movement of workers in pre-war years between Belgium and the neighboring countries of France, the Netherlands, and Germany and the movements of seasonal and daily workers in and out of the frontier zones were governed by individual agreements between these countries and Belgium. In view of the industrial crisis, Belgium in 1930 considered it necessary to take drastic measures to reduce the amount of foreign labor in the country. A decree was issued, in December of that year, which provided that without prejudice to the provisions governing the issuance of passports, foreigners wishing to enter the country as workers must secure authorization from the Minister of Justice through Belgian diplomatic or consular representatives in the country concerned. It was required that applications for entrance should be accompanied by an employment contract with a Belgian employer, a medical certificate from an approved physician, and a certificate of morality, all of which had to be translated into one of the two official languages of the country. Authorization for entry, if granted, was transmitted through the same channels, Identity cards were issued to foreign workers, and without such cards no employer could employ such workers except under a permit of the Minister of Labor nor could an alien worker change his employer, trade, or occupation without permission under an order issued February 15, 1935. It was also provided that the Minister of Labor and Social Welfare could fix the quota of foreign workers for each branch of industry with a view to the possible substitution of involuntarily unemployed Belgian workers for any surplus of foreign workers. The identity cards were issued as employment permits the fee for which was fixed by the Minister. The special documents for frontier workers residing abroad which permitted them to work in the Belgian frontier zones served in place of employment permits provided they were endorsed by the competent authorities in accordance with the treaties concluded between Belgium and the neighboring States. Authorization for

employment of foreigners in shipping was issued in the form of a seaman's

card by the maritime superintendent, The proportion of foreign workers who could be employed in coal mining in the Province of Hainault was fixed by an order of August 23, 1935, after consultation with the employers' and workers' organizations. It was provided that workers discharged as a result of the order might not be employed in any other undertaking. The quota system which was found to be too rigid and difficult to apply was abolished by an order of March 31, 1936. As a substitute for the quota system individual licenses were issued to employers and workers. The occupational activities of foreign workers were further regulated by an order of November 16, 1939, which provided that any alien carrying on a trade, occupation, or other gainful activity must have a residential permit or a visa giving the right to travel in Belgium. This order also instituted a Committee of Economic Inquiry for Aliens which had power to hear complaints.
- 9 -

Trend of

ployment_

Belgium has never published figures showing changes in employment as has been the practice in most of the industrial countries. However, the periodic reports on unemployment (see below) reflect of course the trend of employment opportunities. In general, it appears that after the first World War there was a considerable industrial expansion accompanied by improvements in industrial equipment so that productive capacity was considerably increased. The increase in industrial activity continued up to the beginning of the depression in 1929. As the depression deepened various means were employed to keep as many workers on the job as possible. Overtime was reduced to a minimum and hours were reduced in many establishments either by shortening the working day or reducing the number of days worked. Night work was abolished in some cases and the two-shift system was given up in some industrial areas. By March 1935, the intensification in the slump in production was accompanied by a financial crisis which brought about a change of Government. The new Government took various steps to improve the economic situation among which were a devaluation of the franc to 72 percent of the gold parity, measures for price control, and the institution of a public works program. As a result of these and other measures business conditions and, consequently, employment conditions improved. In the latter part of 1937, however, there was again a general decline in industrial activity brought about partly by the unsettled world conditions and partly by the competition from the growing industrialization of Thus, the shortcountries which were formerly mainly agricultural. term period of industrial revival was terminated in spite of the stimulus of world-wide rearmament.

Unemployment,

Pre-War and War

As noted above the effects of the depression which began in the middle of 1929 were intensified in each of the following years up to 1936. Conditions improved in 1936 and 1937, but unemployment again inUnemploycreased in 1938 and 1939 prior to the outbreak of the war. reflect the ment figures published by the Belgian Government do not full volume of unemployment as the figures cover only insured members of the voluntary unemployment-insurance funds. This insurance system is built around the trade-unions and it is probable that unemployment However, the was relatively greater among the unorganized workers. that days of unemsecond column of the table showing the percentages ployment were to the total possible working days of insured members during the period covered, indicate a serious unemployment situation Thus in 1932, the perduring the whole decade preceding the war. centage of unemployed days was 23.5, and at the low point in 1937, was still 13.1. Thereafter, the percentage of unemployment rose, and in September 1939, when the war in Europe began, was 20.5.
S10

- 10

Table

3. Number of Insured .Unemployed and Percentage of Possible Working Time Lost, 1929 to April 1940. Unemployed

Daa(insured
1929 1930 1931 1932 1933
1934

UnsrPer

)/

Days of

Unemployment en 2
1.9

'13:,000
36,000 110,000
211,000 210,000 235,000

5.4
14.5

1935

'.210,927
154,038 125,929 173,13 195,211 Ll, 336 213,616 163, 162 151,112

1936
1937 1938 1939 1940: January February March April

23.5 20.5 23.4 21.7 16.2 13.1 17.6 18.8 23.0 20.5

1/ Daily average during the month. Percentage of total possible working days of insured workers during the, month. Une ,loprnent Relief Measures. In 1934, the Minister of Labor and Social Welfare was empowered to use national emergency funds for grants to local authorities and public bodies for the employment 'of unemployed workers on relief works and for their retraining. These orders laid down conditions under which the subsidies would be granted but a circular of June 7, 1935, issued by the new Government repealed tese provisions and provided that the distribution of subsidies was to. be .under the jurisdiotion of the Minister of Public Works and Reemployment and subsidies were to be granted only for -necessary and useful publio .

:wors

An Economic Recovery Offie was established in April 1935 to coordinate recovery measures, and public works were provided for in both the ordinary and extraordinary budgets of 1936, 'Effrts were made to substitute manual labor for machinery in the execution of public works but this did not prove economic so the policy -of restricting the use of machinery was abandoned. Employment centers for young unemployed workers were set up by an order of September, 1935.

X11,..

tiNCLtSS

IFuEJ

Steps were taken to speed up the execution of public works in the summer of 1935 and a circular of August:.provided to t public works subsidies would no longer be restricted to local authorities but would be In February 1936, it granted to other public bodies and institutions. was estimated by the Minister. of Public Works that from 30 .to..40 percent
of the unemployed had been placed in new employment between February

1935 and February

A National

1936.

Employment and Unemployment Office was set up by an

order of July 1935, to centralize the supervision of the measures to combat unemployment, and to establish connection between the organizaThe need was felt also tion of employment and unemployment measures. for a statistical service capable of providing the authorities at any

given moment with the necessary information about the unemployed population.

During 1936

it

became increasingly apparent that the absorption of

YWhile

the unemployed was not solely a question of industrial recovery.

some industries-coal and textiles, for example-reported an'actual shortage of help at the year end, a good many persons remained on relief rolls who were credited to those industries but could not be employed on workers, also, appeared account of age ,or loss of skill.. :,Intellectual
to be experiencing a more or less permanently narrowed ffield as a result of these light, In the of economies, introduced during the depression. factors, therefore, there was a continued emphasis.on public works, on

which expenditures. continued in excess of 2 billion francs yearly. The Government announced, also, that it would study the question .of.advancing the pension age in certain industries where conditions were especially difficult with a view to increasing the opportunities for labor, An increase in the compulsory school age. to 16,,years- had already been provided for and took effect during the- year.

Wartime Employment Conditions During the first weeks following mobilization ,there was a serious The number of unemployed increased by 140 perincreqse in unemployment
Cent in the 3,weeks following August 26, 1939, but during the . next month pre-mobilization wasin the: d.iamond printing textiles, the number of , unemployed fell to 16 percent below the The greatest unemployment during, this, period figure. and clothing making, quarries, glass building, trade, At the same time there was trades, and, in :the ports.

.a .shortage .of labor There was ..a special problem in the frontier coal-mining industry. suddenly thrown out of ones where 20,000 workers employed in France wee was reopened on September work, but the. situation improved when the frontier

in

,the

'the In September 1939,

managing 'comnttee of

the

General Council of the

National Employment and Unemployment Office was suspended, 'by a ,royal order, This action was a temporary the committee remaining as an advisory body. measure taken under the powers of the act of June 16, 1937, for the mobilization of the country. A ministerial order of August 1939, concerning the

engagement of unemployed workers provided that if the local authorities

of public assistance committees found themselves in financial difficulties'the National Employment and Unemployment Office could subsidize the daily wage paid to unemployed persons employed in public works at a rate varying from 11.50 to 15 francs. In general such work could not last more than 2 weeks for one person. Public works were coordinated under an Interdepartmental Committee in September 1939, by the Minister of Public Works and Re-employment. The Committee was to carry out a

study of general public works policy, and examination of all questions relating to public works, and the preparation of statistics of public
works, with special reference to their effect on employment.

Employment .Conditions

after the Occupation

Immediately after the invasion of the country in May 1940 the total number of unemployed was estimated at about 600,000, but in the

following months unemployment was reduced as a result of partial economiic recovery and the transfer to Germany of a growing number of the unemployed. The decline in unemployment, however, varied widely according
to industry. In some industries, such as coal mining, the subordination of the Belgian economy to the economy of Germany stimulated production and by the beginning of 1941 led to a shortage of labor aggravated by the departure of some of the foreign workers who had been employed in

Belgian mines before the war.

In

other industries such as textiles,

un-

employment became chronic chiefly owing to the shortage of raw materials, The number of unemployed reported by the National Employment and Unemployment Office in April 1940 was 151,112. In January 1941, the

number had increased to 244,84 but by April of that year the number
of unemployed had again declined to about 151,000. The greatest improvement in employment was in the coal-mining and the iron and steel industries. Unskilled workers at that time formed the largest group of

tie

unemployed. The German occupying authorities at first attempted to pursuade

unemployed Belgian workers to register voluntarily for work in Germany but when this attempt was unsuccessful compulsion was exerted, first by taking away the relief cards of the workers, ard later (March and October 1942) by orders providing that labor service was compulsory for Belgian workers throughout the territory of the Reich. The order applied to men between the ages of 18 and 50 years and women between Pressure was put on employers to replace 21 and 35 years of age.

younger workers by old unemployed workers and it was demanded that specialized and skilled workers should be replaced by women, especially in tr a n sp or t , p o st of f i c e s , an d c ommer ce*

15

The employment of Jews in any public office, either State or local, in a professional capacity, as teachers, or in newspaper or broadcasting enterprises was prohibited by an order issued in December 1940. By an order of March 1942 and regulations issued in May, working conditions governing the work of Jews were placed on the same footing as those in force in Germany. The regulations provided that Jewish workers could receive pay only for work performed, all bonuses, sick pay, or other extra compensation being denied them; they were to be employed only in groups, and if employed away from home were to be housed in separate centers. In order to prevent the dismissal of workers on account of lack of work an order of May 1941 provided that establishments employing more than 5 workers could introduce a system of short-time work if Allowances were notice was given to the district employment office. payable to workers if the hours of work were reduced to not less than 30 percent or more than 75 percent of their normal hours and wages were less than a specified amount. General supervision of industry was placed in the hands of a General Labor Regulation Officer by an order of June 1941. This officer had power to regulate conditions of employment other than wages and salaries. Labor Regulation officials had the right of entry into workplaces and could require employers and workers to supply any information and submit any documents the officials might require. The employment of non-German workers whose services were required in Belgian industries taken over by the German authorities was regulaIt was required that engageted by an order issued in January 1942. through the employment office and direct enment should be effected Wage earners gagement by the head of an undertaking was prohibited. the area of one emand salaried employees were forbidden to move from ployment office to that of another without the permission of the Army High Command and contracts of employment could not be terminated by the employer or worker without the consent of the employment office. In March 1942 an order issued by the German occupation authority reserved to itself the right to order the total or partial closing down of undertakings as a means of creating reserves of manpower to meet German needs. Persons thrown out of work by such measures were to receive dismissal allowances. The Military Command for Belgium and Northern France issued an order in December 1942 applicable to the whole of the military district which made it an offense to damage the interests of the German occupying power by ceasing work otherwise than by the regular termination of the

14

contract of employment, to dismiss salaried employees or workers or to incite others to cease work or dismiss workers, or to disturb peaceful

relations in any way. Penalties were provided for infringements of the orders of the
German authorities ranging from fines to the death penalty.

After compulsory registration was put in effect increasing numbers were deported to Germany and in August 1943 it wts reported that more than 500,000 men and women had been deported. They were being sent to_
the Reich by the trainloads and there dispersed to labor camps where they are visited by labor officers who inspect-them to measure their size and estimate their strength. Declared "suitable," they are taken.

away and usually sent to towns which are normal military targets for
They receive ro holidays and their normal working day allied bombers. is 12 hours, sometimes extended to 14 and 16 hors.

C.

-15-

2. EMPLOYMENT AGENCIES
Employment offices under the name of "Bourses du Travail" were established in Belgium by the national relief committee immediately following the Armistice in 1918. A royal decree dated February 19, 1924, which was designed to put the work of these offices on a uniform basis, was the first order to be issued relating to the work of employment offices in Belgium. The decree provided that the placement of workers should be effected through public employment offices and other offices approved by the Government and under its control. The offices were placed by the decree under the jurisdiction of the Minister of Labor. The Minister also had authority to fix the conditions under which approval was granted to offices organized through private initiative or by public authorities. One or more joint supervisory committees, made up of an equal number of representatives of the employers' and workers' organizations controlled the employment activities of the individual offices. The joint supervisory committees were empowered by agreement, to fix for each industry the rate of wages below which the office would not consent to place workers. In the case of a strike an exchange would continue to furnish workers for the establishment if it was requested to do so but those seeking work were informed as to the strike when they were notified of the offers of employment in such establishments. A joint committee for the engagement of seamen, with headquarters at Antwerp, was instituted by a royal order of January 20, 1926. The committee, consisting of an equal number of representatives of shipowners and of seamen, appointed by the Minister of Railways, Marine, Posts, Telegraphs, Telephones, and Aviation, had supervision of the operations of seamen's employment exchanges. The services of the offices were provided for persons belonging to the subordinate ratings, exclusive of deck and engine room officers. The employment exchange system was linked by the 1924 order with the voluntary unemployment insurance funds maintained by the tradeunions. However, a royal decree of July 27, 1934, placed the employment and unemployment offices under the direct supervision of the State. At least 1 and not more than 3 offices were to be set up in each province. Sub-offices might be established in the communes under the control and supervision of the employment and unemployment office within the area of which they were established. When the National Employment and Unemployment Office attached to the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare, was established in 1935, it was given general charge of the organization and management of the employment exchange and unemployment services as well as supervision of the private

-16-

-16-

1i

i1, a

I i t o

employment exchanges. The powers and duties of the office were exercised by a general council on which there was joint representation of the most representative employers' and employees' organizations, together with members having special knowledge of economic and social matters, and a managing committee of 6 persons appointed by the Crown from among the members of the General Council. Free employment exchange services for all persons whether they were members of an umemployment society or not was provided for under an order of May 25, 1936. This order provided that employment exchanges set up by private initiative might be approved by the Minister of Labor and Social Welfare if they satisfied certain conditions and if they provided for free placing of all workers without distinction. This order also provided that a medical board should be set up in connection with each regional office for the purpose of the medical examination of insured unemployed persons where necessary. An examination might be required if an insured unemployed person claimed to be physically unfit for an employment offered to him. The latest data available on the operation of the public employment offices are for October 1939. In that month 10,621 placements were made, a considerably larger number than in any other month of the year. Total placements from January to October 1939 numbered 73,114.

German Occupation(May 1940-

Under German Occupation the general structure of the Belgian employment exchange system was maintained, but, as in Germany itself, the system was converted more and more into a mechanism for labor control. The steps taken were briefly as follows: The title of the Old National Employment Office was changed to the National Employment and Supervision Office but later, in April 1941, the old title of National Employment Office was restored. An order of April 4, 1941 provided that every head of an undertaking who employed, even temporarily, 50 or more intellectual or manual workers should engage his employees through the National Employment Office. Such an employer might specify by name the workers whom he wished to engage and the manager of the regional office was legally required to comply with his request. It was also required that any changes occurring in the staff of such an undertaking from any cause should be reported to the regional office and notification made of the candidates hired and of the reasons for which other candidates were not engaged. If a worker were dismissed the employer was required to issue to him immediately a certificate of dismissal giving the real reason for the discharge. The provisions of this latter order

- 17 --

did not apply to agricultural workers, domestic servants, nor to actors, musicians and entertainers but fee-charging employment agencies which were already in existence and were authorized to continue operations could continue to serve such persons. The order of April 10, 1941, defined the duties of the National Employment Office as follows: To advise and direct workers in their search for employment, to place them in employment, and to assist them to improve their occupational skill; in carrying out its work the Office was to take into consideration the necessities of regional and national economic life, the requirements of particular undertakings, and the interests of the workers themselves, having due regard to their family situation and their general physical and occupational capacity. National placement services might be set up for certain industries or occupations specified by the Head of the Ministry of Labor and National Service on the recommendation of the Director-General of the National Office. Employers who, as a rule, employed more than 5 workers were bound to supply the National Employment Office when requested with all information regarding the composition of their staff and the work of The physical and occupational qualities of applitheir undertakings. cants for work were to be "accurately ascertained" by the Office, and special attention was to be paid to assisting young workers in their search for employment and in acquiring the necessary occupational skill. Grants might be made for the further training or occupational rehabilitation of workers. The order further provided that employers of more than 5 persons might be required to dismiss workers who were unmarried, or were widowers or divorced and had no children and replace them by persons with the same occupational classifications who had children dependent upon them. Workers who were dismissed for this reason were not entitled to the notice or the compensation in lieu of notice provided for by the legisBoth employers and workers lation concerning employment contracts. might appeal against decisions for dismissal but the appeal would not suspend the carrying out of the decision.

During 1940 and 1941 the German employment exchanges set up offices
in Belgium, next to the Belgian employment offices, as recruiting centers for German industry. The employment offices were instructed to refer all applicants for employment to the recruiting centers. However, the number of workers who voluntarily accepted employment was small and many of those who went to Germany later returned to their homes, either with or without authorization.

-a

-18

3. WAGES,

HOURS, AND WORKING CONDITIONS

General Level of Pre-War Wages

In 1938 hourly wages of male industrial workers ranged, in general, from 51 to 7 francs, with only a few specialized trades paying more than 7 francs, and unskilled laborers receiving, as a rule, from Assuming that the Belgian franc at that time was 41 to 5 francs. roughly equivalent to 3 cents in United States currencyf this would make the general pre-war wage level for male workers in Belgium from 15 to 21 cents per hour for most skilled and semiskilled occupations, and from 12 to 15 cents for common labor. Wages for female workers were very generally lower than for males. Wages did not show any decided variation as between different industrial areas.

,/ the lack domestic standard

This assumption is necessarily extremely crude, because of of significance in foreign exchange rates as measures of purchasing power after the general abandonment of the gold in the early thirties.

The par value of the Belgian franc (i. e., its value in United States currency) prior to and during the first World War was 19.3 cents. In 1926, the franc which had fallen to an exchange value of 2.72 cents was stabilized, the paper money relinked to gold, and a new currency unit--the belga--equivalent to 5 francs was introduced. The franc remained the basis of the monetary system, however, and is the medium of exchange in all domestic business, the belga being used In March 1936, the franc only in foreign exchange transactions. was fixed at 72 percent of the gold parity. The average exchange value of the belga in United States currency in 1936 was 16.917 cents, For the portion of 1940 for which or 3.383 cents for the franc. quotations are available, the exchange value of the belga was 16.880 cents, or 3.376 cents for the franc.

- 19 -

F1[D Te oWLgSSI
Trend f Wag~res 1929139
There was a general decline in wages starting with the depression which began in 1929 and reaching its culmination in 1935. Real wages did not decline accordingly, however, as there was also a decline in the cost of living, the cost-of-living index number in 1935 having dropped to 95 (1929 = 100). The index number of real wages in that year according to the figures presented in the 1942 International Labor Office Yearbook of Statistics was 102, so that in spite of the fall in money wages, real wages were still above the 1929 level. After 1935, wages began to increase and in 1939 the index numbers of money wages and real wages were 104 and 112, respectively. Index numbers of money wages, real wages, and cost of living from 1929 to 1939 are shown in table 1.

Table l.--Index Numbers of Money Wages, Cost of Living, and Real Wages in Belgium, 1929-1939.

Year Money wages 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 100 106 99 91 88 84

Index numbers Cost of living 3.00 104 93 84 83 79 Real wages 100 102 106 108 107 106

1935 1936 1937 1938

1939

81 88 97 103
104

80 85 92

102 104 106

94
93

110
112

Source: International Labor Office. Labor Statistics, 1942.

Yearbook of

After the Occupation

Living costs rose rather sharply after the invasion and occupation of the country by the Germans. The index for the first 9 months of 1940 (first half of 1939 = 100) was 110 and in May 1941, 173. Money wages did not increase and, as a result, real wages declined sharply. The index for 1940 was 95 and for June 1941, 68.

20 -

-'j

Factors

Affecting Wages

by a social

The actual value of Belgian wages prior to the war was affected system of family allowances, by paid vacations, and by certain insurance payments.

Family Allowances Family allowances were paid as early as 1915 in the Belgian coal mining industry and various family allowance funds were set up in subsequent years in private industry. It was not until 1928 that legislation was enacted making family allowances compulsory for both wageearning and salaried employees in State undertakings, and setting up a Family Allowance Board in the Ministry of Industry, Labor and Social Welfare. A general compulsory system for private industry was established by a law of August 4, 1930, which required membership of all employers in an approved equalization fund, The law was modified and extended by subsequent legislation. Contributions by employers were based on the number of employees without regard to the number of children in the families of the workers. The contributions varied according to the cost-of-living index and were increased or decreased by decree. In April 1938, the daily rates were 1.10 francs for each man and 0.60 franc for each woman employed and a monthly lump-sum contribution was made if at least 23 days were worked in the month.

Allowances were paid for children up to the age of 18 years, unless employed, and indefinitely for children who were physically or mentally defective, The minimum allowances reported in 1938 were an follows:
Francs er day First child Second child Third child Fourth child Fifth and each subsequent child Two years after allowances were still 0.80 1.40 2.25 3.50 Francs pper month 20.60 35.00

58.00
98.00 124.00

4.95

the German invasion it being paid.

was reported that

family

C-)

0o

-21

Vacations with Pay The law of July 8, 1936, established vacations with pay for workers in mines and quarries; manufacturing and commercial enterprises; building; public works; public utilities; shipbuilding; warehousing and loading at ports, stations, etc.; land, air, and water transportation within the country; theaters, hotels, and restaurants, etc.; hospitals and insane asylums; public services; and maritime fishing; and to all related services in the different industries. A royal decree of July 1938 laid down the rules of application of the act to agricultural, horticultural, and forestry undertakings. Seamen of subordinate ratings in the merchant marine were granted paid vacations by the terms of an agreement concluded in 1937 under the auspices of the Professional Mercantile Council, The vacations of seamen, after 1 year'a qualifying service, ranged from 1 to 6 days according to the number of days of actual service during the year. The 1936 law applied to establishments employing at least 10 persons but by an order of May 7, 1937, the number of employees was reduced to 5, and by a law of August 20, 1938, it was extended to cover all undertakings without regard to the number of employees, Workers were entitled after 1 year'a service with the same employer in the specified industries to at least 6 days' vacation with pay. For young persons under the age of 18 on the date on which the right to a holiday was acquired the vacation period was doubled. The 1936 decree provided that the right to a paid vacation was to be extended by a special decree to industrial or commercial branches where the work was of a seasonal nature. The 1938 law changed the provision under which an employee had to be employed for 1 year by the same employer and instituted a stamp system. The holiday remuneration was constituted by means of holiday stamps which were affixed on each occasion of payment of wages and at least once a month to the holiday cards which were established by the first employer in the name of each worker concerned. The contribution by the employer was 2 percent of wages.

Employees received their regular remuneration for the vacation period paid through the special funds for specified industries and groups of industries or through the National Auxiliary Fund for Holidays with Pay which was established by the 1938 decree. This fund was placed under the management of the General Savings and Old-Age Pension Fund.
The original law provided that employees should acquire the right to annual leave notwithstanding any agreement to the contrary and it was not lawful for an employee to forego the leave to which he was en-

titled.

22 -

.wet
To meet the situation resulting from general mobilization a decree of August 29, 1939, provided that the Government could suspend the operation of the law either for a single undertaking or a whole branch of industry, but no use of this power was made in 1939. Repatriated prisoners of war were to receive, in returning to the country, a special holiday of 3 months' duration reckoned from the first day of the month following that in which they returned to Belgium, according to an order issued April 20, 1942. During this leave such persons were considered to be on service for the purposes of remuneration and of medical and pharmaceutical service. The purpose of the order was to give these men opportunity to regain their health and find it easier to be reabsorbed in national life, The detailed administration of the order defined by one of August 8, 1942, provided that, if necessary, convalescent leave might be granted immediately following the special leave. Social-Insurance Contributions In the general insurance system covering invalidity, old age, and death, contribuicus are based on wage classes, employees paying monthly contributions varying from 2.50 francs to 12,50, while in the salaried employees system the contribution amounts to 3 percent of the salary Miners pay 4 percent of up to a maximum salary of 18 000 francs. wages, and ordinary seamen 2 percent of wages in the separate systems Contributions vary in the mutual benefit maintained for these groups. societies which insure for sickness, maternity, tuberculosis, invalidity, cntribution in the voluntary old age, and death, while the In unemployment funds maintained by the trade-unions was 3 francs * return for their contributions a large proportion of the wage earners are insured against these various contingencies.

maxntr

Pre-Wr Wages by Industry and Occupation The folowing table shows the wage rates paid in various occupations in mines, building construction, stevedoring, manufacturing industries, and domestic service as of March 31, 1938.

23 -

Table 2.-Wages in Specified Occupations in Belgium, March 31, 1938, Wage rate (in francs) Per da 53.00

Industry and occupation

-----auar~-~-r~ --------I

Coal minim Workers at the face Underground workers Surface workers Underground and surface workers Building construction Slate layers Slate layers' helpers Asphalt workers Asphalt workers' helpers Stonecutters Concrete workers Concrete workers' helpers Cement workers and bricklayers Carpenters and concrete-foundation workers Marble workers Laborers Painters Plasterers Plumbers Plumbers' helpers Marble polishers

48.50
36.40

44.60
Per hour

2/6.00
4.00-/4.500
216.00

4.50-4.75

6.50
.70 5./

4.70-x,..755

1/6.00
6.25-6.50

306.6
3.50-4.00 5.75 Per 7-hour shift 72.00

Dockorkers, port of Antwee

Stevedores (week days): Regular day shift Night shift Stevedores (Sundays and holidays): Regular day shift (Sunday-Monday) Night shift Drivers (week days): d Truck drivers Tractor drivers Night shift Drivers (Sunday and holidays):

108.00 128,00
134.75 Per week 387.00

377.00

Per shift 96.00

Day shift
Night shift Watchmen, 8 hours Watchmen, 12 hours

:10.50 119.25

45.00
67.00

24

Table 2.-Wages in Specified Occupations in Belgii, March 31, 193 3Continued.

Industry

and

occupation

Wage rate (in francs) Per dam 41.00-47.75

Glass Industr
Casting hall and

furnace hU
42.30-51.95 42.30
51,45

Batch-hose foremen Furnace-hal-l men Rouh gasscutters Pot house: Pot makers

Mill
Batch

operators

39,55
38.10
42.40

mixers

Grinding and polishing shop:

Grinder-machine operators Machine operators

Machinists Cement industr Laborers
Chief mixers

42.45 45.55
Per hour

4.91
6.00

Masons

Skilled workers
Metal industries Mechanical construction: Machine-tool operatives :

6.49 5.80-7..

Boring-machine
Metal

hands

Cuttingpress operators

6.45-7.75 6.25-7.45
5.30-6o25

stampers

Drill operators
Tool

5,55-6,25 6.60-7,o75

makers

Planing-machine Lathe hands Hand workers:

Fitters,

men

6.65-7.80

6.25-7,45
6.60-7.60 6.40-7.05 4.60-5.20 6.5-7.90
)/7.50

mechanics

Laborers Blacksmiths Tool and die makers Foundry: Founders Laborers Grinders Iron molders Bench molders Core makers Boiler shops, structural steel: Fitters. Smiths, iron and copper
Stampers

6.25-6.90 4.65-5.55

5.70--6.45

6.60--7.75 6 .4.5-7.20

6.457.45
5.30-5.95 6.30--6.95 5.35-x6.05

and

filers
-

laborers
25
-

4.65-5,.55

Table 2.-Wages

Specified Occupations in Belgium,

38-Continued.

March 31,

Industry and occupation

Wage rate

Metal industries-Cont V
Boiler shops, structural steel-Con, Riveters Arc welders Sheet-iron workers and wire drawers Tube-mill workers Enameling and tin-plate mills: Cutters-out ad stampers

(in francs) Per hour 5.60-6.70 7 .45-.70 6.25-6.95 5.70-6.95 5.35-6.25 5.70-6.25 6.35-6.95 6.25
4.65-5055

Enamelers
Tinsmiths Galvanizers Laborers Enamel workers, female Stove works, locksmiths, electricity: Stove makers Lockamiths, fitters Coil winders, electric, and electrical engineers Coil winders and other female labor

3.30-3.60 5.35-6.25 5.20-6.25 lt' 5.85 3.10 5.85 4.10

640

Electrical

fitters:
plants:

Skilled

Unskilled
Heating-apparatus

Jitters,

skiled

solderers

Laborers, skilled Laborers, unskilled Textile inductiJ

5.90
4.90

Sorters, female
Washers, male Combers, female

4.16

4.16
3.98 5.65-6.89

Spinners, male
Carders, male Twisters, female Warpers, male Weavers, male Finishers, male Finishers, female Weavers, cotton, male

5.53
4.22-5.75

6.47
5.82

4.46
3.98

Weavers,

wool, male

230.00

80.00
4.47

Dyers, male

26 -

Table 2.-Wages in Specified Occupations in Belgium, March 31, 1938-Continued. Industry and occupation
'-C-SIII ~--~ssl~- --IPp--

Wage rate

(in francs) ~s
Per hour 3.00

Clothing industriees Machine sewers, female Ladies' tailors, male Men's tailors, male
Dressmakers, female

5.50-6.00 5.25

4 50

Food indutre
Males:

Biscuit makers Chocolate makers Confectionery makers Laborers, biscuit, chocolate, confectionery Bakers, bench Sugar factory laborers Flour-mill laborers
Brewers, beer

5.00-6.25 5.50-6.25
5.50-6.50

4.25-4.75
6.30

4.35-/495
4.95 5.25-5.60 5.50-6.70 3.30-4.00 2.50-3.00 3.20-3.55

Butchers Females: Candy dippers Biscuit-factory workers and packers Sugar-factory workers and packers Wood and funiture industries Mattress makers Carpenters and upholsterers Painters Sawyers, cutters-out

V/

6.00

6.60 ' 6.20 J 6.85

Hide and leather industry

Shoe factories:
Assemblers, hand

5.58-6.68
6.78-7.88

Assemblers, machine Cutters and broachers Machine stitchers Polishers Heel makers Assemblers, hand, and packers, female Pounce's and grinders, varnishers, female Tanneries: Skin dyers and bleachers (gloves) Skin finishers Tanners, skilled

5.58--7.18
5.93-7.13 5.93-7.93 5.58-6.93

3.92-4.05 3.92-4.30
7.00 6.00-6.50 5.25-6.75 4.004. 50

Laborers

27 -

Table 2.--Wages in Specified Occupations in Belgium, March 31,'1938-Continued. Wage rate (in francs) __ ~ ___ Per week

Industry and occupation

_ _

Book and

pper

ndustry

Book printing:
Stitchers and binders, female Lithographers, male Typographers, male printers, male 0ff-set Binders and trimmers, male Paper mills: Winders, calenderers, and finishers Cutters Dryers Laborers, male 189.30 333.75 329.75 196.30 326.75 Per hour

4.75-5.30

4.30-4.80 4.00-4.30

4.00-4.30

Tobacco industry
Cigarette makers, female Cigar makers, male Tobacco cutters, male Laborers Laborers, female
eomesti

3.10-3.50

3.50-6.00 5.25
5.00

3.06-3.50 Per monh

500-700 500-700

service

Cooks, female Servants Chambermaids Maids of all work

300-500 300-400

1/ d
}f

Minimum rate. A bonus of 5 francs is paid for the morning shift and 10 francs for the afternoon shift.

Per

week.

28 -

,tc#

Table 3 shows the average earnings per shift in coal mining, by occupation, for the years 1929 to 1959,

Table 3.--Average Earnings per Shift in by Occupation.

Coal

Mining,

All workers Cutters

Underground Surface

Years franc
1929 47.78
franc

workers
francs
53.95

workers francs
37.30

58.84

1930
1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939

51.91
44.04 38.01 36.64 38.41 35.69 38.46 46.13 49.54 49.05

63.04
52.74 45.00 43.36 42.69 42.10 45.70 55.96 60.77 60.72

57.23
48.25 41.61 40.02 39.66 38.84 41.83 50.08 53.75 53.22

39.75
34.50 30.33 29.37 29.45 28.90 31.41 37.48 40.02 39.71

Including cutters.

Wages after

German Occupation

Wages were frozen at the rates paid on May 10, 1940, the date of the invasion of the country. In the case of diamond workers new rates were established by a joint decree issued by the Commissioner of Prices and Wages and the Secretary General of the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare the wage schedThe decree provided that of January 1941. in the latter part ule fixed for diamond workers in November 1937, plus a 15-percent increase,

should apply as minimum wages to

apprentices. in

all

persons employed in

the industry,

except

Workmen paid by the day who perform operations

not mentioned

the schedule were to receive wages corresponding to those paid on May 10, 1940, plus 15 percent. The minimum remuneration for 40 hours of work was fixed at 280 francs, or a proportionate amount for less than 40 hours. The wages paid Belgian workers in Germany range from 0.65 mark to 1 mark per hour, depending on the type of work, for single men. 'Married men receive separation allowances of 1.50 marks a day. Housing and main-

tenance allowance of 17.50 marks to 18 marks .a week are paid. Deductions, for welfare organizations, insurance, and war savings range from 171 to
24 percent of the gross wages per week. fied in the contract. Such deductions are not speci-

29 -

Hours of Labor
Pre-war Hours An act to provide for a basic $-hour day and a 48-hour week was passed in Belgium in 1921. These limits could be exceeded by collective agreement but hours of work in excess thereof were to be paid for at not less than i4 times the regular rate. The law covered mines and quarries, industrial establishments, commercial offices, public works, public utilities, building and construction, shipbuilding and repair, land transport, loading and warehousing, and dairies and cheese factories. It was provided that within 1 year of the coming into operation of the act its provisions should be applied, with possible modifications, to retail shops, hotels and restaurants, and commercial undertakings. Saturday half holidays with longer hours on other days of the week were allowed by agreement between a majority of employers and workers in an industry. The reduction in hours resulting from the act could not involve a reduction in wages. In continuous processes longer hours were allowed but not to exceed 56 hours a week averaged over a 3-week period. However, it was required that compensatory holidays should be given the total duration of which should not be less than 26 full days in the year. 1 40-hour week in industries or branches of industries in which work is carried on under dangerous, unhealthy, or offensive conditions was instituted by a law of July 9, 1936. Industries in this category were to be so declared after consultation with the joint boards of the industries concerned or the most representative organizations of employers and workers, thus providing for a gradual reduction in hours. An order issued by the Minister of Labor and Social Welfare on May 15, 1935, provided that members of the staff, other than office employees, of establishments engaged in wholesale and retail trade should be subject to the act of June 14, 1921, instituting the 8-hour day and the 48-hour week. In the diamond industry a 5-day, 40-hour week was provided for by an order of March 30, 1936. The joint committee for the industry agreed upon a transitional period ending April 1, 1937, during which a 44-hour week could be worked. The order applied both when the work was carried on as homework and in workshops. For persons working in successive shifts in necessarily continuous operations in automatic sheet-glass works a law of December 22, 1936, provided that a system of at least 4 shifts must be followed and the working hours might not exceed 8 per day and 42 per week, averaged over Also, the interval between two spells a period not exceeding 4 weeks. might not be less than 16 hours, except on the occasion of the periodical change-over of shifts.

0 -

After a threatened strik, because of the alleged slowness of the Government in reducing hours in coal mines an order of January 26, 1937, provided for a 74-hour day, including travel time, and a 45-hour

week for underground work in

coal mines.

A similar order was issued

for underground work in metal mines on May 24, 1937. During 1937 the coal miners continued to demand a further reduction in hours to 42 a week, although they stated they were prepared to accept excep-

tions for the purpose of

reconstituting and maintaining stocks of

coal. The employers opposed such a reduction on the ground that the Belgian coal deposits are the most difficult to work in Europe, an average of 1 hour and 40 minutes being required in traveling to and from the face so that the actual working time averaged 5 hours and 50 minutes. The actual hours of work were less than in France, for example, where the hours of work in coal mines had been reduced to

38 hours and 45 minutes per week.

At the beginning of the second quarter of 1937 the Minister of Labor reported that many industries were working considerably less than 48 hours a week, the working week

varying,

as between different

regions and different branches of industry between 461 and 35 hours a week. The branches principally concerned were the machine construction and metal-working industries, the glass industry, the printing industry, the wallpaper industry, the cutting of precious stones, the chemical industry, and the electric light and power industry.

Wartime Hours Toward the end of the summer of 1939 the international situation had prompted the Government to consider, and eventually to decide on,

exceptional provisions regarding hours of work.

On the strength of

the act of June 16, 1937, which gave the King the power even in peacetime to take the necessary steps to insure the mobilization of the Nation and the protection of the population in the event of war an

order was issued on August 26, 1939, to allow exceptions to the 8-hour day act and the 40-hour week. These exceptions could be allowed for
given undertakings or for whole branches of industry. The royal order laid no binding conditions on the grant of exceptions, causing some uneasiness among the workers. As a result of representations

made by the workerst

organizations the

Minister of Labor and Social

Welfare announced that the powers granted by the order would be exercised only in exceptional circumstances affecting national defense and that the grant of exemption would be made dependent on the following conditions; the work must be performed exclusively by Belgian, workers; the firm concerned must produce a certificate from the Na-

tional Placing and FEployment Office that there was no mere and a quarter must be paid from the ninth hour of work;
of the period of exemption

unemploy-

ment in the branch of industry concerned; the trade-unions must, in principle, be consulted, in accordance with the 8-hour day law; time

and the length

must be stated in every case.

51

Hours in Coal Mines.--The hours of workers employed in underground work in coal mines were reduced to 72 per day and 45 per week, including travel time, by an order of January 26, 1937. Exemptions limited to 3-month periods could be granted after previous consultation with a committee appointed to follow the fluctuations of coal stocks. In 1939, the connected questions of coal production, hours of work, and wages were of concern to the Government, employers, and workers. The first solution attempted, introduced by a decree of December 15, 1939, was an increase in the hours of work underground from 7 per day and 45 per week to 8 and 48 hours, respectively, with days of compensatory rest. Hours of work would thus have amounted to 2,312 in the year, with 289 working days. The miners were strongly opposed to this decree and 45,000 went on strike to prevent its application. As a result of the opposition of the workers a royal decree of February 3, 1940, repealed the December 1939 decree and fixed the hours of work at 8 per day and 48 per week, including travel time, until the date when the army returned to a peace footing. At the same time, at the Government's request, the employers' and workers' representatives agreed to a wage increase amounting to 1.5 percent of the wages of the workers concerned, which corresponded to an even distribution of an additional payment of 25 percent for the half hour added to the daily hours 'of work.

Wage and Hour Regulations

Pre-War Wage Regulation The earliest law relating to the payment of wages was passed in 1887. This law as amended in 1896, 1901, and 1934, specified the places and time at which wages should be paid and provided regulations governing payments in kind and the renting or sale of a house or land to emThere was no legislation regarding minimum ployees or wage earners. wages except in the case of home workers (see below). For other classes of workers minimum wages were, as a rule, established through collective agreements. Home workers.--Regulations governing wages and hygiene in home This law provided for the estabwork were issued February 10, 1934. lishment of a National Home Work Board to be composed of 3 heads of undertakings, 3 workers, and 1 person having special knowledge of econIf the representatives of employers and omic and social questions. workers failed to agree on the minimum wages to be paid,the Board had power to fix the minimum rates taking as a basis the minimum wage paid to workers employed on the same or a similar process in a factory or Payment of the minimum wages fixed by the Board could be workshop.
- 32 -

made compulsory by a royal order and were binding upon all heads of undertakings employing a home worker or home workers belonging to the industry or occupation concerned, Officials appointed by the Government had supervision of the observance of the minimum rates fixed by a collective agreement which had been duly ratified or confimed by royal order,

Regulation after the

Germa Occupation

Belgium was entirely occupied by the Germans by the end of May 1940. as the German army advanced the eonomioc resources of the country were taken over by the invaders. Although the General. Secretaries in

Even

charge of the different ministries when the Goveznment left the country at the time of the invasion retained their offices, actual control was

in the hands of the Germanilitary command which either issued decrees affecting industry and labor directly or through the medium of the General Secretaries. The following German orders relating to wages and hours of work were put in force after the occupation of the country and according to such information as is available, were in force at the time this report was prepared (September 1943),

'still

W3aes.-m-An order was issued on August 1, 1940, prescribing a number of measures designed, largely from the German viewpoint, to secure the stability of wages and salaries "in the int.rest of the national economy.' These measures were modeled in the main on those previously adopted in
Germany. The order prohibited any increase in the rates of wages or salaries in force on May 10, 1940, the date of the invasion of the country. The prohibition also applied to the remuneration for home work and to all customary bonuses and allowances. New undertakings or offices set up

or transformed after the coming into force of the order were required to pay the rates actually paid in similar undertakings. Reductions in wages or salaries, bonuses and salries were subject to the same regulations. On the ground that the economic policy of the country and the regulation of relations between employers and employees called for constant

official control of prices and wages, and that the necessary equilibrium could not be established in this field without a special service for this purpose, the general secretaries of 5 Ministries issued an order on August 20, 1940, establishing a Prices and Wages Comissariat to be subordinate to the Department of Labor and Social Welfare. The Commissioner
was responsible for fixing and supervising prices and wages after consultation with the departments concerned.

Minimum gross rates of pay were fixed b

an order of

May

29, 1941,

issued jointly by the Ministers of Economic Affairs, Agriculture Ld Supply, Labor and Social Welfare, Commini cations, and the Wages and Prices

Commissioner. The order applied to workers engaged under a contract of employment but excluded domestic servants and public administrative staff.
-

53

4
The minimum gross rates were fixed for industrial and agricultural workers, and salaried employees as follows: industrial workers, 5 Belgian francs an hour for adult men, 3.50 francs for adult women; agricultural workers, in cash, 3.80 francs per hour for men and 2.70 francs for women; salaried employees, 1,000 francs per month for men and 800 francs for women. In calculating the minim= rates account was to be taken of any payments in kind under the contract, such as board and lodging granted free of charge or on reduced terms. The gross earnings increased by 8 percent, since May 10, 1940, but in kind. Any increase of all workers and salaried employees were to be in cases in which there had been no increase the percentage increase did not apply to payments beyond these limits was prohibited.

The Wages and Prices Commissioner was authorized to allow exceptions or to fix rates of wages and salaries in general, and cancel existing contracts if he considered this necessary for economic or social reasons. His decisions were binding. He also was given charge of the settlement of disputes. Coal miners were granted attendance bonuses by an order of May 29, 1941, in an attempt to increase the output of coal mines where the labor supply problem had become increasingly acute. Underground workers who had worked steadily for a whole month were entitled to a bonus amounting to 7 or 15 percent,according to the wrker's category in the Campine or 5 and 10 percent in other areas. Reduced percentages were applied if 1 or 2 days had been lost. Supplementing these attendance bonuses for the purpose of counteracting absenteeism a "loyalty bonus" was granted by an order of September 30, 1941, for underground workers who had belonged to the staff of the same mining undertaking for more than a year. These bonuses, which were not payable before June 1, 1942, amounted to 40 percent in the Campine and 60 percent in other areas of the attendance bonuses paid during the year. The same order strengthened restrictions on miners' freedom of movement by providing that no existing contract of employment could be terminated before May 31, 1942, Coercive measures for increasing the in any coal mining undertaking. staff of mining undertakings were also adopted. Hour .-- The disruption to industry following the occupation acute in certain industries such as textiles, dress, and diamond and as a result in the early part of 1941 hours of work in these tries (as described in the section on unemployment) were reduced to spread the work and thus avoid total unemployment. was cutting, indusin order

After labor had been more fully directed into the German war effort an order issued by the German Military Command for Belgium and Northern France of October 9, 1942, provided that the head of the military admin.istration could issue the necessary regulations for the application of In pursuance of these provisions a minimum 8-hour day and 48-hour week,

-34-

October 30, 1942, laid down detailed hours of work regulations, which repealed the act of June 14, 1921, and all regulations
an order of issued
hours in
,ereunderiand also the royal order of March 30, 1936, reducing the diamond industry.

The order applied to all workers and salaried employees over 1.8 years of age in all kinds of wndertakings and services, even if they were not carried on for profit, except undertakings in agriculture, and related occupations; forestry, hunting, and stock breeding, and auxilliary industrial or handicraft undertakings in agriculture and forestry
working only to satisfy their own requirements. Fisheries, shipping, and aviation, including their establishments ashore, were excluded, as were also directors, maagers, etc., and persons drawing an annual

salary of more than 60,000 francs,

The minimum normal hours of work of male workers were fixed at 8

per day with a

maximum

of 1

except where longer hours are authorized

The hours of work per-

by the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare,

mitted might be extended by 2 hours daily, subject to a general maximum of 11 hours, for preparatory and supplementary work. Extensions of hours of work might also be authorized by the General Controller of Labor and by the head of an undertaking. Normal hours might be extended by the Controller up to U a day or even beyond, where the work regularly included considerable periods of mere attendance, In dangerous and continuous processes the hours of work were limited

to 8 a day, with certain exceptions,

In changing shifts in

continuous

processes male workers might be required to work 18 hours, including rest breaks, once in 3 weeks, provided they are allowed 2. periods of 24 hours continuous rest in the 3-week period. The provisions regarding hours of work, daily rest, and breaks might be suspended in case of emergency work which had to be carried out owing to exceptional circumstances beyond the employer's control,

The sme order provided that the Minister of Labor and Social We).fare had power to prohibit the work of women in cea in classes of undertakings and in work involving danger to their health and morals, or to

prescribe special regulations for such work. Expectant and nursing mothers may be exempted, at their own request, from all work in excess of the
prescribed hours, Work by women on preparatory and supplementary work

is limited to 1 hour beyond the normal working day. The

maximum hours of women are fixed at 10 per day and 8 on Saturcertain classes of under-

days or the day preceding a holiday, except in

takings, such as transport dustries, and pbarmacies.

undertakings, the hotel and entertainment in.

0 CI

35-

In every spell of more than 5 hours women were to be allowed fixed breaks, amounting to not less than 20 minutes in every spell of 5 to 6j hours, 30 minutes in every spell of 6 to 9 hours, and 1 hour in every
spell of 9 to 10 hours. These rfles might be modified if

should be extended beyond

8 in

daily hours

order to permit an earlier finish on days

preceding Sundays and holidays. No women could be employed at night between the hours of 8 p.m. and 6 a.m. or after 5 p.m. on the day preceding a Sunday or holiday, unless work was organized in shifts, in which case women might be employed up to 11 p.m., and under certain con-

ditions the morning shift might

begin

at 5 a,a.

Exceptions to the provisions covering both male and female workers concerning maximum hours, night work, and reduction of hours preceding a Sunday or holiday might be authorized by the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare for technical reasons or on general economic grounds. Special rest rooms or places must be provided for the use of both male (except workers on continuous processes) and female workers during breaks. The rules concerning hours of work, the time for the beginning and end of work, and the length of rest periods and breaks, must be posted in work places, and the order also contains administrative provisions concerning the closing doen of undertakings which fail to observe the provisions concerning dangerous processes, the enforcement of the order, exceptions going beyond those prescribed by the order in case of emergency, and other similar matters. Overtime Hours and

Rates

of Pay

The S-hour day and 48-hour week law passed in 1921 provided that longer hours might be worked in preparatory or accessory work, repair work, and in cases of force majeure, and overtime could be authorized by royal order in industries in which the time necessary for completion of work could not be definitely determined or in those in which there was danger of spoilage. In general necessary overtime was not to exceed 2 hours a day. In coal mines the overtime rate for the first 2 hours was paid at time and a quarter and any subsequent hours at time and a half. Under the German orders of October 9 and 30, 1942, overtime authorised by the General Controller of Labor or the head of an undertaking had to be paid for at an overtime rate of time and one-quarter. No overtime was payable, however, in seasonal industries if compensation for the extra hours worked was given in the form of a reduction of hours at other times of the year.

Employment of Women
Night work for all women, irrespective of age, was prohibited by a general order covering the work of women and children issued in The law required that women should have an uninterrupted rest 1919. period of at least 11 hours between the hours of 9 p.m. and 5 a.m. However, for adult women employed in hotels and public houses the hours might be prolonged beyond 9 p.m. if there was a period of at least 11 hours between the termination of one period of work and the Exemptions could be authorized in cases where beginning of another. materials were subject to deterioration, in seasonal industries, and Women might not be employed for 4 weeks in cases of force majeure. The rest period was fixed between the iours of after confinement. 11 p.m. and 6 a.m. in exceptional circumstances by an act of April 1936. The maximum hours of work of women were fixed at 10 per day and 8 on Saturday or the day preceding a holiday, except in certain classes of undertakings, such as transportation enterprises, the hotel and entertainment industries, and pharmacies by a German order of This order fixed the breaks which must be allowed October 1942. women workers and it also prohibited night work between the hours of 8 p.m. and 6 a.m., or after 5 p.m. on the day preceding a Sunday or holiday, unless work was organized in shifts in which case women Under certain conditions the mornmight be employed up to 11 p.m. ing shift might begin at 5 a. m.

-57-

Emlovment of Young Persons

The employment of children under the age of 14 years was prohibited by the 1919 order, except in the case of children holding a school-leaving certificate whose employment between the ages of 13 and 14 years might be sanctioned. Children under 16 years of age and women between the ages of 16 and 21 years might not be employed on work designated as unhealthy, although such employment might be sanctioned for a certain number of hours a day, for a certain number of days and under certain conditions. It was required that children and young women under the age of 21 years should be furnished with a work book. An order of May 1926 listed the dangerous or unhealthy industries in which the employment of boys under 16 years of age and young women under the age of 21 was prohibited. Young persons over 16 years of age could be employed after 10 p.m. and before 5 a.m. in continuous processes in the glass industries by a February 1926 order and the employment of boys over the age of 16 in night work in copper works was authorized in April 1926. Provision was made for the supervision of the health of young persons under the age of 18 years by an order issued in 1936. This order provided for medical examination upon employment and for annual or periodic examinations thereafter. The supervision of the health of young persons was placed under the control of the medical service for labor protection by an order issued in April 1940 shortly before the invasion of the country.

- 38 -

7"Y

4.

LABOR LEGISLATION AND LABOR POLICIES

(a) Governmental Administrative Agencies

Since the German occupation Belgium has been under two administrations: the German military administration, maintaining the ultimate power; and the Belgian administration, headed by the General Secretaries. In normal times each government department in Belgium is conducted by a member of the Cabinet assisted by a General Secretary, who is a permanent civil servant. Even before the war the Belgian Government decided that, in the eventuality of an occupation of the country by a foreign power, it would go abroad in order to continue the fight. But it was considered as being in the interest of the population that national administrations should continue to function even during an eventual occupation. Consequently, after the conquest of the country and the removal of the Belgian Government to London the administrative departments were left in charge of the General Secretaries. The Germans in occupying Belgium were not satisfied with exploiting all the economic possibilities of the country but sought to transform Belgian institutions in order to render them more amenable to German aims. As far as possible German authorities tried to exercise their control through the Belgian administration in order to simplify their own task and also in order to place on Belgian officials the odium

of painful measures. As a consequence the Belgian authorities have been put in a very difficult position: when they obey the orders of the occupying power, they seem to collaborate with the conqueror; when they decline all compliance they are dismissed and Belgian influence is further eliminated
from the administration of the country. It is reported that most of the General Secretaries and other high officials have tried to resist German domination as far as possible but in cases in which they have been replaced there has been more disposition to collaborate on the part of the new appointees. Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare A Ministry of Industry and Labor was created by a royal decree of May 25, 1895. The name of the Ministry has been changed several times but since 1934 it has been known as the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare. The principal bureaus were: the General Secretariat, Bureau of Mines, Bureau of Industrial and Occupational Education, the General Labor Directorate, the General Directorate of Insurance and Social Welfare, and the Permanent Commission of Mutual Aid Societies. Some of these bureaus were established prior to and some after the Ministry was created.
- 39 -

A Superior Labor and Social Welfare Council was set up within the Ministry by a royal order of November 8, ?935, to replace the Superior

Labor Council established in 1892. The Council was divided into two sections, one of which dealt with ues& ons relating to the regulation
of employment, and the other with questions relating to social insurance and social welfare. The members of the sections had equal representation of employers, wage-earning and salaried employees, and persons

chosen on account of their scientific qualifications or practical experience with social questions. Advisory members of the Council were

the Secretary-General of the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare, the Directors' General of Labor, Mines, Insurance and Social Welfare, Pensions, and the National Employment and Unemployment Office, the head of the industrial medical service, and the head of the friendly societies and cheap dwellings service, The duties of the Council were to render an opinion on matters referred to it by the Government and to draft such bills or orders as the Government might request. Under the German occupation a General Labor Regulation Officer was appointed under the Ministry with power to regulate conditions of employment other than wages and salaries, while wages and salaries were to be fixed by the Wages and Prices Commissioner in agreement with the head of the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare.

Labor Tnspection
The organized inspection service of dangerous and unhealthy workplaces dates from May 1888, The service uwas placed in the Ministry of Industry and Labor when it was created in 1893. In 1936 a General Directorate of Labor Protection was set up n the Ministry by an order of March 6. This department under a Director-General appointed from the a tecshcal service; a social technical service had fJ s service; a medical servic. an industrial relations service; and a laThe technical service made up of technical bor protection council. inspectors (ing6nieurs) and employees' assistant technical inspectors (delegues techniciens) had a central office in Brussels and district branches. The inspector-general and the technical inspectors in the central office had general supervision of the inspection system and were responsible for drafting safety regulations or amendments of such regulations, classification of new industries, investigation of accidents from the point of view of prevention, and the preliminary examination of appeals to the Crown with respect to the licensing of industrial establishments. each district The country was divided into inspection districts,. in charge of a chief technical inspector or a principal technical inThe technical inspectors and the employees' assistant technical spector.
R

-40C'

inspectors of the branch offices were to inspect establishments, investigate applications for licenses, insure the enforcement of regulations and report cases of contravention of orders. Protection of the health of workers was in the hands of a corps of medical inspectors, who might be assisted by visiting nurses. The duties of the medical inspectors were to supervise and inspect provisions for protection of the health of apprentices, carry out medical examinations at least once a year in occupations in which there was risk of an occupational disease, and have general supervision of all questions of a medical character. A social service of labor supervisors was set up as a Division of the General Directorate of Labor Protection with men and women serving as supervisors. The corps was under the control and direction of the head of the social service in Brussels, who could delegate his powers to the inspector general and head of the social service for labor protection insofar as the daily direction of the corps of supervisors was concerned. The country was divided into districts for inspection purposes, the labor supervisors having charge of the investigation of complaints and of any contraventions of the laws relating to old-age pensions, to salaried employees' pensions, and to family allowances which were observed in their inspection visits.

- 41 -

{b) Labor Laws and Reaulations The principal laws are discussed in other sections of the report. This section gives the date of enactment and principal provisions of the basic laws and the most important amendments.

Administration
Decree of May 25, 1895, establishes a Ministry of Industry and Labor. Order of February 9, 1935, establishes a National Labor Commission. Order of November 8, 1935, establishes a Superior Labor and Social Welfare Council to replace the Superior Labor Council set up by order of April 7, 1892. German order of June 21, 1941, provides for appointment of a general labor regulation officer to regulate conditions of employment. Collective Agreements Act of 1936 empowers the Government to extend agreements relating to hours to an entire industry. Act of April 1, 1936, provides for agreements for service on board vessels in inland navigation. Compulsory Labor German order of March 6, 1942, introduces compulsory labor in the occupied area. German order of October 6, 1942, extends the order of March 6, 1942, to work in any part of the Reich. (Applied January 15, 1943.) German order of December 10, 1942, prohibits employees from leaving work and employers from dismissing workers. German order of January 15, 1943, applying order of March 6, 194+2, grants certain rights to persons mobilized for compulsory labor. Conciliation and Arbitration Order of May 5, 1926, establishes official conciliation and arbi(Amended November 25, 1929.) tration committees.

-42-

Act of July 9, 1926, institutes probiviral courts. May 30, 1928.) Contract of Employment
Act of August 7, 1922, provides for the contract of (Amended May 2, 1929, and September 28, 1932.)

(Amended

employment.

Cooperation Act of 1873 provides for cooperatives. tive Movement.) Employment Offices Order of February 19, 1924, provides for the organization of public employment exchanges under the Minister of Industry and Labor. (Amended January 19, 1925.) Order of January 20, 1926, institutes a joint committee on the engagement of seamen. Order of July 27, 1934, abolishes the unemployment funds and substitutes employment and unemployment offices. (Amended January 19, 1935.) Order of July 27, 1935, establishes a National Employment and Unemployment Office. (Amended August 23, 1935.) Order of September 30, 1935, establishes employment centers for young unemployed workers. Order of May 25, 1936 provides for the organization of free public employment exchanges by the National Employment and Unemployment Office. (Amended August 25, 1938.) (See section on Coopera-

Order of September 2, 1939, makes the managing committee of the National Employment and Unemployment Office an advisory body.
German order of April 4, 191,, provides that employees shall be engaged through and dismissed employees reported to the National Employment and Supervising Office. German order of April 10,.1941, provides for the organization of the public employment exchanges and regulates the duties of the National Employment Office. German order of January 29, 1942, regulates employment of workers in German industries in the occupied area.
0 C'p

non-German

a.Family Allowances
Act of April 14, 1928, requires the payment of family allowances in State undertakings and provides for the establishment of a Family Allowances Board under the Ministry of Industry, Labor, and Social Welfare, Act of August 4, 1930, establishes a general system of family allowances and provides for a State subsidy. (Amended and supplemented

August 24, 1930; January 16, and February 27, 1935.)

Act of June 10, 1937, extends the ployers and independent workers.

system

to cover children of em-

Foreign Workers Decree of December 15, 1930, provides that foreign workers may not be admitted to the country without the authorization of the Minister of Industry, Labor, and Social Welfare. Order of August 14, 1933, consolidates the regulations for the super(Amended and supplemented February 15, and October 16, vision of aliens. 1935; March 31, 1936; November 16, 1939.) Home Workers Order of September 11, 1933, organizes the verification of the un(Amended February 27, 1935.)

employment of home workers,

Act of February 10, 1934, issues regulations governing wages and (Extended April 4, 1936, to armament and diamond hygiene in home work, workers.)
Order of December 29, 1936, prescribes the conditions for the admission of home workers to unemployment insurance.

Hours of Work
Act of June 14, 1921, provides for an 8-hour day and a 48-hour (Extended iay 15, 1935 to workers in the wholesale and retail week. trade.) Order of August 29, 1926, provides for the optional introduction of the English week (Saturday afternoon holiday) in certain services. Order of March 30, 1936, establishes the 4-hour week for persons employed in the diamond industry, whether carried on as home work or in workshops. (Administrative procedure provided May 12, 1936,)

-44

Act of July 9, 1936, provides for a gradual reduction to the 40hour week in industries or branches of industries in which work is carried on under dangerous, unhealthy, or offensive conditions. Act of December 22, 1936, institutes the 4-shift system, with a 42hour week, in automatic sheet-glass works. Order of January 26, 1937, provides for a week in underground work in coal mines.

*7-hourday

and a 45-hour

Order of May 24, 1937, provides for a 7j-hour day and a 45-hour week for underground workers in metal mines. Act of May 16, 1938, issues regulations for hours in the diamond industry. Order of August 26, 1939, under powers conferred by the Mobilization Act, empowers Government to make exceptions to the 8-hour day and the 40-hour week acts. Decree of December 15, 1939, increases hours for underground work in mines to 8 per day and 48 per week. Decree of February 3, 1940, includes travel time in the 48-hour week in mining. Order of May 7, 1941, provides for reduction of hours to prevent dismissal of workers due to lack of work, and for short-time allowances. German order of October 9, 1942, provides for the issuance of regulations applying a minimum 8-hour day and 48-hour week. German order of October 30, 1942, repeals act of June 14, 1921, and regulations thereunder, and order of March 30, 1936, for the diamond industry.

Hygiene and Safety Acts of July 2, 1899 and November 25, 1937, provide for the health and safety of persons employed in industrial and commercial undertakings. (Consolidated December 23, 1937.) Order of June 25, 1919, institutes an industrial medical service.

- 45-

-W"
Labor Inspection Law of May 5, 1888, provides for the inspection of dangerous and unhealthy workplaces. Law of May 25, 1895, creating the Ministry of Industry and Labor, puts the labor-inspection service under this Ministry with certain exceptions. Act of August 11, 1897, provides. for the appointment of workmen delegates for the inspection of coal mines. (Amended and supplemented Auguit 16, 1927.) Order of September 20, 1919, provides for a staff of controllers of labor to be added to the inspection service. Order of March 6, 1936, reorganizes the labor-inspection service under a General Directorate of Labor Protection.
Labor and

Employer

Organizations

Acts of May 24, 1921, repeal certain sections of the Penal Code and guarantee freedom of association. German orders of February 10 and March 5, 1941, provide for the establishment of occupational or regional bodies for the economic reorganization of the country.

German order of August 26, 1942, provides for the confiscation of

trade-union property. German order of September 1, 1942, provides for the dissolution of employers' organizations. Mobilization of Labor Act of June 16, 1937, allows the King to take necessary measures to insure the mobilization of the Nation in the event of war. German order of May 29, 1941, grants attendance bonuses to coal miners. (Extended September 30, 1941.) German order of March 13, 1942, provides for the closing of undertakings to increase the number of workers for German industries. (Supplemented May 29, 1942, providing dismissal allowances to displaced workers.) (See Compulsory Labor.)

-46-

Night Work (See sections on Hours and Women and Children.) Restrictions on Fknployment German order of October 28, 1940, prohibits employment of Jews in public offices. German order of March U1, 1942, provides for the issuance of regulations governing the general employment of Jews. (Regulations issued May ,8,1942.) Seamen Act of June 5, 1928, issues regulations for seamen's agreemeits. (Amended May 23, 1941.) Act of June 5, 1928, amends the Disciplinary and Penal Code for the merchant marine and the sea-fishing industry. (Further amended April 19, 1934.) Order of September 10, 1929, issues regulations for the maritime police service. Social Insurance Act of July 21, 1844, providing for civil and military pensions, establishes a Seamen' s Relief and Provident Fund. Act of June 23, 1894, revising and amending act of April 3, 1851, fixes legal status of mutual benefit societies and act of July 30, 1923 authorizes amalgamation of societies. Act of June 5, 19U, provides for old-age pensions for miners. (Amended and supplemented March 5, 1912; May 26, 1914; October 25, 1919; August 20, 1920; promulgated August 30, 1920;1 administrative procedure provided November 5, 1920.) Act of May 5, 1912, authorizes payment of subsidies to approved mutual sickness funds, -amended by royal orders of December 22, 1931, June 1, 1932, and May 26, 1933. Act of August 20, 1920, provides for the granting of old-age pensions. Act of December 10, 1924, makes old-age and death insurance compulsory. (Extended January 5 and 6, 1925, to certain classes of irregular or migratory workers; amended and supplemented July 20, 1927; December 24, 1928; July 14, 1930; July 23, 1932; May 31 and July 14, 1933; November 8, 1934; January 31, 1935; March 30, 1936; December 15, 1937.)
47 -

Act of December 30, 1924, provides for compulsory old-age and death insurance for miners. (Amended and supplemented August 3, 1926; August 1, 1930; July 22, 1931; December 22, 1934; January 30 and February 28, 1935; consolidated August 25, 1937, and amended July 18, 1938.) Act of March 10, 1925, provides for old-age and death insurance of salaried employees. (Amended and supplemented June 10, 1926; June i, and

December 26, 1930;

March

3,

1933;

May 23,

1936,)

Act of July 20, 1927, provides for an additional grant to persons receiving pensions under miners' pensions acts. (Amended ard supplemented December 24, 1928, and May 12, 1929.) Act of July 20, 1927, provides for an additional grant to persons receiving old-age pensions under the acts of August 20, 1920, and December 10, 1924. (Supplemented December 24, 1928.)

Acts of April 22 and December 26, 1930,

grant

a supplementary allow-

ance for the years 1929, and 1930 respectively, age pensions.

to persons receiving old-

Act of July 6, 1931, issues preliminary measures for the organization of old-age, death, sickness, and invalidity insurance for seamen in the mercantile marine; amended April 27, 1933. Act of September 23, 1931, requires and regulates the employment of apprentices in the sea-fishing service. Order of August 25, 1937, consolidates previous acts and orders respecting the miners' retirement pension system. Act of July 18, 1938, remedies injustices caused in connection with of third parties. old-age pensions by the fault

Strikes and Lockouts Order of May 5, 1926, establishing official conciliation and arbitra-

provides penalties for strikes or lockouts occurring before arbitration or conciliation, (Amended November 25, 1929.) tion committees,
(See Conciliation and Arbitration.)

Unemployment Assistance and Insurance Order of December 15, 1934, provides for use of national emergency funds (Supplemented Febfor employment and retraining of unemployed workers.

ruary 15, 1935.)

-48C4

Circular of June 7, 1935, repeals order of December 15, 1934, and puts distribution of subsidies under the Minister of Public Works and Reemployment. Circular of August 5, sidies. 1935, extends the scope of public works sub-

Order of August 31, 1939, provides for subsidizing wages paid on public works. Order of January 10, 1941, authorizes the granting of unemployment benefits to officers of the merchant marine and to seamen who are teaporarily unemployed. Decree of May 7, 1941, provides for the spreading of work in certain industries. Decree of December 30, 1920, establishes a voluntary unemploymentinsurance system through the trade-unions. Order of February 18, 1924, provides for unemployment insurance through funds approved and subsidized by the Minister of Industry and Labor. (Amended and supplemented May 15 and September 10, 1924; April 20 and November 30, 1925; July 30, 1926; March 21, 1927; March 5, and May 3, 1929; October 25, 1930; March 13 and December 24, 1931; May 31, July 14, September 7, and 8, 1933; September 24 and December 29, 1934; January 29 and May 29, 1935; February 1, May 3, and July 4, 1936.) Act of December 26, 1930, provides for the compulsory affiliation of communes to the National Emergency Fund. (Supplemented February 10,
1931.)

Order of July 27, 1934, abolishes the unemployment funds and substitutes employment and unemployment offices. (Amended January 19, 1935.) Order of January 10, 1941 (London) authorizes the granting of unemployment benefit to officers of merchant marine and to seamen who are temporarily unemployed. (Amended May 23, 1941.)

Vacations with Pay Act of July 8, 1936, provides for annual leave with pay in industrial and commercial establishments, mines and quarries, etc. (Extended October 2, 1937, to establishments employing more than 5 persons; August 20, 1938, to all workers in establishments covered, irrespective of the number of employees; July 1938 to agricultural, horticultural, and forestry undertakings.) j
!o

Order of May 7, 1937, sets up a National Office for Workers' Holidays.

49

Decrees of December 8, 1938, and June 3, 1939, insure maintenance of right to holidays in normal and exceptional periods of military service. Decree of August 29, 1939, authorizes the Minister of Labor and Social Welfare to suspend vacations with pay. German order of April 20, 1942, provides special holidays for repatriated prisoners of war. (Extended August 8, 1942.)

.Wages Act of August 16, 1887, regulates the payment of wages to employees. (Amended and supplemented June 15 and 17, 1896; June 30, 1901; July 30,
1934.)

Order of January 28, 1935, provides that changes in wages of civil servants shall be based on specified changes in the official retail price index. Act of July 7, 1936, prohibits deductions from wages for mutual beneand unemployment funds without the consent of the worker.

fit

German decree of August 1, 1940, freezes wages at the May 10, 1940, level. German decree of August 20, 1940, establishes commission to regulate prices and wages. Decree of January 1941 establishes wage schedules in the diamond

industry.
German order of May 29, 1941, fixes minimum wages for industrial and agricultural workers and salaried employees. German order of May 29, 1941, grants attendance bonuses to coal miners; order of September 30, 1941, granted loyalty bonuses.

Weekly Rest
Act of July 17, 1905, prohibits Sunday work in industrial and commercial undertakings. (Amended May 25, 1914, and July 24, 1927.)

Women and Children Orders of February 19 and August 5, 1895, regulate the employment of protected persons in various industries. (Amended May 3, 1926.) Act of May 26, 1914, regulates the employment of women and children. (Applied September 15, 1919.) - 50-

Orders of February 28, 1919, consolidates the legal provisions for the employment of women and children. (Amended and supplemented June 14, 1921; April 27, 1927; April 7, 1936.) Act of May 5, 1936, prohibits the employment of women in certain work. Order of September 28, 1936, reorganizes the supervision of the health of young persons in employment. (Supplemented December 15, 1938; December 13, 1939; superseded April 17, 1940.)

Workmen's Compensation Act of December 24, 1903, institutes compensation for injuries resulting from industrial accidents. (Amended and supplemented August 27, 1919; August 7, 1921; August 3, 1926; May 15, 1929; December 30, 1929; June 18, 1930; September 28, 1931.) Act of July 24, 1927, provides for compensation for injury caused by occupational diseases. Order of January 30, 1928, lists coverage of act of July 24, 1927. (Frequently amended.) Act of June 5, 1928, provides compensation for sickness and injuries of seamen. Act of December 30, 1929, provides for compensation for industrial accidents sustained by seamen. (Amended January 6, 1934, and May 23,

1941,

(London).)

Act of January 24, 1931, sets up the National Institution for Orphans of Industrial Accidents. (Supplemented July 25, 1934.)
Order of September 28, 1931, consolidates the previous acts on workmen's compensation. Order of December 22, 1938, lists occupational diseases and specifies industries or occupations in which they give right to compensation. Order of August 8, 1941, lists industries or occupations causing pneumoconiosis. Order of December 24, 1941, provides for compensation for accidents sustained on the journey to and from work. Legislative order of May 23, 1941 (London) amending the act of December 30, 1929, respecting compensation for industrial accidents sustained

by seamen.
0

- 51 -

51

5. LABOR ORGANIZATIONS
Pre-War Developments

Freedom of association was not legally granted in Belgium until 1921 when an act of May 24, established the principle of trade-union liberty. During the early history of the country all concerted action with the object of influencing working conditi6ns was forbidden, In 1866, under the influence of changed conditions and in order to deal with existing organizations, certain sections of the Penal Code were repealed and combination was no longer illegal, but it was not until the 1921 law that specific sanction for organization in trade-unions was given. By the late 1930's trade-unionism was widespread. Employers in Belgium were also well organized in the Central Industrial Committee (Comite Central Industriel de Belgique) which represented them in negotiations of nationwide importance. In addition employers in different industries had their own associations. In order to enlarge their effectiveness there is a general tendency in all countries for craft and industrial unions to combine into federations. In Belgium the federations were organized along the lines of the political or religious adherence of the member groups. The close union between political and trade-union elements is one of the chief characteristics of the Belgian trade-union movement. The various political parties--Catholic, Liberal, and Socialist--all sought to control trade-union organization but the independence of the movement was maintained through the support of certain non-partisan trade-unions, A second early and distinctive characteristic of Belgian trade-unionism was its close association with mutual benefit societies and cooperative societies. The trade-unions under the law had legal personality and were responsible to the full extent of their property. Registration of trade-unions was optional but the workers were required to communicate the rules of their organizations to the authorities. The tradeunions received indirect Governmental encouragement through the subsidies paid to voluntary trade-union unemployment funds, while expansion of trade-union membership was promoted through the policy of legalizing collective agreements entered into by representative or majority groups in an industry,

The name of the Belgian Trade Union Committee-the largest organization in the country-was changed to General Confederation of Labor of Belgium at the trade-union congress in 1937.

- 52 -

? 1'

Membership in 1939 and 1940 Membership in the principal trade-union organizations fluctuated in the seven years preceding the occupation, the lowest point being reached by all but the non-affiliated organizations in either 1936 or 1937. The following statement shows the principal national union organizations and their reported membership in 1939 and 1940 (i.e., before the occupation of the country by the Germans). Principal Belgian Trade-Unions
Total mem-

:Number of

9r-

Organization

bership 1939 1940

: ganizations = 1939 1940

Confederation generate du travail de Belgique Confe'dration des Syndicats chr~tiens do Belgique Centrale generae des Syndicats liberaux de Belgique

581,951 344,618 56,999

570,000 350,000

24 18

24 18
--

59,543

Dissolution of Labor Unions and Employers' Associations after the Occupation In the fall of 190 after the occupation d' the country and before the trade-unions were dissolved by the occupying authorities an attempt was made by some of the labor leaders remaining in the country to form a central union to take the place of the various unions which had been divided along political and religious lines. The union was to be called "Union of Manual and Intellectual Workers." This attempted reorganization was a political move on the part of the Germans to obtain the good will of the working population but it apparently failed as later the free trade-unions were dissolved, and, by an order of August 26, 1942, their property was confiscated and it was provided that it could be transferred to associations formed to replace them. A few days later, September 1, 1942, another order provided for the dissolution of employers' organizations and a similar transfer of their assets to associations formed to replace them.

O
-55tJ-

Information is not available regarding the exact character of these new associations or how they operated. However, from the orders issued February 10 and March 5, 1941, it would appear that the "economic reorganization" of the country contemplated the grouping of all persons with related industrial interests in associations along the familiar Fascist "Corporative" pattern. Under the above orders occupational or regional bodies were to be set up as the sole representatives for their branch of economic activity and existing occupational groups were to be changed into public bodies with rules issued, if necessary, for their management and the allocation of their assets. The Head of the Ministry of Economic Affairs was given full powers to issue any economic regulations and take any necessary measures to secure these ends. Any industrial, commercial, or handicraft undertakings, and any undertakings subordinate to public administrative departments are subject to these economic bodies who are appointed or dismissed by the Head of the Ministry. Each occupational group was placed under the authority of a head assisted by a board composed of the heads of the subordinate occupational groups.

-54-

- 54 -

"

The following is a list of the names and addresses of the socialist unions affiliated with the Conf~d6ration G6n~ral du Travail de Belgique January 1, 1938: Centra]e des Travailleurs des Industries Alimentaires, Maison Syndicale, rue Joseph-Stevens, 8, Bruxelles; Centrale g6n6ral du Batiment, Ameublement et Industries diverses de Belgique, rue Watteau, 6, Bruxelles; Fed~ration nationale de la Bijouterie-Joajillerie, de 1tOrf~vrerie et des Parties qui sly rattachent, rue de l'Argronone, 170, Anderlecht; Syndicat national du Personnel Chemins de fer, Postes, Tel6graphes, Telephones et Marine de Belgique, Place Fontaines, 9, Br'uxelles; Centrale ouvriere des Cuirs et Peaux, Maison du Peuple, rue Joseph-Stevens, 17, Bruxelles; Syndicat gengral des Diamantaires de Belgique, avenue Plantin, 66-68, Anvers; Syndicat gen~ral des Employds, Techniciens, Magasiniers et Voyageurs de Commerce, rue du Marchd-au-Charbon, 66, Bruxelles; Centrale nationale du Personnel Enseignant socialiste de Belgique, Maison du Peuple, rue Joseph-.Stevens, 17, Bruxelles; Syndicat des Journalistes socialistes de Belgique, rue des Sables, 35, B~ruxelles; Centrale des Travailleurs du Livre, rue Joseph-Stevens, 8, Bruxelles; Syndicat des Medecins,: avenue Jean-Stobbaerts, 83, Bruxelles, III; Centrale des Metallurgistes de Belgique, place Rouppe, 3, Bruxelles; Centrale Syndicale nationale des Travailleurs des Mines de Belgique, rue Joseph-Stevens, 8, Bruxelles; Centrale des Paveurs et Aides; Syndieat national du Personnel civil du Minist~re de la Defense nationale, rue Carnot, 112, Anvers; Centrale des Ouvriers de la Pierre de Belgique, Maison des Huit Heures,
9 Place Fontaines, Bruxelles; Union centrale belge des Travailleurs des Services publics, Maison du Peuple, rue Joseph-Stevens, 17, Bruxelles;

Centrale des Travailleurs du Tabac, Maison du Peuple, rue Joseph-Stevens,

17, Bruxelles; Centrale ouvriere textile belge, Keizer Karelstraat, 60, Ghent; Centrale belge du Personnel des Tramway, rue Joseph-Stevens, 8, Bruxelles; Union belge des Ouvriers du Transport, Paardenmarkt, 66,

Anvers; Fdration Typographique belge, rue des Riches-Claires, 2, Bruxelles; Centrale du vvtemuent et parties similaires, Maison du Peuple, Bruxelles; and Central des Chapeliers, rue du Poincon, 17, Bruxelles; Centrale du Personnel des Entreprises Agricoles, rue des Francais, 27,
P4ruwels.

02

6. INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS
Collective Agreements

There has been no legislation in Belgium regulating collective agreements. As a result of a strike movement in 1936, which spread over the whole country, labor relations were placed under what amounted to a de facto control of the central employers' and workers' organizations. The strike movement was ended with an agreement in principle between representatives of the Central Industrial Committee (employers) and representatives of the Belgian Trade Union Committee and the Federation of Christian Trade Unions, concluded under the chairmanship of the Prime Minister. This dealt with the following points, among others: Adjustment of Wages.--A general raising of wages was considered desirable and it was agreed that a minimum wage of 32 francs for eight hours' work should be fixed for ablebodied adult industrial workers working full time. Any exceptions to this minimum that might be needed would be fixed by joint committees. The Government was called on to adjust family allowances to the new situation. Holidays with Pay.--A system of holidays with pay on the basis of six working days' leave a year is to be established without delay. It will take into account length of service on the one hand and the seasonal nature of certain industries on the other. Freedom of Association.-It was noted that cases had occurred in which the freedom of the worker in regard to trade association had not been duly respected. All were agreed that such freedom should be effectively secured and that the Government ought to take the necessary measures for the purpose. Hours of Work.--It was agreed that hours of work should be reduced gradually to 40 in the week in industries or branches of industry in which work is performed under dangerous or arduous conditions. The principles in question were to be established by legislation and the list of industries and the methods of applying the principles to be laid down in royal orders, - 56 -

Joint Committees.--The agreement on the points mentioned above was reached between the representatives of the three organizations in question, but they had no authority to bind their associations. They undertook, however, to recommend the ideas to their associations and agreed that the various joint committees should be convened at once and should consider the application of the proposed measures in their respective industries. They would be invited to submit their conclusions at the earliest possible date. In the branches of industries in which there is no joint committee, the Government, pending the appointment of such a committee, would arrange for the necessary contact between the employers' associations and trade-unions concerned. As regards salaried employees, the Government would consider at an early date how best to establish the necessary contact with representatives of the employers' associations and salaried employees unions. Source: International Labor Office, Collective Agreements (Studies and Reports Series A No. 39) 1936.

The clauses of the agreement were later applied to the majority of industries and occupations in the country by collective agreements concluded for the most part under the auspices of the joint committees.. In the same year the Minister of Labor took steps to encourage the appointment and strengthen the powers of the joint committees. These committees in which the trade-unions were represented in proportion to their membership, provided powerful support for all action taken by the trade-union movement as a whole. A law of 1936 empowered the Government to issue a royal order to extend to an entire industry the provisions of an agreement made by the appropriate joint committees providing for a shorter workweek. Bills had been considered whereby wages established for special groups could also be made a common rule, but none of these had become law. There was a rapid extension of joint committees in 1935 and 1936, about 125 new joint committees being appointed after April 1935. The joint committees had in the first place to adapt wages to the fluctuations in the cost-of-living indexes. Under their authority a large number of collective agreements were concluded which by 1937 covered all wage earners in large-scale industry and a large proportion of the workers employed in other industries. At that time the Minister of Labor considered that 75 percent of the Belgian workers were working under agreements which established a permanent relation between wages and indexes of retail prices. The work of these committees was not confined to wages effective action also being taken by them with regard to the hours of work.
57 -

S
0

C-

In December 1939, shortly after the beginning of the war, a national conference of employers and workers was convened by the GovAn agreement ernment under the chairmanship of the Prime Minister. was reached dealing, among other matters, with the methods of applyperiod of ing the sliding scale system for wages during the first hostilities. It was signed by representatives of the Belgian Central Industrial Committee, the Flemish Economic League, the Belgian General Confederation of Labor, the Confederation of Christian TradeThe Unions, and the National Federation of Liberal Trade-Unions. text of the agreement included a declaration by which employers and workers affirmed their willingness, in view of the difficult situation, to seek the best and fairest social and economic solutions to the problems which arose while hostilities lasted.

Strikes

When complete freedom to organize was granted to Belgian labor 1921, the question was raised as to whether this implied complete in Following a serious stoppage in 1923, involving freedom to strike. postal, telegraph and telephone, railway, and marine workers, penal sanctions were waived and in this way the right of at least certain However, classes of Government workers to strike was recognised. higher Government officials could be punished for insubordination under the Penal Code and this provision of the code could be invoked against such public employees for striking. As previously noted there was an indirect restriction on strike activity imposed by the 1926 law on conciliation and arbitration which provided that employees striking before the failure of the attempt at conciliation had been established by the competent committee lost the right to unemployment benefit for 1 year. At the height was an increase in its culmination in out the country. of the industrial depression in 1935 and 1936 there the number of strikes, the strike movement reaching June 1936 with general strikes taking place throughThe strikes which had broken out without the consent

m Q

- 58 -

of the unions were the aftermath of the 1935 currency devaluation and the resultant increase in living costs bringing demands for higher wages and general pressure for labor reforms. The new Government which came into power at that time, however, granted many of the labor demands and the strike movement declined in the next two years--i. e., 1937 and 1938 -- the last for which data are available.

Table 1.-Strike Activity in Belgium, 1929-1938. Number of ------------Man-days Workers involved of idleness 60,557 64,718 23,010 162,693 39,136 36,525 104,013 564,831 81,544 32,900 799,117 781,646 399,037 580,670 664,044 2,441,335 623,002 647,647 240,937

Year Year Disputs 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 168 93 74 63 87 79 150 999 209 126

Conciliation and Arbitration

Official conciliation and arbitration committees were established by a royal order of May 5, 1926, for the purpose of settling collective disputes between employers and workers and to prevent or end strikes and The committees appointed by the Ministry of Industry, Labor, lockouts. and Social Welfare consisted of 7 members and alternates, and included 3 members, each representing employers' and workers' organizations in the district in which each committee was located. The law also provided that voluntary conciliation and arbitration committees could be set up by the employers and workers of an undertaking or a group of undertakings, or by groups of heads of undertakings or of Such committees, after approval by the Minister of Labor, were workers. given jurisdiction, to the exclusion of the official committees, over disputes between the parties to the agreement which instituted them. The parties to a dispute could also agree to submit the dispute to national or regional joint industrial committees instituted by the Government to consider bases of wages and the conditions of employment.

- 59 -

-4
After the first World War there was widespread establishment of joint industrial committees or councils which the Government encouraged industry to set up. The councils had an official character as they were instituted by decree but they had no legal basis and the Government had no power to make their decisions binding. In creating a joint council the Government enlisted the cooperation of the employers and employees in the industry or region concerned. In 1937, there were about 110 national and regional councils which had been instituted by either royal or ministerial decree. If conciliation failed, a committee was required to propose arbitration to the parties to the dispute and could either offer its services for this purpose or invite them to choose an arbitrator. If this proposal was accepted, the parties to the dispute signed a provisional agreement specifying the matter on which the arbitration award must pronounce, and containing an undertaking to accept the decision of the arbitrators. In case a strike or lockout occurred before recourse to conciliation and arbitration, the competent committee, notified by one of the parties, immediately reported it to the Minister of Industry, Labor, and Social Welfare, and offered its services to the parties concerned with a view to settling the dispute. If a lockout was declared by an employer without previously having had recourse to conciliation and arbitration or after having refused to accept an arbitration award, the employees who belonged to an approved unemployment society were placed on the same footing as involuntarily unemployed persons and were entitled, as from the first day, to unemployment benefit and grants from the National Emergency Fund. If employees caused a strike or lockout by altering the conditions of work before the failure of the attempt at conciliation or by refusal to carry out an agreement, the organization representing them was excluded from unemployment benefits for 1 year, unless it could prove that the strike was declared without its consent and support. Special courts (known as probiviral courts) instituted for the purpose of settling by means of conciliation or, in default of conciliation, by means of giving judgment any differences which may arise respecting employment, were established by an act of July 9, 1926. Every such court was divided into two chambers, one for wage-earning employees and the other for salaried employees. The courts had jurisdiction over such matters as disputes respecting apprenticeship, employment contracts; application for the restitution of deposits, certificates, documents, tools, etc., handed over in pursuance of the employment contracts; disputes concerning workbooks; and disputes arising between employees in connection with the carrying on of a trade or occupation. No information is available on arbitration procedure during hostilities nor following the occupation.

- 60 -

v!C

7.

COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT

Pre-War Development

Although the cooperative movement in Belgium dates from 1873, when the first cooperative law was passed, there has never been a general unified cooperative movement in that country. The cooperatives have been divided along both religious and political lines. Throughout 70 years of growth, not only have these divisions persisted, but apparently not even friendly relationships have been attained among the groups. Gestures made by the Social-Democratic associations in the direction of unity or joint action were without result. The Boerenbond (the Belgian Peasants' league) and the ceniral federation of the Christian-Democratic associations worked together to some extent, united by their dislike of the Socialists' cooperatives0 The one recorded instance in which all branches acted together occurred in 1933 when an unusually bitter attack was launched against the cooperative movement. The cooperative movement was also held back, both by the aitagonism of private dealers and the ignorance and inertia of the exploited workers. By 1930, however, the workers were described as "alive to their rights and responsibilities." The nonThe Belgian cooperatives have taken a variety of forms. agricultural associations include the distributive associations, the cooperative pharmacies-to some of which the sick funds are affiliatedthe supply and marketing associations, credit and housing-loan associations, workers' productive associations running cooperative workshops, and the "Nations"--dock workers' associations each of which tended to concentrate on longshore work for vessels of a given nation, Also among the nonagricultural associations, official statistics include enterprises not ordinarily considered as genuine cooperatives nor as part of the cooperative movement of a country-factories and and organized as distributive associations run for, private profit cooperatives only for convenience. These became especially ummerous after the first World War. The agricultural group included associations purchasing fari and home supplies, the cooperative dairies, and a group of credit associations of the Baiffeisen type.

61 -

Very little statistical information is available for all of the different types of Belgian cooperatives. The only comprehensive figures are those compiled by the Belgian Government, which made periodic surveys of the agricultural cooperatives nearly up to the outbreak of World WarII. Concerning the nonagricultural associations only two surveys were made covering 1908 and 1922; for succeeding years (through 1938) only the number of associations is given. Between 1908 and 1922 the number of retail distributive cooperative associations decreased, owing to the amalgamation of small associations into larger ones, but the membership increased by over 50 percent and the amount of business done increased over fivefold. All other types of associations increased their membership and business, but the greatest growth in business done was that of the credit associations.

-62- -

Table 1.--Number, membership, and business of nonagricultural cooperatives in Be:lgium in specified years, by type of association. :Num- t :ber t Type of association
tot

t :Num-:
t
Mebr mm of : business :t:cia:

tasso-t

:ca :tions:

:ber t t Members tof Lasso-: : :tions:

Amoumt, of : business : t
t

t :lhmber of associations

: ttt Altypes ............... = 945SI/524,700]/959 094,826'

: t

t t t Consumers' distributive a 72,129,649: 594t 250,106 : association..........: 1,556,255 V 100: 6: 24,000: 836,121,596: 45: Credit associations.....: t : Housing-loan associ4,552,652: 4,229: 24: 2,688,740: 66: 10,897: Insurance associations..: a t Workers' productive t a 2,012,541: 2, X25: 26: 1890: 5,268,2551 29: : Industrial prouctive 14,716,559: 84: 5,506: r Supply and marketing 5,686:t 12,120,448: 82: associations..........: Miscellaneous...........: 189: 21,162: 10,152,592:
r

: a : rancs t: 1A8 /517,l2211/5 327,495 810 2 05t2,743168348) t t a t a a 464,942,000: 586 : 577: 582: 560 55: 588,708: 12: 40 671: 6,288,526: 151 16: 10: 129: 157: 221: 205 355,192: 4,231, 861,5Z.: 85: t t a 10,405,000: 107: 128: 127: 125 51: 4,528: 61: 67: 72 10,874,000: 54: 12,897: 51: a r a t 12,570,965: 57 51: 55: 8,5021 45: 59: 37,991,000: 955: 59: 42: 45 57: 58: t t a 50,954,000: 455: 505: 655: 697 12,227: 52: t a a 484,787,000: 292: 550: 412: 454 17, 456: 217: 27,844,000: 565: 791:1,215:1,451 40,186: 411:
2 s
Moo

~/ Data relate onily to associations that reported on this point. &Enterprises run jointly by private profit businesses; not usually considered as part of the cooperative movement.

In the absence of comprehensive figures for later years, table 2 has been compiled from various sources, showing for the distributive, workers' productive, and agricultural 2/ cooperatives such data as are available on number of associations, membership, and business. For the agricultural associations the figures shown cover all types. The information for the distributive and workers' associations does not include associations not affiliated to any central organizations but which are in total probably nowhere near as important in either membership or business as the groups shown. There is also a group of associations belonging to the Liberal Party, but they are described as "negligible." No data whatever were available for the "Nations," the urban credit associations, pharmacies, supply and marketing associations, or the "miscellaneous" group.

For detailed data on agricultural cooperatives see table 2.

- 64 -

Table 2.--Number, membership, and business of

Belgian cooperatives in specified years.

ype r afiliaionNumber Yearand afiliaion Yearandr ype of association 1950 Consumers' distributive cooperatives... Social-.Democratic............

associa-: s tin

oft

Members

2 Amont

of business

francs 105. 54; 49:

2

Public employees (neutral)...........

Workers' productive associations: Social-Democratic .................... Agricultural associat1,ones: Catholic and other....... .....
Total.....
**C*.*, .

428,260: '282,425 145,855: ./4,500: 275.245: 706,00O5 :

1,160,609,175 812,747, 805 547,861,570 51,257,348 2,207,913,525 998,205,384 728,709,299 269,494,085 50,790,053

19:
2,92

1955 Cons~umers' distributive cooperatives... . . Social-Democratic.. ...... ,w...... employees (neutra/')......... Public
Wokes

80, 45. 57:

12= Z :

504,568=
548,5682
18,000:

productive associations:

Social-Democratic ...... *6*O ... 0 Agricultural associations: Catholic and otherih,,.................

2 6252 2,728,

259,659 769,969. 585,0231

50,6000 1.5499675,417 1,047,217,618 657,694,618 80,000,000 309,525,000 55,121,212 1,602,58,850

1957 Consumers' distributive cooperatives...t

Social-Democratic.... .

......

421 54: 22: 2,625: 2,7432

549,5592 75,0001

Christian-Democratic.................: Public employees (neutral)...........: Workenrs' productive associations:

160,464: 5,5892
t

Social-Democratic...........

....... .

Agricultural associati ons: Catholic and othor4 ....- V.....e....t

Total...........e

259,659: 850 271=

~/Estimated. ~Data relate to 1929. ~/Data relate to 1956.

AlData

relate to 1954.

65

The cooperative movement has greatly helped in the political, economic, and moral emancipation of the workers. All branches of the cooperative movement in Belgium appear to have been concerned with the moral well-being of the members, but concern for their political and economic "emancipation" appears to have been particularly characteristic of the workingclass associations of the Social-Democratic group. Not only did the latter support the trade-union movement in its fight for better conditions for the workers but they worked incessantly Outstanding for such for the members' cultural and social welfare. activities is "Le Vooruit" at Ghent, which built a large and complete social-welfare building and maintained sick and maternity benefits, old-age pensions for members and employees, and a disablement fund for employees. The People's Houses (Maisons du peuple) were created all over Belgium as community centers and supported by the cooperatives out of their earnings. "La Prevoyance Sociale" is the one insurance association serving the whole of the workingmen's cooperative movement and has expanded its premium income from 3,790,000 francs in 1922 to 51,874,000 francs in 1936. Part of its earnings have gone to the purchase and maintenance of several properties for the free care of convalescents and children needing special attention.

Consumers'

Cooperation

To a considerable extent the history of consumers' cooperation in Belgium is that of the Social-Democratic associations, for they constituted two-thirds of the entire movement. The other third consisted of associations affiliated with the Liberal and Clerical Parties and the neutral group of associations belonging to the public (civilservice) employees. The first legal action authorizing the formation of cooperatives By 1875 there were already 38 urban was the law of May 18, 1873. cooperative associations. Exact figures are lacking to show the growth of membership and business from year to year. However, by 1908 the nearly 400 consumers' distributive associations had over 250,000 In 1900 members and an annual business exceeding 72,000,000 francs. thay had formed a wholesale association (Federation des Cooperatives belges). World War broke out, the consumers' distribAt the time the first utive movement was gaining ground every year and had taken steps toward stability. All a program of consolidation designed to increase its this came to a stop with the outbreak of the War of 1914-18.

66

-66-

The distributive cooperatives suffered greatly during the war, although membership did increase appreciably as a result of the associations' efforts to supply the people and keep the prices down. The organizations were as far as possible kept intact for postwar activity. The policy of amalgamation, which had been decided on before the war,began to be carried into effect even before the armistice, and this was hastened after 1918. A considerable number of mergers took place, resulting in the creation of large district associations. Early in the twenties leaders in the movement also began to consider the consolidation of the various productive facilities which the wholesale and retail associations had undertaken. Some had been consolidated in the above amalgamation of distributive cooperatives, but too much duplication remained for so small a country as Belgium. In 1924 a central productive association, the General Cooperative Society, was formed, to take over existing factories and to branch into new fields. Production of perishable commodities, such as bakery and meat products, and the provision of personal service were left to local initiative. Throughout the 1920's, while the number of associations was growing less, both membership and business continued to expand. A change, however, had been gradually taking place in the business activities. Bakeries, formerly the predominant activity of workingmen's associations were far outnumbered by the maintenance of various types of stores. By June 1927, the Social-Democratic cooperatives were serving members in 1,231 of the 2,200 communes in Belgium. The 55 large associations affiliated to the Belgian Cooperative Union were running 918 branches and 338 "maisons du peuple." The Belgian Cooperative Union also accepted into membership workers' productive associations. In 1926 a variety of lines was represented in these associations; they were found in the printing and publishing, brewing, construction, and tanning industries, as well as in the manufacture of glass, cigars, shoes, and enameled ware. By 1938, however, it was reported that about half of them were in the printing trade. Although membership in the cooperatives was increasing in the depression years from 1930 to 1934, their business showed a continuous shrinkage. One of the large district associations failed and had to be taken over for reorganization. The Belgian Labor Bank, which had been organized by a cooperative association for the financing of workers' productive enterprises-enterprises which were new unprosperous-and which contained both workers' and associations' deposits, also went under, The large associations, comprising one-fifth of the total number, had four-fifths of the savings deposits, nine-tenths of the share capital, and seven-eights of the total business of these associations. The remaining four-fifths were small, ranging in membership down

- 67 -

to only 15 persons. The practices of many of these left much to be desired. It was apparent that drastic measures were needed if the movement was to be saved.

In June 1934, at a special meeting of delegates convened by the

Cooperative Union, a National Council of the union was established,

with the intention of raising the efficiency of the associations, reducing overhead expense, and standardizing practices. The Council was
invested with considerable powers of discipline over the local asso-

ciations, having the right to summon before it the management of any

association, to make recommendations for the improvement of methods and procedure and, in the event of the recommendations being rejected by the management, to take the matter to a special meeting of the local membership concerned. Among the duties with which the National Council

was charged were those of making sure that all the cooperative business
went to the wholesale and the general productive society, of establishing a uniform rate of patronage refund, of merging associations where necessary, mapping out their trading areas, and introducing uniform improved commercial and financial practice. A further centralization was effected with regard to the wholesale, which had been formed by 1900 as noted. During the above-described period of growth of the distributive associations, the cooperative wholesale (Federation des Cooperatives Belges) had also been steadily increasing its volume of business, but as cooperative leaders pointed out, the local association patronage of the wholesale left a good deal to be desired. In 1929--29 years after the establishment of the federation-its business of 251,560,649 francs constituted less than 50 percent of the retail associations' volume. Its own productive activity was still small, as was also the volume produced by the productive association (General Cooperative Society). Then in 1954 and 1955 the wholesale society,-the Belgian Cooperative Union, and the central productive association were amalgamated under the name of the last of these (Societe Generale Cooperative). The combined organization was to take over the functions of all, namely wholesaling, production, and educational work. At the same time a new association, subsidiary to the General Cooperative Society, was formed under the name, Coop-Depots, to act as a savings bank for all the associations in the Social-Democratic branch of the consumers movement, with the right to prevent any association from making investments in fixed assets which were deeme4 unwise, the right of examination and audit of all associations' books and accounts, and the responsibility for the collective liability of the cooperative movement for the Government credit granted to it. The insurance association, La Prevoyance Sociale, also became a subsidiary of the General Cooperative Society.

- 68 -

By these measures the Belgian Social-Democratic cooperative movement became (with the exception of the Rumanian movement) probably the most highly centralized one in Europe, with the central bodies having an unusual amount of authority over the affiliated associations. The situation in the Rumanian movement differed from that in Belgium in that, in Rumania, centralized control was effected through government action, not by the associations themselves, and the control was exercised in part by forces outside the cooperative movement; in the Belgian movement the authority was delegated by the cooperative associations and the authority exercised was still that of democracy, with final control remaining in the movement itself. Although sales fell off in 1937, the financial condition of the associations improvedconsiderably. At the same time that the movement was rearranging its internal affairs, it was also under bitter attack from the business and traders' groups, motivated by the difficult economic conditions. A number of pseudo-cooperatives of private business had been instituted, to take advantage of the court ruling which exempted cooperative patronage refunds from taxation. These attacks resulted in bringing together (for the first time of which record was found) all the branches of the consumers' cooperatives movement--the workingmen's cooperatives, the league of civil service associations, and the Christian Democratic associations--to counter the campaign. The 1936 Congress of the Social-Democratic associations directed the General Society to study the cooperative law, with the idea of recommending changes that would prevent the incorporation of pseudocooperatives under its terms, and approved a campaign to enlighten the public as to the cooperatives' true position in payment of taxes. In 1935, two legislative bills were introduced, which would have imposed crippling taxes upon the associations and limited the membership of cooperative associations to families with incomes of less than 24,000 francs g/ ($816) a year. Both measures were inspired by the private retail dealers, but the cooperatives, with the aid of the trade-unions, were able to defeat them.

2/

Franc at par (since 1935 devaluation) = 3.4 cents.

69 -

Agricultural Cooperation

By 1922 the agricultural cooperative movement had not only recovered from the first World War, but had exceeded its pre-war position both in membership and business. From then on, through 1929, it increased steadily, and, at that date, its business was 7 times as great as in 1922. The depression years reduced the volume of agricultural cooperative business nearly 50 percent, but even at that the agricultural branch of the movement suffered less than the distributive branch which depended largely on the wage-earning class. As noted, a large part of the agricultural cooperative movement in Belgium consisted of the associations belonging to the Belgische The importance of this organization in agricultural coopBoerenbond. erative is indicated by the fact that in 1922 it accounted for 1,078 of the 2,467 farmers' cooperatives, and 93,770 of the 19,339 members. The Boerenbond was started in 1890, consisting of local guilds, dairies and credit associations. It was entirely Roman Catholic and was managed largely by priests of the church. Various activities were carried on, and late in the twenties the associations entered the distributive field and began to open stores and bakeries, as a challenge to what it called the "monopoly of the Socialists." In the 1930's it joined with the Christian-Democratic associations in the bakery and grocery trade and with them established joint-stock bakeries, in competition, in places where there were large bakeries of the SocialDemocratic associations.

Trend of Development of Retail and Central Associations

The Central Cooperative Union and the Federation of Belgian Cooperatives (the wholesale) became departments of the General Cooperatives Society under the reorganization plan adopted in 1934. The merger of the union was effected in 1935 but several years elapsed before the wholesale associations business was finally taken over. Notwithstanding the troubles encountered by the cooperatives, sizable sums were returned in patronage refunds and spent for social During the depression period, 1929-30 through purposes, every year. 1933-34, a total of nearly 134,000,000 francs was paid out in returns on patronage and nearly 47,000,000 francs was allocated for socialwelfare activities.

-70-

70

Consumers' Cooperatives Just Prior to the Outbreak of War

In spite of various political crises, the Belgian cooperatives in 1938 were able to maintain their position, registering increases in business, earnings, and share capital. The 40 associations in the Social-Democratic group were serving cooperators in 1,247 of the 2,671 communes in Belgium. They were operating 1,129 stores, 60 bakeries, and 375 maisons du peuple. Their sales in 1938 amounted to 663,073,337 francs, distributed as follows: Francs
Groceries and provisions . o . . . . . 249,054,649

Bakery products . . . . . .. . Clothing. .. . . . . . . . . ..

Maisons du peuple . . . .

. . . . ..

176,305,035 59,847,667
22,369,138

......

Theaters and motion pictures . . Furniture and household supplies,

meat, coal, etc. . ..........

10,752,505
144,744,343

The business of the General Cooperative Society fell off slightly from 1937 to 1938. Among the other National associations affiliated to the General Cooperative Society were the National Association for Cooperative Ma.agement, which takes over and operates local associations that get into financial difficulties, until they are on their feet again; the Centrale de Cinema, operating the motion-picture sections of the maisons du peuple; the Maisons des Mutualistes, the central organization of the sick funds, with nearly 100 drug stores; and the Central Organization for the Sale of Radio Apparatus. The civil-service employees' cooperatives, dating from about 1880 and federated into La Soci~te Cooperative F4derale de Belgique (formed in 1890), had a combined membership of about 160,000 and an annual business of over 300,000,000 francs. 2/ The business done by their wholesale (formed early in the 1920's after several unsuccessful attempts) amounted to about 38,000,000 francs. Very little printed material is available regarding the Catholic or Christian-Democratic associations, but the latter are reported to have had a membership of about 76,000 and annual sales of some 80,000,000 francs. The Christian-Democratic associations had a central wholesale organization "Bien Etre" supplying groceries and bakery goods. The Liberal group was reported to be very small.

2/ Whereas the Social-Democratic associations served all corners, the civil-service associations dealt only with members
71 -

Altogether it appears that the Belgian consumers' distributive assoclations, before the outbreak of the present war represented a total of over 580,000 cooperators. Counting their families, the associations were serving about a fourth of the total population. The combined sales (well over a billion francs yearly) represented about 10 percent of the retail trade of Belgium. As already noted, with the exception of certain perishable goods, the productive activity was more and more centralized in the General Cooperative Society. By the time of the general reorganization of 1955, combining wholesale, productive, financial, and educational functions in the General Cooperative Society, it was producing a fairly large variety of articles. Cooneratives suring the War War broke out in September 1959, and by the middle of the month mobilization of troops had begun in Belgium. Some of the cooperative employees were among the first to be called up, and the General Cooperative Society immediately urged on all societies the formation of a fund from which it recommended family allowances be paid to their families, amounting to 5 francs a day for the wife and 2.50 for each child; this was to be in addition to the State grant. Belgium was occupied by the Germans in May 1940, after an 18-day blitzkrieg during which much destruction of property, as well as loss of life,occurred. Data are not available to indicate to what extent cooperatives suffered in the invasion nor how many of them were lost when certain districts ceded to Belgium under the Treaty of Versailles were reannexed to Germany. Whether the cooperatives have been allowed to continue operation under the German military government is also unknown. It is known that the business of the General Cooperative Society in 1940 declined to 158,737,000 francs, a drop of 15.5 percent as compared with 1938. It is probable that the local associations are still operating and the bakeries still making bread, but, even if in operation, probably one of their main difficulties would be to obtain goods to sell, in view of the systematic looting that has taken place in Belgium as in all other countries occupied by the Germans. Various new organizations have been created by the Germans to control agriculture and the collection of the farm produce. How far these may have superseded and eliminated the agricultural cooperatives is not known.

- 72 -

Feerations

in

Begian

Cooratiie

bovement

General Cooperative Society (Societe generale cooperative (S.G.C.). Address: 6 Rue Lambert Crickx, Brussels. President, F. Logen; General director, J. Papart; and General secretary, Willy Serwy. Federal Cooperative Society (Societe cooperative federale de Belgique ("Federale de Belgique"). Address: 85 Rue Vanderschrick, Brussels. President, E. Selvais. Belgian Farmers' League (Belgische Boerenbond)r 24, Louvain. President, G. Mullie.. Address: Minderbroedersstraat

Sourcs: This section is based on data from the following publications: Annuaire statistique de la Belgique (Belgium, Office central de Statistique, Brussels), 1920, 1922, 1926, 1951, 1952, 1935, and 1937; La Cooperation Socialiste belge, 1924 (Office cooperatif belge, Brussels); La Cooperation Socialiste beige, 1926-27--Resultats du recensement opera par les some de L'Office coopiratif beige (Brussels); Bulletin Mensuel du Parti Ouvrier beige (Brussels), July 10, 1922; La Cooperation beige (Brussels), issues of October 15, 1921, July 1, 1922, February 1, July 7 and August 1, 1923, December 15, 1924, June 15, 1925, and June 15, 1926; International Cooperative Bulletin (International Cooperative Alliance, London), issues of January 1911, September 1912, April 1915, August 1914, March and August 19L5, February 1916, August, October and December 1918, March 1919, September

and October 1920, and November 1925; Review of International Cooperation

(International Cooperative Alliance, London), issues of January and August

1924, and February and May 1928, 7ebruary and October 1929, March and December 1951, October and December 1933, Jtuae, July and December 1954, January and July 1955, November and December 1956, June, October and November 1937, April and August 1958, February, April and November 1959, and January 1940; People's Yearbooks (English Cooperative Wholesale Society, Manchester), 1929, 1950, 1955, 1954, 1955, 1956, 1958, 1940, 1941; Cooperative Information (International Labor Office), No. 5, 1955, No. 15, 1957, and No. 1, 1940; International Directory of Cooperative Organizations (International Labor Office), 1959, and Report from United States consul at Brussels, June 15, 1954,

-73N

8. SOCIAL INSURANCE

Compulsory insurance,under State auspices, against the risks of old age and death is provided in Belgium under different systems for wage earners, salaried employees, miners, and seamen. The funds are maintained by contributions by employers and workers and by State subsidies. The General Savings and Old-Age Pension Fund administers the wage-earners'- system and has a certain amount of supervision over the salaried employees' and miners' systems, while the seamen's insurance system is managed by the Relief and Provident Fund for Seamen sailing under the Belgian Flag. Sickness, maternity, tuberculosis, invalidity, old-age and widows' and orphans' insurance is organized on a voluntary basis for members of mutual benefit societies. The State subsidizes those funds which satisfy certain legal provisions and the General Savings and Pension Fund is responsible for the management of the funds of approved societies. Unemployment insurance is also organized on a voluntary basis through the medium of the trade-unions. The State pays a subsidy equal to 50 percent of the contributions paid by the members and assistance is also given by the National Crisis Fund. Compensation for industrial accidents dates from 1903 and for occupational diseases from 1927. The diseases which entitle a worker to compensation and the occupations giving rise to the different diseases are listed in the law. The General Savings and Retirement Fund which administers the wage earners' pension system and assists in the management of the salaried employees' and miners' systems was reported to have total deposits at the end of August 1943 of 14,423 million francs. During the first 8 months of the year 2,573 million francs were received as compared with 1,14 francs in the corresponding months of 1942. The withdrawals in 1943 amounted to 949 million francs as compared with 937 million francs in the first 8 months of 1942. The Belgian laws providing for compensation for industrial accidents and diseases, old-age and survivors' insurance, and family allowances have been continued by the German occupying authorities. In March 1942, payments were increased by 10 percent.

74

Invalidiy. Old Age. andsDeath

Wage Earners Compulsory insurance against old age and death was provided by a law of December 10, 1924, which has been frequently amended. An act of December 15, 1937, consolidated and amended the previous legislation. Coveraae.--The law covers wage-earning employees, irrespective of sex and nationality, employed in Belgium and such persons employed abroad but domiciled in Belgium who are in the service either of an employer established in Belgium or of an undertaking with, its head office in Belgium. Persons not subject to the law and over six years of age, are allowed to insure voluntarily. The law does not cover miners, seamen, and salaried employees who are covered by special acts, or wage-earning employees in the service-of the State, provinces, communes, public institutions, and public utility undertakings who are entitled to pensions, and widows' and orphans' benefits at least equal to those provided for in the act. nAdminsttio.-The General Savings and Old-Age Pension Fund is responsible for the administration of the act under the supervision of the Minister of Finance and the Minister responsible for social welfare. At the end of every 5-year period the law requires that if there is a sufficient surplus the Pension Fund in agreement with these Ministries shall distribute part of this surplus between the living members of -t1b Fund who have paid contributions in pursuance of this act and the persons in receipt of pensions. An annual subsidy, the amount of which and the conditions for the grant of which are normally fixed by royal order, is granted to approved mutual benefit societies which act as intermediaries between insured persons and the General Savings and Old-Age Pension Fund with a view to the administration of the act, for the purpose of meeting their expenses of management. Contriutions.-The insurance system is financed by equal monthly contributions by employers and wage earners, supplemented by a State subThe subsidy amounts to 50 percent of the individual pension with sidy. a maximm of 1,200 francs a year if the pension is paid from the age of If the pension begins at an earlier age, the State 65 years onward. aontribution is proportionately reduced. The State subsidy is not granted to insured persons of alien nationality unless an agreement providing for equality of treatment has been concluded with their country of origin. For the purpose of fixing the amount of are divided into 8 wage classes as follows: the contribution, employees

75 -

Wage Classes and Contributions Under Wage-Earners Insurance System, Ordinary Industries and Unhealthful Industries Clas ages
Wages per :

ordinary industries ! Unhealthful industries

_ ...... _..._.. .... e

Class : *

week : Francs

Contributions per month

1Emper : Employee : Emloyer

:- poyee Em Francs 4.00 6.00 8.00

10.00

Francs
2.50 3.50 5.00
6.50

France
4.00 6.00 8.00
10.00

1 2 3
4

Under 50 50.01- 75.00 75.01-100.00

100.01-125.00

2.50 3.50 5.00

6.50

5 6 7 8

125.01-150.00 150.01-175.00 175.01-200.00 Over 200

8.00 9.50 11.00 12.50

8.00 9.50 11.00 12.50

12.00

14.00
16.00 18.00

12.00 14.00 16.00 18.00

The contributions are payable up to age 65. After that age if an insured person is still employed, the employer continues to pay the contribution but it is paid into the fund for widows and orphans instead of into the insurance organization. In the event of involuntary unemployment or of sickness, insured persons over 21 years of age are required to pay a contribution of 5 francs for each full month of unemployment or sickness. If the insured wage earner is out of work as a result of an industrial accident, his contributions are deducted, until he is able to resume work, from the indemnity paid him under the workmen's compensation law. If the employer has an insurance policy with an approved insurance undertaking, the latter is required to deduct the insured person's contribution from the compensation paid, and send this amount each month to the employer. Supplementary contributions may be made by wage-earning employees and their employers for the purpose of augmenting the pension. However, in the case of a male insured person such insurance may not take effect until 2 years after the payment of the first such contribution and if the payment of the supplementary contribution is interrupted for more than 1 year, there is a new qualifying period of 2 years with respect to subsequent payments. In the event of the death of the insured person before the end of the period, the supplementary contributions by the wage earner are transmitted without interest to his widow or.to his heirs: if unmarried, a widower, or divorced, and the employer's payments are returned to him. The State subsidy is payable for such supplementary pensions subject to the same limitations as for the regular pension.

22-year

-76-

Contributions are payable by employers for every wage-earning employee. The employees' contributions are deducted from wages by the employer or the wage-earning employee may transmit them himself, either directly or through an approved mutual benefit society to which he belongs.

Benefits.--The pensionable age for both men and women is 65 but in the case of men a proportionately reduced pension may be paid as
from any birthday from the sixtieth to the sixty-fifth and in the case of women from any birthday from the fifty-fifth to the sixty-fifth. In such cases application for retirement has to be made at least 12 months before the date selected for the beginning of the pension. Workers in unhealthy occupations may retire on the same basis at the age of 55 years in the case of male insured persons and 50 years in the ease of females. A widow's pension is payable provided the marriage took place before the husband began to benefit from the old-age annuity. If the. husband and wife were of the same age the widow's pension amounts to 35 percent of the pension to which her husband was entitled if death occurred before the age of 41 years, the percentage increasing with each added year up to 50 percent at 55 years and upwards. If there was a difference in age between the insured person and his wife, the amount of the pension varies in conformity with a scale approved by royal order. If the insured person was unmarried, widowed, or divorced, half the money to his credit in the insurance fund is paid to his heirs if he dies before beginning to draw his pension and the remainder to the Widows' and Orphans' Fund, but if he had begun to draw his pension all the capital is paid to the Fund. If the pensioner was unmarried, half of the capital paid to the Fund is paid to his relatives in the descending line, or in default of descendents, to relatives in the ascending line. The contributions paid on account of a female insured person are used to provide an old-age pension upon retirement, and, if she so elects and is over 18 years of age, an annuity to her dependents if death occurs before beginning to draw benefit. The survivors' annuity payable in such eases to designated persons whom the insured female supported or to her husband may not exceed 30 percent of the benefit to which the insured woman would have been entitled. Pensions vary in amount according to the length of time during which contributions have been made. The State assumed the major part of the cost of the pensions of those born during the earlier years, its share diminishing thereafter in proportion as the employers' and workers' contributions accumulate. A bonus granted by the State is payable at the age of 65 years, or at a reduced rate if the insured person had obtained payment of his or her pension at an earlier age, to insured persons of Belgian nationality The bonus, based on the age of who were born between 1867 and 1907.

- 77 -

the beneficiary, ranges from 3,200 francs a year for married male beneficiaries born in 1867 to 100 francs for those born in 1907. The bonus is not payable to insured persons residing outside Belgium. If the bonus is not granted before the age of 65 there is no inquiry into the means of the insured person. The widows of insured persons may also receive the bonus at age 65, without inquiry into means, provided they have paid the required contributions as voluntarily insured persons and the marriage was contracted before the husband attained the age of 60 years. In order to receive the bonus an insured person and his wife, or her husband, if any, are required to sign an agreement to cease to engage in any activity for the purpose of gain from the date on which the application is signed. Wage-earning employees who do not fulfill the conditions for the

right to a bonus without an inquiry into means and voluntarily insured persons are entitled to receive the bonus if their incomes do not exceed a stated amount. The maximum amount of the bonus is granted if the total annual income from all sources of the insured person with that of his wife (or her husband) does not exceed 2,800 francs in the case of a married insured person, or 1,900 francs in the case of an insured person who is unmarried, widowed, or divorced. The bonuses of persons who have not paid the requisite number of statutory annual contributions
are decreased by specified amounts in respect of every missing or insufficient contribution. If the number of such contributions paid is

less than half no bonus will be granted.

An amendment of July 18, 1938, which became effective January 1, 1939, passed for the purpose of remedying injustices caused by the fault or negligence of third parties provided that for the purposes of granting the State subsidy the bonuses on old-age pensions and on

widows' pensions and orphans' allowances should be deemed to have been

paid within the prescribed time limit if the employer had transmitted to the Old-Age Pensions Fund the contributions in arrear, together with, where necessary, the sum requisite by way of compensation for the loss of pension incurred by the person liable to insurance or his widow. Such payments must have been transmitted before January 1, 1938, or after that date in pursuance of a judicial decision, or voluntarily, by the expiration of the year next following the cessation of the contract for the hiring of services of the person liable to insurance. Additional allowances are granted to widows born prior to 1907 and in the event of the death of a married male insured person an annual allowance of 240 francs for each child under the age of 16 years is paid to the surviving widow and in the event of her death the allowance is A bonus of 420 francs is also paid for chilincreased to 420 francs. dren under the age of 16 years who were maintained by an insured person (irrespective of sex) who was unmarried, widowed, or divorced.

The number of insured persons in 1933 was 1,772,769.

o

- 78 -

Li~l
Salaried Employees
The compulsory old-age and widows' and orphans' insurance system for salaried employees is governed by the acts of March 10, 1925, and June 18, 1930, as amended by the acts of March 3, 1933, and May 23, 1936. Coverage.-The law covers salaried employees of both sexes, of Belgian nationality, who are employed in Belgium or abroad by a Belgian firm, or a branch established in Belgium by a foreign firm, and whose salaries are paid by the said Belgian firm or branch whatever the amount of salary; salaried employees of both sexes, of foreign nationality, who are employed in Belgium on account of a Belgian firm established in Belgium, or a branch established in Belgium by a foreign firm, and whose salaries are paid by the said Belgian firm or branch; salaried employees of both sexes in the service of the State, provinces and communes, and also those of public institutions and public utility undertakings who are not covered by staff regulations which grant them similar benefits. Subject to certain conditions the law treats as salaried employees liable to insurance, professional journalists, teachers in private educational establishments, lyric or dramatic artists, and instrumental musicians employed in Belgium under a contract of at least one month. Salaried employees of both sexes of Belgian nationality employed in Belgium in the service of an employer established abroad may insure voluntarily if they fulfill the other legal requirements. Similarly, former salaried employees who have contributed to compulsory insurance for a certain number of years may continue the insurance. Administration.--The insurance carriers are the National Salaried Employees' Pension Fund, the General Savings and Pension Fund, and the approved insurance institutions, that is, the funds set up in industrial, commercial or financial undertakings, joint funds covering several underThe National Salaried takings, and legally formed insurance undertakings. Employees' Pension Fund, attached to the Ministry of Industry, Labor, and Social Welfare, is managed by a Director-General and a governing body having five representatives, each, of employers and employees, and of the The branches of the Ministry of Labor concerned with social welfare. first two institutions are under State guarantee and supervision while the approved insurance institutions are merely supervised by the State which does not guarantee their operations. A Salaried Employees Allowances Fund is responsible for the examination of the applications and the payment of the old-age, widows' and orphans' allowances, and the invalidity allowances which were payable pending the coming into operation of the legislation respecting compulsory invalidity insurance. Contribution.--The insurance system is financed by contributions by the insured persons and their employers, a State subsidy, and invested The amount of the contributions by employees is fixed at 3 percapital. cent of the salary up to a maximum salary of 18,000 francs a year and 4 An insured person who is employed by two or more percent for employers.

79 -

i'i

employers in the course of a year is entitled to cease contributions for the year when he has paid 540 francs. The employer remains liable, however, for a yearly sum not to exceed 720 francs. The State subsidy amounts to 50 percent of the old-age pension from the date of the beginning of the payment of the pension with a maximum of 1,200 francs a year if the oldage pension begins at the pensionable age. The contributions to the Allowances Fund for employees born before January 1, 1895, vary from 90 to 30 francs annually according to the date of birth of the insured person and for employers an annual contribution of 120 francs is payable for each employee up to the year 1960. Benefits.--The pensionable age is 65 for men and 60 for women. The old-age pension for which no qualifying period is imposed is constituted by the accumulation in a personal account of the contributions of the insured person and his employer and by the State subsidy. In addition, insured persons born between December 31, 1861, and January 1, 1895, receive an old-age bonus from the Allowances Fund varying from 200 to 1,500 francs for men and 130 to 770 francs for women, according to the date of birth. Insured persons retiring before the pensionable age receive a proportionately reduced pension and bonus. A widows' pension which varies from 35 percent of the pension to -which the husband would have been entitled if he dies before the age of 41 years to 50 percent if he dies at the age of 55 or over, is paid if the husband and wife were of the same age. If there is a difference in the ages, the pension varies in accordance with a scale approved by the Government. An additional grant is made from the Allowances Fund to widows of insured persons born between 1861 and 1895 amounting to from 35 to 50 percent of the pension which the husband would have received at 65 years, and an annual allowance of 300 francs is paid in respect of every child under 18 years of age. The number of insured persons in 1933 was 235,000.

Miners Compulsory pensions for miners were introduced by an act of June 5, 1911, which has been amended by a large number of acts and orders. An order of August 25, 1937, consolidated and amended the previous legislation. Coverage.--The law provides insurance against old age, invalidity and premature death for wage-earning employees working in any Belgian coal-mining undertaking and employees' inspectors of mines,and wageearning employees in metalliferous mines worked under a concession. Wage-earning employees in underground undertakings such as slate quarries, etc., and in coal byproduct undertakings which are attached to coal mines, and wage-earning employees of private contractors are covered by the law if at least 5 wage-earning employees are normally employed. Alien wage-earning employees are included in the system but are not eligible for the advantages derived from State assistance unless their country of origin guarantees equivalent advantages to Belgians.
80 -

Administration.-The insurance system is administered by the National Miners' Pension Fund, the regional provident funds, and the General Savings and Pension Fund. The National Fund is the central organization, with the provident funds responsible for the administration of the scheme in their respective areas, while the activities of the General Savings and Pension Fund are restricted to the accumulation of the part of the contributions paid into personal accounts. The National Fund is managed under the Director-General by a governing body including six representatives, each, of employers in regional districts, employees in the same districts, and the Minister of Industry, Labor, and Social Welfare and the Minister of Finance, and a technical and financial committee. Contributions.--The amount of the contributions is fixed at 11 percent of wages, 4 percent to be paid by employees and 62 by employers. The State subsidy amounts, in general, to 50 percent of the total amount of the pension acquired with the General Savings and Pension Fund and the sum paid by the National Fund with a maximum 1,200 francs per year. If the total State subsidy, however, does not amount to one-third of the expenditure arising out of the administration of the act and payable by the National Fund and by the State, the subsidy is increased to one-third of the said expenditure and the difference refunded to the National Fund. The State also pays one-third of the orphans' allowances and one-fifth of the invalidity allowances. During the transitional period, it also grants old-age bonuses and widows' bonuses, the amount of which varies with date of birth of the insured person, his family responsibilities and the nature of his work in the mine (surface or underground work). The employees are divided into seven wage classes, varying from less than 16 francs per day to more than 56 france and the daily contribution ranges from 0.10 franc for the lowest wage class to 0.58 franc for the highest. pension Benefits.--The system provides by capitalization an old-age for life from the General Savings and Pension Fund, with reversion to the widow and an additional pension from the National Fund with reversion, and by apportionment at the expense of the National Fund, a supplementary pension and an allowance for the benefit of miners and their widows, an allowance for the benefit of the widow (if any) proportionate to the number of children dependent upon her, an orphans' allowance, and a free supply of coal, and the State bonus. The pension is payable for male insured workers at age 55 for underPensions for female ground workers and age 60 years for surface workers.

insured persons begin at age 60. The benefit consists of the annuity derived from the contributions, a supplement equal to 188 percent of the basic pension payable by the National Miners' Pension Fund and the State subsidy. In addition to the supplement a bonus depending upon date of birth is paid to all pensioners ranging for married workers,from 3,200 francs for those born in 1877 to 100 francs for persons born in 1917.

- 81 -

Invalidity pensions are paid to all persons covered by the act who are incapacitated for further work owing to sickness. The amount of the pensions vary according to the marital status and the length of service of the insured persons. A pensioned employee who continues to work after beginning to receive his pension is liable for the deductions from his wages and the employer is required to make the corresponding contributions. The widows ' pension begins on the first day of the month next following the husband's death. As a transitional measure, the widows of

insured persons born before 1907 are granted an annual bonus payable by the State which ranges from 540 to 120 francs, depending upon the year of birth. If the amount of the pension is less than 840 francs, it is brought up to that amount by the National Fund. In the case of alien widows, the sum of 840 francs is reduced to 300 francs, These sums are increased to 1,200 francs and 660 francs, respectively, for widows whose husbands had completed at least 30 years' service. Pensions are also paid to widows whose husbands had been compelled to cease work on account of sickness or who were in receipt of an invalidity pension. An annual allowance is paid to widows for every child under the age of 16 years whom the insured persons actually maintained. The allowance amounts to 630 francs for each of the first 4 children, and is increased by 90 francs for each additional child up to a maximum of 990 francs for each of 8 or more children. In 1933, there were 180,645 insured persons. Seamen Compulsory sickness, invalidity, old-age, and widows' and orphans' insurance for seamen is based on the act of July 21, 1844, which established a Relief and Provident Fund for seamen sailing under the Belgian flag. This law was recast by the royal order of July 6, 1931, (amended by the royal order of April 27, 1933, which was issued in pursuance of the act of July 6, 1931), with a view to bringing its provisions into line with the regulations applicable to salaried employees and wage

earners.
Cvera ge.--Insurane is compulsory for all persons of either serx who are entered in any capacity in the list of crew of a vessel of the Belgian mercantile marine, with the exception of seamen taken on without wages or for a nominal wage, and colored seamen engaged under special conditions.

Admnistration.--The insurance system is administered by the "Relief and Provident Fund for Seamen sailing under the Belgian flag."

S82 -

:L

Contributions.-The contributions of insured persons amount to 4 percent of wages for lower ratings and 5 percent for ships' officers and seamen classed with officers, while the shipowners' contributions are equal to 2.5 percent of wages with a maximum of 24 francs a month for lower ratings and 6 percent for ships' officers and seamen classed with officers with a maximum of 72 francs a month. A State subsidy is also paid. Benefits.--The benefits include medical and pharmaceutical aid and hospital treatment. A daily cash allowance is paid to sick seamen which varies with their wages, their marital condition and the nature of the medical treatment. The cash benefit paid in case of hospitalization is from 4 to 7.50 francs a day less than that granted to those treated at home. The right to cash sick benefit is acquired after 1 year's membership in the Fund. An invalidity pension is paid to disabled seamen equal to the oldage pension, including the State subsidy, which the insured person would have obtained if he had reached the pensionable age. The invalidity pension is paid until the insured person is entitled to an old-age pension.

An old-age pension is payable to insured seamen at age 55 based on

the amount of the contributions paid by themselves and the shipowners into their personal account. The maximum State subsidy is fixed at 780 francs a year when the old-age pension is granted at the age of 55 years and it is increased progressively after that age up to a maximum of 1,200 francs at 60 years. The widow of an insured seaman is entitled to a fraction of the oldage pension acquired by her husband or to which he would have been entitled at the age of 55. This fraction varies with the difference between the ages of the husband and wife. When they are of the same age, it is as a rule equal to 50 percent of the old-age pension. The widow's pension is increased by 15 percent for each child under 18 years of age subject to a maximum of 60 percent. The State also grants

a subsidy equal to 50 percent of the pension but not to exceed 600 francs. Full orphans are entitled to a pension equal to that which would have
been granted to the widow. In case of the death of a female insured member, children are entitled to 50 percent of the pension to which she was entitled, increased by a State subsidy equal to 50 percent of the pension with a maximum of 600 francs. The average number of contributing members in 1933 was 2,953.

85 -

r~o~

Supplementary benefits were provided by the Government-in-exile

in

1943. Those benefits include establishment: of a polyclinic in Liverpool to provide medical care for sick and injured seamen and the payment of supplementary allowances to unemployed seamen on account of sickness from the seventh month of incapacity, that is, from the time the Seamen's Fund reduces the sickness allowances paid to its members by 50 percent. The supplementary allowances are at the rate of 50 percent of the benefit paid by the Fund. Pensioners receiving less than the subsistence rate of 19 monthly in the case of a single person, 112 in the case of a married couple, and L2 for each dependent child under the age of 14 years are paid an extra allowance. The resources of other members of the family in England are, The persons concerned however, taken into consideration in every case. must first contract a loan on their pension or pensions from the Belgian Loan and Savings Fund in London. The sums advanced by this Fund are deducted quarterly from the minimrum subsistence alowance. The minimum pension is rksed to x.12, by Ministerial Order. In the ease of a widow whose pens-ion is below the subsistence rate, the welfare service pays the difference between the pension and the subsistence rate which is L9 for an adult and 1.2 for every child under 14 years of age. If the widow of.a seaman who has been killed or lost at sea in the service of the British Admiralty is not entitled to a pension, an allowance at the full pension rate is paid by the welfare service.
Sickness. Maternity. Tuberculosis. Invalidity,.

OldAreg

and Widows' and Orhans' General System

An act of June 23, 1894, revising and amending an act of April 3, 1851, established a legal status for mutual benefit societies and an act These acts of July 30, 1923, authorised these societies to amalgamate. have been further amended and rules governing the payment of subsidies to the societies which were first authorized by an act of May 5, 1912, were issued by royal orders of December 22, 1931, June 1, 1932, and May 26, 1933. Coverage.--Membership in an approved mutual benefit society is open to persons 18 years of age or over or possessing legal capacity, irrespective of nationality; minors under 18 years of age, and not possessing legal capacity, if their parent or guardian consents; and married women, unless the husband objects in writing to the president or management of the society.

OS

-84N4

Administration.--Mutua

benefit societies

may

be set up as occupa-

tional or nonoccupational funds, or works' funds, or associations of persons belonging to a political or other group. They act as free, or as recognized funds subsidized by the State, according as they agree Under the or do not agree to conform with certain legal provisions. voluntary old-age insurance system,. the mutual benefit societies and their federations work in conjunction with the General Savings and Pension Fund, which is responsible for management of the funds. Contributions.-The funds of the mutual benefit societies are secured from insured persons' contributions and public subsidies. As a rule the societies organized in connection with industries receive conThe recognized societies which satisfy the tributions from employers. Qonditions as to organization and management laid down in the act or in special regulations may receive subsidies from public authorities. The State subsidy is based on membership and the amount of contributions received for the different types of benefits-medical and phai'maThe subsidy to maternity funds ceutical and sickness and invalidity. consists of a fixed eum for every case assisted and a sum varying with the total amount of contributions received. Beefits.--In accordance with the number of member.,mutual benefit societies may undertake insurance against sickness, maternity, tuberculosis, invalidity, old-age and death, The nature, rate and duration, of benefits are fixed by the rules of each society. Special regulations fix minimum benefit rates for recognized societies which insure against sickness, maternity, and tuberculosis. The minimum sickness benefit includes a daily cash benefit of not less than 6 fr nos for men 18 years of age or over, 4 francs for women Recognized societies in reand 2 francs for persons under 18 years. ceipt of the State subsidy which provide medical and pharmaceutical service for members and their families must guarantee these benefits for 2 years. Maternity benefit consists of a lump sum of at least 125 francs for each birth and a daily benefit of at least 3 francs for 6 weeks. Tuberculosis benefit includes free treatment at a sanatorium for at least 3 months Invalidity benefits are divided into benefits paid by the principal service and those paid by the special service. Benefits paid by the principal service are intended to alow sick members to continue to receive full or partial benefit until cured or up to the age of 65, after exhaustion of their right to benefit from a primary mutual benefit Any benefit granted to members aged 65 or over is paid by society. the special service. Old-age benefits consist of a pension based on the eontributions of the insured person plus a State subsidy.
85 -

In 1932, there were 3,408 recognized funds insuring against sickness with 1,289,398 members and 3,001,227 persons were entitled to medical and pharmaceutical benefit. The number insured against invalidity in 1932 in the principal service was 1,163,620 and in the special service for persons aged 65 or over, 19,694.

Unemployment Insurance Trade-Union System The voluntary unemployment insurance system of Belgium originated in local unemployment-relief appropriations which were distributed
through the medium of the trade-unions. A decree of December 30, 1920, established a system of unemployment insurance through the trade-unions, but since many workers were not affiliated with unions, branch agencies of the National Crisis Commission, which was set up in 1920, were established in various points of the country to collect contributions and to distribute relief. An order of February 18, 1924, provided for the organization of unemployment societies which, if approved and supervised by the Minister of Industry and Labor, were granted a subsidy equal to 50 percent of the contributions paid by their members. The legislation on the subject was frequently amended and an order of July 27, 1934, abolished the funds established by the local authorities responsible for the supervision of the unemployment-insurance societies and their unemployed members, and replaced them by employment and unemployment offices which were directly dependent on the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare, and were responsible not only for supervision but also for placing workers in employment. Coverage.-Voluntary insurance is open to wage-earning employees of Belgian nationality between the ages of 15 and 65 years. Persons over 18 years are required to have been employed at least 1 year in industry or commerce and persons between the ages of 15 and 18, at least 6 months. Persons whose unemployment cannot, on account of the nature of their work, be regularly supervised, such as agricultural workers, domestic servants, theatrical and musical-hall artists, independent workers, commercial representatives who work for more than one employer, etc., are excluded from insurance. An order of December 29, 1936, prescribed the conditions for admission of home workers to insurance. The admission of foreign workers is conditional on reciprocity. Administration.-The administration of the unemployment insurance system was reorganized by an order of July 27, 1935, which set up a National Employment and Unemployment Office. The National Office was made responsible for the organization and management of the employment exchange and unemployment services and was given general and permanent supervision over the official and approved unemployment societies and their local branches and also of insured persons. The Office insures the operation of the claims board, appeal boards, and a central appeal board for unemployment questions. The powers and duties of the Nationl Office are exercised through a General Council, a managing committee and a Director-General. The General Council with 18 members
- 86 N(

and 6 , ;substitutes appointed by the Cro

has 6 members and 3 substitutes

each of representative employers' and employees' orgnizationsb.

The

Council has the power of decision over the taking over of unemployment societies whose funds are exhausted, and the application of the proi.sions relating to the effects of a strike or a lockout on the t of unemployment benefit to the workers affected. The managing consisting of 6 members, had general charge of the operation of the system.

'committee

Contrlibutions.-An order of May 31, 1933, provided that in every approved society the rate of contributions should be calculated so as to cover the risk of unemployment during normal periods.- In the case of approved societies already in existence, the rates in force were doubled. An amendment of December 29, 1934, provided that the contributions of each class of insured persons should be increased 1 franc a week withia maximum of 3 francs. The contributions of salaried employees .were increased by 1,25 francs a month, Failure to pay the contribution for 13 weeks automatieally removes an insured person from the list of members, a qualifying period of not less than 1 year being required for readmission, Each approved society under the order was to receive a grant-in-aid from the State equal to two-thirds of the members' contributionis but excluding the increased contributions required from the established societies. This subsidy was deposited in the National Crisis Fund.

Benefits.-Under the amendment of January 13, 1935, the first 2 days of unemployment proved in each month during which the insured person was ir receipt of benefit did not give a right to the payment of benefit, but following the widespread strike movement in the spring of 1936, unemployment provisions were liberalized. The waiting period for the payment of benefits was fixed at 12 days per year (formerly there had been a 3-day waiting period at the beginning of each 6 months in addition to the regular waiting period of 1 day a month).
The 1933 decrees provided that the total amount of benefits and allowances might not exceed two-thirds of the average wages paid to workers in the same occupational category in the particular region during the period of unemployment, except in the ease of a worker who is a parent or supports a family of at least 3 children when the benefit may amount to three-fourths of the average wage. The amount of the regular benefit in no case may be greater than the rate of the basic allowances granted by the National Crisis Fund, but in addition to the regular allowances supplementary allowances of varying amounts may be granted from the National Crisis Fund according to ?amLy responsibil-

ities,

marital status, age,

and

the locality

in

which the unemplcoyed

resides,

87

The National Crisis Fund allowances consist of a daily basic allowance varying from 3 francs per day for young persons to 9 francs for heads of families, unmarried persons, or widowed or divorced persons without children who are 25 years or older, and supplementary daily allowances of 1 to 45 0 francs for unemployed heads of families, unmarried persons, persons who are widowed or divorced without children, or married women not heads of families who are partially unemployed, the amount varying according to residence in agricultural, semi-industrial, or commercial
communes.

Supplementary allowances of 1 and 2 francs are paid to unemployed persons between the ages of 16 and 18 according to whether they reside in semi-industrial or industrial communities. Family allowances amount to 4 francs a day for the wife, and 3 francs a day Sa aBaean for children under 15 years of age and for those between 15 and 16 who are in school or unable to work. Persons excluded from unemployment benefits include insured workers of 65 years or over who have worked fewer than 150 days in the preceding year; those unable to work because of sickness or any other reason; totally unemployed married women; workers unemployed because of a strike or lockout; and workers who refuse to accept suitable employment. The unemployment benefit scheme is based on need as regards the payment of extended benefits or supplementary benefits such as additional allowances because of family charges. Unemployed persons living alone are considered to be in need if their total weekly resources are less than 100 to 150 francs according to specified localities (from 80 to 110 francs if under 25 years) and those in households comprising two In industrial persons, if the resources are from 140 to 210 francs. or commercial localities, these limits are increased by 8 or 6 francs, In according to whether such person is over or under 14 years of age. semi-industrial or semi-commercial localities, the increases are 7 and 5 francs, respectively. When a declaration of need is made by an unemployed person, he is required to furnish detailed information as to Allowthe number of members of his family and all sources of revenue. ances are withdrawn for at least 3 months for false declaration and are permanently stopped for a second offense. The number of insured persons in 1933 was 982,642.

Seamen The Government-in-exile issued a legislative order January 10, 1941, which provides that the Minister responsible for the administration of the marine may grant daily unemployment benefit to any seaman who satisfies the following conditions: If he is an alien and has sailed on board a Belgian vessel for 1 year between January 1, 1938, and December 31, 1940;

- 88 -

if he is of Belgian nationality and has sailed under the Belgian flag for not less than 3 months provided hi is capable of engaging in seafaring and is temporarily unemployed either because he has been dismissed by the shipowner or,because of circumstances which constitute for him a major reasonhe has temporarily ceased to engage in seafaring; that his last engagement was on board a Belgian vessel; that he has

placed himself and remains at the disposal of the Maritime Commissioner

for the purpose of filling the first suitable Belgian vessel. Seamen who satisfy the first receive the benefit at the end of a period of have placed themselves at the disposal of the vacancy which occurs on a -nd last conditions may 20 days and after they Maritime Commnissioner.

The maximum benefit is 12 shillings a day for officers and 10 shillings for lower ratings. The benefit may not exceed 75 percent of the total daily remuneration nor may it be less than 5 shillings. Subject to the approval of the Joint Occupational. Board, the benefit may be granted in addition to other compensation or wages up to the above

maximum.
Seamen who have been dismissed as a disciplinary measure or who, while unemployed, have accepted employment ashore, may be disqualified for benefit either temporarily or permanently. Employment on a foreign vessel after having received unemployment benefit or refusal to accept suitable employment on a Belgian vessel carries disqualification for unemployment benefit but the right may be regained after he has again served for two months on a Belgian vessel. The cost of the benefit payable under this order is paid by the State but it is provided that the Minister responsible for the administration of the marine after consultation with the Joint Occupational Board may constitute an unemployment fund financed wholly or partly from contributions from seamen and shipowners.

Workmen' s Compensation
General System

Basic legislation on compensation for industrial accidents was enacted December 24, 1903. The law was frequently amended and the various laws were consolidated by a royal order of December 28, 1931. Compensation for occupational diseases was introduced by a law of July 24, 1927. This order provided for drawing up a list of compensable diseases and a number of amendments have added to the list of diseases and the industries and occupations giving rise to the different diseases. Insurance is optional.

89

Coer!.-All. workers engaged by a public or private undertaking under a contract of employment governed by the act of March 10, 1900, are legally entitled to compensation for industrial accidents if the employer employs one or more wag ing employees for at least 2 months in the year, Apprentices, even when not in receipt of wages, and salaried employees covered by the act of August 7, 1922, respecting contracts of employment, whose remuneration does not exceed 24,000 francs a year are placed on the same footing as manual workers. Farm servants are also covered. Administration.-Joint accident insurance funds established by heads of undertakings and insurance companies with fixed premiums, which conform to the regulations issued, are approved for the purposes of the act. Approved insurers are bound to provide reserve funds or security under the conditions laid down by the regulations. Approval is granted and revoked by the Government after consultation with the Industrial Accident Board. This committee set up by royal order under the Minis-

try of Industry, Labor and Social Welfare,, consists of 15 members, including at least two actuaries, one medical, practitioner, one reprefunds and the approved insurance companies, sentative, each of the joint and two representatives of heads of undertakings and two of wageThe four elected by the Superior Labor Council, earning employees, all

General Savings and Old-Age Pension Fund is

authorized to undertake

the general covered by the act, insurance against the accident risks conditions and rates for this insurance being approved by royal order.

Seamen

resulting from accidents sustained by Compensation for injuries seamen in the course of and arising out of the carrying out of their agreement was pvovided by an act of December 30, 1929, as amended Janseamen and fishThe acts apply to all uary 6, 1934, and May 23, 1941, ermen injured as the result of an accident on board ship or elsewhere than in port.

Administration.--The administration of insurance is in the hands of the General Fund for the Mercantile Marine and the General Fund for the Sea-Fishing Service. Membership in one of these two funds is compulsory for shipowners.

-90-0

0Y

Resources.--Employers who are not insured are personally responsible for the payment of the legal compensation in case of industrial accidents. Insured employers pay to the insurance carriers an annual premium based on the risks covered. A Guarantee Fund maintained by contributions from employers who are not insured pays the allowances due in cases of accident where the head of the undertaking is unable to meet his liabilities. Benefits.-Persons injured as the result of accident are entitled to medical treatment and medicaments including the necessary artificial limbs and orthopedic appliances. If the accident causes temporary incapacity for work compensation equal to 50 percent of the daily wage is paid for 4 weeks after which compensation is increased to two-thirds of the average daily wage. In case of permanent partial incapacity for work, the compensation is equal to two-thirds of the loss of wages, and in case of permanent total incapacity, the pension is equal to twothirds of the annual wage, the maximum wage taken into consideration amounting to 20,000 francs. The pension may be increased up to 80 percent for injured persons who require the assistance of another pension. Benefits in case of death amount to 750 francs for funeral expenses and pensions to survivors. Compensation for occupational diseases is similar to that for industrial accidents, but there is no direct provision for medical treatment. All grants are increased by a special allowance, according to a fixed scale, however, to cover the cost of curative treatment. An order of December 24, 1941 (German), provided for compensation for injuries resulting from industrial accidents sustained on the journey to an from work, if it can be proved that accident resulted from a risk inherent in the journey in question. Notice of such an accident must be given within 40 hours. The order specified that an additional clause comprising a guarantee for this type of accident must be added to current insurance policies. The order was effective for accidents sustained on or after January 1, 1942.

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S U P PL

E M E N T

Labor

in Be

jium under German Occupation

This study was prepared by the Labor Branch of the

Industrial Personnel Division, Army Service Forces. In its preparation the Industrial Personnel Division had access to sources of information not available to the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Suppl ef:

Iabor in Belgim imde

Gewmra

Oapatioa

I.

The Effect ofGerman Occupation

A.

Introduction
effectiveness of German controls-through movements of labor in

The

industries and in areas, through conscription for work in Germany or for the army of occupation--is attested by the transformation of the Belgian economy from a national economy to an appendage of the German war economy. This has been accomplished by the setting up of centralized con-

trols over industry, agriculture and labor responsible to the German military government. In the process some use has been made of existing

institutions and governmental agencies, reconstituted to carry out the German purposes. Other institutions have been scrapped, laws repealed,

new regulations issued. There is no longer, under the German occupation, a free labor market. Collective bargaining does not exist, have ceased to function. The joint industrial councils

The free trade unions and many of the employers' The stand-

associations have been disbanded and tieir funds confiscated.

ard of living of all workers--and of other sections of the community as well--has suffered from severe commodity shoptages, black markets, freez-

ing of wages and salaries, unemployment and underemployment. B. Curtailment of Industry

Naturally the disruption in industry, with resulting. effects on Belgian workers, has been extensive.

Approximately 4O>0 the industrial, of

commercial and financial undertakings have been closed down as nonessential or due to the lack of raw materials, or for other reasons, The

92-

:.I

textile, industry,

fore example,. is, in the most., serious condition.

Of

52

cotton spinning establishments, only 21 are presently operating; weaving sheds, only 80 have: permits for, full-time work.

of 632

Wo aol supplies

are reported entirely exhausted; flax manufacturing has fallen by 55%, and, the artificial silk industry is

at. 40%=.of its prewar. volume.

In, coal. mining, although some-15,000 workers,, about: 10.-of-" the prewar employment, were transferred, to this

induistry

during 1942, coal

output has only, risen slightly, according'to: a: June,, 1943 report.

In

December, 1942, coal output, was, placed at 20-25 percent below April, 1940. teel.was 30-40' percent under= 1940.,

The Overseas'.News- Agency reported. on April 19, 1943, that all. but two or three' factories biggest industrial have. been:. ordered, closed in Liebe; once the usable will

city, in, Belgium,; and all.. machinery stil

be shipped to. Germany.

N N CS -93-

II. Principal Industrial Controls A. Requisitioning and Regulation

On May 20, 1940, ten days after the Germans attacked Belguim and eight
days before King Leopold surrendered, the German Military Commander for Belgium requisitioned all agricultural and food products, raw materials, semi-finished products and raw products. The requisitioning did not void A decree of July 5, 1940,

ownership, but regulated consumption and use. ordered the submission of monthly inventories. 1.

To control production, distribution, and consumption, a

Central Commodities Office (Office Centraux de Marchandises -- OC.M.), under the supervision of the Ministry of Economic Affairs, was established on September 2, 1940, for major industrial groups: textile products, chemicals, leather, etc. coal, iron and steel,

It was empowered to issue

instructions for the census, storing, production, sale, delivery, and transportation of merchandise. 2. To serve in an advisory capacity to O.C.M., employer trade

associations with occupational groups and subgroups for each principal industry were established by order of February 10 and miarch 5, 1941. The major groups were formed into Le Comite Central Industrial (Central Industrial Committee). The aim was first to secure a just distribution

of raw materials and a coordination of production; second, to secure unity in representation of occupational interests. In addition to the associations of trade groups, regional economic chambers were formed to include all enterprises within an economic region. Affiliation of all enterprises with trade and regional organi0

- 94 -

zations became obligatory.

Attached to each economic chamber is an

advisory board composed of representatives of provinces and communes (the consumer interest), of agriculture, of the occupational groups, and other persons appointed by the Minister of Economic Affairs. The

duties of these organizations are to advise governmental bodies on all economic matters affecting occupation interests, to recommend measures to the competent authorities, and to perform duties allocated to them by the Minister of Economic Affairs. In fact, these groupings replaced the old trade associations. In

September, 1942, a decree authorized the dissolution of such associations of employers and industrialists as no longer fulfilling a function. No

new organizations could be formed without the express permission of the chief of the military administration. The funds of dissolved associ-

ations were placed under a trustee and might be handed over to new organizations. 3. To assure the control of production in individual enterprises,

the German military authority was authorized, by decree of April 29, 1941,
to appoint Commissaires or management commissioners, who may participate

in the supervision of any firm. 4. as of March 20, 1942, a further industrial and manpower

control prohibited, except when specifically authorized, the creation, opening or extension of enterprises. It also empowered the military

authority to close down, in whole or in part, the existing operations, and to regulate the extent and nature of, the activities of those continuing.

1-

95 -

5.

The Grou

ment Princial de l'Artisanat was established on

February 12, 1942, as an advisory group to the government and thus to the German lalitary Authority. In June, 1943, it listed 120,000 members metal,- lumber,

in eight principal guilds covering the following trades:

textile, construction, engraving, leather, food, and peisonal hygiene and cleaning trade. present conditions, prices, The activities include adoption of production to solution of raw material problems, competition and and propaganda. Haselt, Provincial offices are and

coordination of sales,

located at Brugge,

Qhent, Antwerp,

Brussels, Namur, Mons,

Liege .

96a

III.

The Agricultural Controls To secure the same absolute controls over agriculture as over in-

dustry, all enterprises (producers,

manufacturers, dealers, brokers,

etc.) having to do Frith agricultural products and foodstuffs were enrolled in the National Corporation for Foodstuffs (Corporation Nationale de l'Alementation -- C.N.A.A.) under decree of August 27, 1940. This

agency is responsible to the Department of Agriculture, thus ultimately to the German Military Authority. The decree permits the C.N.A.A.:.

1. To constitute or eliminate groups. 2. To order production of articles, to prohibit others. 3. To levy dues and impose fines. It is believed the Corporation was created for the purpose of accommodating production to consumption rather than that of acting as a super-syndicate for all producers and labor. still Total agricultural output

does not cover much more than 50 percent of normal food 'requirements.

In the past three years, the land under cultivation has risen from 34 to 52 percent of the arable; while forest and pasture land declined one-third, with a consequent decline of 40 percent in meat and dairy products. There are two administrative divisions of the C.N.A.A.: the National Both are

Farmers' Corporation and the National Food Dealers Corporation.

sub-divided along provincial, regional, cantonal and municipal lines. Thiisorganization puts in the background the powerful farmers cooperative, the Belgian Farmers' League (Boerenbond Belge), which was organized over
50 years ago and whose membership comprised the large majority of farmers.

97

IV.

Labor Controls Labor has been affected not only indirectly by the controls over pro-

duction, but also directly by a series of decrees regulating wages, the labor market, hours of work. and rights to social insurance, and by the dissolution of the trade unions. Chronologically, the Germans proceeded

first to freeze wage levels, then to channel all hiring and firing of workers through the public employment offices (subject to military control), and to make these offices also recruiting centers for the Reich; to vest the regulation of wages, hours and conditions of work, in a central governmental agency; to induce labor by economic pressures to accept employment in the Reich; and finally to institute general compulsory labor service. After the trade unions and employers' associations had

either ceased their activities or had been deprived of their normal functions, they were liquidated and provision made for new organizations. A. Agencies of Control The

The administrative agencies which operate these controls are:

Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare; a Commissioner of Prices and Wages; a General Labor Regulation Officer (Delegue General di Travail); the

National Employment Office; Committees of Social Experts. The administrative orders have been issued by the Secretary-General of the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare. The most important labor

control functions, including the regulation of wages, are exercised by the Commissioner of Prices and Wages, in consultation with the head of the Ministry; by the General Labor Regulation Officer, who is an executive

-98

officer for the Commissioner of Prices and Wages and for the head of the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare; and by the National Employment Office. 1. Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare. One of the chief

functions conferred on the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare by the Germans is to act as General Commissiariat for the Restoration of the

Country, with power to approve plans for reconstruction and post-war development submitted by the communes. The Ministry appears still to It also

exercise certain supervisory functions over social insurance.

has the power to regulate conditions of employment other than wages (decree of June 21, 1941). 2. Commissioner of Wages and Prices. Price control was insti-

tuted along with wage control, and this function formed the dual aspect of the Commissioner's authority. Increases in prices were prohibited

above the level of May 10, 1940, and subsequently a basic schedule of retail prices was established for essential food products and household articles. Rents were likewise regulated,, as well as insurance

premiums, commissions, charges for transportation and various services. interest rates on deposits and all transactions relating-to real property. In spite of price controls and rationing of consumer goods, supplies have been very inadequate and black markets with exorbitant prices for many commodities have flourished. 3.
I/

General Labor Regulation Officer.

/
/

A general labor regulation

officer (Delegue General du

Travail) was appointed to act as executive

officer for the Minister of Labor and the Prices and Wages Commissioner. It was his function to issue detailed regulations concerning conditions
0 -99-

I*

-99-

moil

of employment, including wage rates for each occupation or branch of industry; to prescribe the form of employment contracts, and to watch over the maintenance of social peace. His further functions are to:

Maintain social peace.

Regulate conditions of employment, including rates of wages and salaries, for each branch of industry or occupation. Issue principles for employment contracts. Act as Chairman of the Committees of Social Experts. The Union of Manual and Intellectual Workers (Union des Travailleurs Manuels et Intellectuals) and the employers' associations may refer questions to him for decision.

4. Committees of Social

_Exrts.

To aid in carrying out the

duties assigned. to him, the Delegate General for Labor has set up Committees of Social Eqxerts (Comrite's d'Experts Sociaux) for each branch of industry. Members of these committees are appointed by the Delegate of candidates submitted by the U.T.M.I. and the Decisions of the committees are binding;

General from a list

employers' trade groups.

except that the Prices and Wage Commission may oppose any ruling of the committees. The committees deal with wages, working conditions, and Ultimately, of course, such rulings may be

reclassification of workers.

invalidated by the German Military Authority.

5. The Labor Exchange & Unernployrment Bureau (Office du Placement et du Chomage), a part of the regular Belgian Civil Service, became the National Employment Office (Office National du Travail), headed by a Director General. It is the medium for putting into effect the com-

pulsory labor practices of the German occupation forces, and its principal duties are to advise and direct workers in their search for employment, to assist in labor training, to register all workers who are 100-

unemployed and on relief, and to set up, when directed by the Ministry of Labor & Social Welfare, national employment exchange services for certain industries or occupations. The National Employment Office exercises a highly centralized control over the hiring and firing of all Belgian workers. for the Enterprises working

Terman military authorities, or taken over by them, must obtain

consent of the National Employment Offices for the engagement and dismissal of workers, and the employers are prohibited from having more favorable terms of employment as an inducement. Every worker (Decree of January, 1942).

is required to have a labor registration book (Decree All employers are required (March 6, 1942) to sub-

of October 6, 1942).

mit to the employment office a list of their employees, and to notify on all changes of personnel, through dismissal or quitting or death. Em-

ployers neglecting to submit the lists have been subjected to heavy fines and prison sentence. Instances have been reported of Belgians burning and

stealing the office records in order to hamper the authorities. The engagement of workers through the National Employment Office by every undertaking with more than fifty employees is covered by a decree, dated, April 4, 1941, which provides that the employer shall have the right to specify by name the workers whom he wishes to engage, and that he notifies this office of all workers employed or the reasons for not employing those sent by the regional office. Certificates of dismissals Every em-

and certificates of part-time work are issued by employers.

ployer of five or more furnishes the National Employment Office with information respecting his staff and operations.
101

Workers specified by

*0

-101

N.E.O. who are unmarried, widowers, or divorced and have no children, have been ordered dismissed in order to provide jobs for married workers with families. B. Private Employment Exchanges.

Private employment exchanges were permitted to continue placing workers in small and medium-,sized establishments (employing less than 50) and might continue to receive the State subsidy provided they furnished to the regional employment office the names of those placed. Strict

regulation of private fee-charging employment agencies was introduced in April,1941 and elaborated in 1. June, 1942. during 1940 and 1941 set up

The German employment exchanges

offices in Belgium, next to the employment offices, as recruiting centers for German industry. The employment offices were instructed to refer all However, the number

applicants for employment to the recruiting centers.

of workers who voluntarily accepted employment in the Reich was small, and many of those who went later returned to their homes both legally and illegally. C. Compulsory Labor Service.

The Germans were particularly anxious to maintain the production of Belgian coal. In September, 1941, a job freeze was decreed for all coal

mine labor--preventing workers from leaving such employment without obtaining the consent of the employment office. In March, 1942, the freeze

was extended indefinitely and at the same time overtime with extra pay was made compulsory. It is reported that Russian.prisoners were imported

to work in the Belgian mines. In March, 1942, compulsory labor service was instituted for work under

-. 102 -

the military authorities in Belgium and northern France.

All persons

called up for such service were to be automatically released from thier previous employment. authorization. New employment could not be terminated without

A certain percentage of the employees of any enterprise,

public or private, were liable to be requisitioned. Then the decree of October 6, 1942, made all male residents of Bel-

gium between the ages of 18 and 50 and women between the ages of 21 and 35 liable for compulsory labor service in any part of the Reich. Sub-

sequent decrees made first year university students, male and female, subject to six months labor service, as well as girls between the ages of 18 and 21 not already engaged in factory or farm work. 1. Belgians employed in Germany. As of June, 1943, approxi-

mately 430,000 Belgians were estimated to be employed in Germany--11.4 percent of the gainfully employed. This relatively high ratio results

from the German recruiting campaigns conducted through the National Employment Exchange, along with the practice of partially or completely closing down factories and other places of business. Since orders

refusing relief assistance to the unemployed have been issued, in some instances labor is given the choice of starving, or of working in Germany for wages or without compensation in Belgium or Northern France on military facilities. Direct methods for obtaining this labor have at times included requisitioning a certain percentage of the labor force of certain factories and towns; designation of particular workers for drafting; round-ups of workers in public places and streets, and forced deportations of hundreds of workers. In some cases an entire plant has been

aI-

10

closed down and its working force as well as its machinery shipped tc Germany. The resistance of Belgian workers to the German occupation controls and recruiting methods has expressed itself, sinde the invasion, in the form of the strikes in illegal unions, and in the publication of underground bulletins encouraging resistance. D. Regulation of Wages. 1. Decrees of 1940 and 1941. The system of varying wages in

accordance with changes in the retail price index, which had governed industrial wage changes throughout Belgium for a generation, was modified shortly before the invasion and was discontinued by the German authorities. Negotiations between organized workers and employers were

suspended after the invasion and all wage changes were regulated by decrees issued by the military authorities. In August, 1940, wages and saleries were frozen at the levels in effect May 10, 1940 (the date of the invasion). Increases were pro-

hibited and new undertakings were required to pay the rates paid for comparable work in existing establishments. Workers transferring to

different jobs were to receive the rates paid on the new job. In the wage stabiliazation decree (May 29, 1941), minimum wage rates

were fixed for three clases of workers as shown below: Women Men -Belgian francs) 5.0 3.5 2.7 3.8 800.0 1000.0 In

Industrial workers, per hour Agricultural workers, per hour Salaried workers, per month

In the case of agricultural workers the minimum is a cash wage.

the case of non-agricultural workers the employer is permitted to include

-104

in

the minimum the value of payments in

kind, such as food and lodging

furnished to the employee. F'ollowing a strike by 100,000 workers in the province of Liege, all wage-earners and salaried employees were granted an increase of 8 percent (not applicable to payments in kind), with the exception of those employees who had received increases in the interval since May 10, 1940. Supplementary rations were extended to various categories of workers. 2. Wages paid to Belgians in Germany start at 65 pfgs. to 1 mk. Married men

per hour depending on the type of work, for single men. receive separation allowances of 1.50 mk. per day.

Housing and mainDeductions

tenance allowances of 17.50 mks. to 18 inks. a week are paid. for welfare organizations,

insurance and war savings may amount to 25 Deductions are not specified in

percent of the gross wages per week. the contract.

After three months a raise is promised if the work is

satisfactory, but no foreigner may be paid more than a German doing identical work.
Z..

Regulation of Hours. 1. Spreading the work. On May 7, 1941, German authorities en-

couraged spreading available employment as much as possible in order to employ a large number of workers and to enable workers to retain their skill. Reductions of hours in certain industries were permitted and

the National Employment Office undertook to pay special allowances to part-time workers provided working time did not exceed 75 percent of normal and earnings did not exceed 700 francs a fortnight. The special

allowance amounted to 10 francs a day for a worker, and an additional S 4.25 fr. for his wife or each other dependent person in the household
S105 -

over the age of 15, 15.

with an allowance of 2.50 fr. for each child under

An allowance was granted for rent of 2.50 fr. or 3.50 fr. depending

on size of family.

2.

Lengthening Hours, in 1942. changed in 1942,

However,

the policy in regard

to unemployment

and efforts were made to create a pool

to accept work as dictated by by decree, employers

of needy unemployed who vould be willing

the military to a authorities. In October

hours were lengthened in order to force

minimum 8-hour day and 48-hour week,

'o

dismiss workers.

Dismissal wages were limited to one week's wages

or one month's salary.

new maximum of 11 hours was substituted, and

-extensions beyond 11 could be authorized by the t inister of Labor and Social relfare and the general labor regulation officer. Under certain

circumstances employers were permitted to extend hours to 11'a day at

their own discretion. A maximum of 8 hours was preserved for dangerous occupations. Over-

time rates of
viere specified Overtime

oa., were
for

liiited

to time and one-cuarter.

Rest

periods

both men and in

women.
and even made compulsory by

was encourage

coal-mining,

order of las-rch, 1942, on one 3unday or statutory holiday a month for which double time was payable, if the iweekly hours exceeded 48. F. Social Insurance.

Workmen's compensation and occupational disease compensation, old age and survivors' benefits and family allowances have been continued under the existing laws. 10 percent. In Larch, 1942, payments were increased by

106 -

The system of unemployment assistance to members of voluntary societies appears to have been continued. Following the decree, however,

of

May, 1942, unemployed workers who refused to accept the employment

to which they were referred by the national employment offices were to be denied any form of unemployment assistance or relief.

I.

-107?
1

V.

Industrial A. Unions

Relationships

Membership in

unions prior to the war totaled about 600,000,

out of

a total of 1,600,000 workers in private industry.

includes manual and white Unions collar workers.

The membership estimate

The International Federation of (C.G.T.B.) and the

(Confederation General du Travail de Belgique)

Christian Central Unions of Belguim (Confederation des Syndicates Christian de Belgique de Brussels), strong organizations. the two principal Belgium confederations, were

Their governing bodies played a leading role in The unions were mainly organized in A list of

the national economic scheme,

accordance with either political or religious preconceptions.

names and addresses of the member unions is included as Appendix 2. After the invasion, the union movement was "coordinated". The

dissolution of the Belgian Labor Party was announced on June 28, 1942, by its president, Henri de Man, who appealed to its members to cooperate

in erecting a Nazi
November 22, 1940,

Eiurope.

Leaders of various Belgium Labor Unions met

to lay the foundations for the central union, Union

of Manual and Intellectual corkers

Intellectuets U.T.M.I.).

(Union des Travailleurs Manuels et

Henri de Man was foremost then in

heralding

the Nazi success as

implying the advent of social justice.

izing ployees, the Nazi controlled and employers, U.T.M.I. the U.T.M.I.

He was a

major

figure in organleaders, em,

Unpopular with labor membership figures

remain unknown,

although in March, 1940,

the President of the Union declared tnat one

q

qiuarter

f the inmbers

of the old Socialist and Christian unions had

C'

108 -

joined.

The U.T.M.I. is divided into Flemish and Walloon Sections, and

is composed of professional groups of metal, construction, textile, food, leather and clothing, transport, and diamond workers, miners, civil ser-

vants, etc.
The purposes of the union are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. To publish edit official decisions. Social insurance. Regualtion of wage and labor conditions for eventual sanction by the State. Legal advice to members on labor and social insurance matters. Instruction and vocational guidance. Old age and accident indemnity allowances. Publication of periodicals.

The property of the former free trade unions, by an order issued August 20, 1942, was confiscated and transferred to unions formed to replace them. The Chief of the Military Administration is empowered

to direct the transfer. 1. Strikes. The right to strike was formally abrogated by

decree of December 10, 1942, which declared that ceasing work, otherwise than by regular termination of a contract, or inciting others to cease work or to disturb peaceful labor relations in any way constituted an offense against the interests of Germany, punishable by heavy penalties, even including the death penalty. In spite of this, prior to October,

1942, strikes involving well over 125,000 workers had been recorded. Strikes for wage increases, increased rations, and protesting against drafting of workers for labor service in Germany have been partially successful.

- 109 -

B.

Discontinuance of joint relations. hours and working conditions are subject to regulation acting through

Since wages,

either by the Ministry of Labor and Social Insurance, the Labor Regulation Officer,

or by the Commissioner of Wages and Prices,

in consultation with appointed committees, the Joint Industrial Councils of the previous era have ceased to function. organized employers and workers have ended. Direct negotiations between The ultimate authority for

all decisions involving employment wages and relief rests with the military authority acting through the national employment offices. C. Discriminatory measures. 1942, Jews may not receive sick benefits

By orders of March and May,

or holiday pay, no overtime pay or pay for work done on Sundays and holidays, and no bonuses of any kind. They may be engaged only in groups,

separated from the rest of the staff, and if housed in separate centers. learners.

employed away from home.

They may not be employed as apprentices or

-110 -

110 -

GMAN LABOR DECREE

IN BELGIUM

Administrative Orgaizations
1941 Apr..

4&

National Employment Office. of Labor & Social Welfare to regulate conditions of employment other than wages & salaries, which are to be fixed by Prices & Wages Commissioners in agreement with 1ministry of Labor and Social W.Lf are. Delegate General for Labor to set up Committees of Social

Apr. 10 June 21

Ministry

Experts.
Unions

1940
Nov. 22 One union (U.TMI.) organized.

1942
Aug. 26 Sept. 1 Property of Belgium trade unions confiscated. Certain organizations of employers and industrials may be dissolved. Labor Conscription

1940
Dec. 1942 Mar. 6 Voluntary Lab-or service. Compulsory labor over and above needs of any occupation. No relief furnished unless employment offices certify no work available. Jews may receive no sick pay, holiday pay, or dismissal pay. Compulsory labor legally introduced. Labor registration books required. Compulsory labor conscription for men 18 to 50, and unmarried women 21 to 35, First year university students to perform six months labor service. Mobilization of girls between 18 and 21 not already in factory or doing farm work. EmPloyment 1941

Mar.
Mray Oct.

.1 8 7

1943
Feb. June

Apr. 4 & Apr. 10

All undertakings of 50 employees to engage help through National Employment Office.

rrr

(ontinued)

121i
Jan. 29 Workers may not move from one employment area to another without permission of Army Commander, Engagement of non-German workers must be through employment office, no direct hire. Employers must submit list of workers and of changes. Hours of Work

Apr. 30

1941
May 7 Work hours reduced to spread employment. Minimum 48 hour week, 8 hour aay, to free workers for employment in Germany. Wages & Prices

1942
Oct. 7

1
May Aug. 1 Commodity prices fixed at level of May 10, 1940. No increase in wages and salaries over those in force
May 10, 1940. Prices and Wages Comnmissariat established,

Aug. 20

1941
May 29

Minimum wage scale established, 8% increase granted.

U2

O -

4"

LIST OF BELGIAN UNIONS AFFILIATED

il~T

INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION OF UNIONS (Confederation General du Travail de Belgique) (C.G.T.B.) Name and Address of the Union Niumber of !Members (1/1/38) Central Organization of W'orkers 9,484 in Food Industries English Names

THE

*:

1. Centrale des Travailleurs

des Industries alirnentairs, ,.raison Syndicale,

rue Joseph-Stevens, 83, Bruxelles 2. Centrale general du BAtinient, Arneublernent et Industries diverses de Belgique, rue ':atteau, 6, Bruxelles 3. Fe'deration nationale de la Bijouterie-Joaillerie, de ltArfevrerie et des Parties qui sly rattachexit, rue del l'rgronome, 170, Anderlacht Central Organization of Building Trades, Furniture, etc. 126,721

'National Jewellers Federation

400

4. Syndicat national du
Personnel Chemnins de fer, Posies, Telegrapnes, telephones et i1 arine de Belgique, Place Fontainas, 9, Bruxelles.

National Syndicate of Personnel of railway, Postoffice, Tele-phone, and Marine

48,640

5, Cet~trale ouvriere des

Cuirs et P eaux, Maaison

Leather and Hides Central Organization

8,100

du Peuple, rue JosephStevens, 17, B~ruxelles.

6. Syndicat general-des
Diarrantaires de Belgique, avenue Plantin, 66-68, Anvers.. 7. 2,yn~icat general des .;mployes, Techniciens, et Voyagcurs de Commerce, rue du Marche-au-Charbon, 66, Brxelles.

General DiamnrSyndicate

12,354

isagasiniers

General Syndicate of Technical Employees, Shop Clerks and Commercial Travellers.

21,'756

xU3

-V
Continued) Names and Address of the Union 8. Centrale nationale du Personnel .nseignant socialiste de Belgique, rue Maison du Peuple, Joseph-Stevens, 17, Bruxelles. 9. Syndicat des Journalistes socialistes de Belgique, rue des Sables, 35, Bruxelles. 10. Centrale des Travailleurs du Livre, rue JosephStevens, 8, Bruxelles 11. Syndicat des Medecins, avenue Jean-itobbaerts, 83, Bruxelles, III 12. Centrale des Metallurkistes de Belgique, place oupe, 3, Bruxelles. 13. Centrale Syndicale nationale des Travaillpines de eurs des M Belgique, rue JosephStevens, 8, Bruxelles. 14. Centrale des Paveurs et Aides
15. Syndicat national du
I

English

Names

: Number of : Members

(1/1/38)
Central Socialist Organization of Teaching Personnel.

6,090

Syndicate of-Socialist Journalists

100

Central Organization of Book Workers Doctors Syndicate

4,326

120

Central Organization of Metallurgists

116,450

Central Organization of Workers.

Mine

47,188

Central Organization of Payers and Assistants. National Organization of Civilian Personnel of the National Defense inistry.

751 (1936) 2,812

Personnel civil du Ministere de la Defense nationale, rue Carnot, 112, Anvers. 16. Centrale des 0uvrirs de la Pierre de Belgique Maison des Huit Heures, 9 Place Fontaines, Bruxelles.

Central Organiztion of Stone .orkers.

23,138

-w
(Continued) Name and Address
of

tbhe

Union

Enrglish

Names

Number of Miembers (1/1/38)

17. Union centrale beige des Travailleurs des Services publics, Maison du Peuple, rue JosephStevens, 17, Bruxelles. 18. Centrale des Travailleurs du Tabac, Miaison du Peuple, rue JosephStevens, 17,

Central Union of Public, Service

18,824

Ernployees

Central Organization of Tobacco Wiorkers

4,577

Bruxelles,
Central Organization of Textile Viorkers Central Organization of Streetcar Personnel

19. Centrale ourvriere textile beige, Keizer Karelstraat, 60, Gent. 20,

67, 202

Centrale

beige du Personnel des Tramiway, rue

Joseph-Stevens,,
8,

12,600

tBruxelles. 2.1. Union beige des Ouvriers du Transport, Paardenmaarkt, 66, Anvers. 22. Federation Typographique beige, rue des RichesCalires, 2, Bruxelles. 23. Centrale du vete=iWent et parties similaires, Liaison du Peupie, Bruxelles; and Central des Chapeliers, rue du Poincon, 17, Bruxelles. 24. Joined Jan. 10, 1937. Centrale du Personnel des Lntreprises A,_-ricoles, rue des Francais, 27, eruweiz.

Transport Workers Union

29,000

Typographical Federation

5,375

Central Organization for Clothing arnd Similar Items Hat

3, 4Q9

Makers

Central Organization of Personnel of Agricultural Enterprises.

2,000

572,224

115

NAE AND ADDS OP CHJS TIAN CENTRAL UNIONS OF BELGIUM DE 3y'LGI'UE DE B3IUSSELS) (CO N' DE hUIIOU D'S SYNDICATE3 C ILN Christene Centrale der Lieder - en Kleedingsnijverheden van Belgie, Iseghein, Kruisstraat 6; ;btlg. Gent, Poel 4 (Leather and Clothing Industry). Chr. Verbond van Steen -, Cement Boomn, Groenhofstraat 26.
-,

Glas

en Cerarniekbeworkers,

(hr. Centrale van Arbeiders der Chemische Nijverheden, Brussel, Nieuwland 7 (Chemical Industry). Chris tene Centrale van Vernoerarbeiders, Antwerpen, Entrepotplaats 12 (Transport Vborkers) .

A
4 N w U N

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