Civil Affairs Handbook French Indochina Section 11 and 12

ARMY MANUAL SERVICE FORCES
CIVIL
AFFAIRS
HANDBOOK
FRENCH INDO-CHINA
SECTION11&12: TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS AND COMMUNICATIONS
Dissemination of restricted matter. - The information conD d tained in restricted documents and the essential characteristics of restricted material may be given to any person known to be in the service of the United States and to persons of undoubted loyalty and discretion who are cooperating in Government work, but will not be communicated to the public or to the press (See also par. 18b, except by authorized military public relations agencies. AR 380-5, 28 Sep 1942.)
HEADQUARTERS, ARMY SERVICE FORCES,29M ARCH1944
ARY
e~ll~ slliiBI~ ~W
SERVICE FORCEMNUA
BBi~i~i
M 359-11&12
Civil Affairs
-s
CIVIL
AFFAIRS
HANDBOOK
FRENCH INO- CHI NA

SECTION 11&12:TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS AND COMMUNICATIONS
sSi~Psa~x~~
HEADQUARTERS, ARMY SERVICE FORCES,29MARC H1944
Dissemination of restricted matter. - The information contained in restricted documents and the essential characteristics of restricted material may be given to any person known to be in the service of the United States and to persons of undoubted loyalty and discretion who are cooperating in Government work, but will not be communi1ated to the public or to the press except by authorized military pubtl.t l ns agencies. (See also par. 18b, AR 380-5, 28 Sep 1942.)
ii
NUMBERING SYSTEM OF ARMY SERVICE FORCES MANUALS
The main subject matter of each Army Service Forces Manual is by consecutive numbering within the following categories:
Mi M100 M200 M300 M400 M500 M600 M700 M800 M1900 .M99 M199 M299 M399 M499 M599 M699 M799 M899 up
indicated
Basic and Advanced Training Army Specialized Training Program and PreInduction Training Personnel and Morale Civilian Affairs Supply and Transportation Fiscal Procurement and Production Administration Miscellaneous Equipment, Materiel, Housing and Construction
* * * HEADQUARTERS, Washington 25, ARMY SERVICE FORCES, March 29, 1944 D. C.,
Army Service Forces Manual M 559-11 and .Transportation Systems and Communications in
12,
Civil Affairs Handbook has been
French Indo-China,
prepared under the supervision of the Provost Marshal General, and is published for the information and guidance of all concerned..
SPX 461
(21
Sep 43). SOMERVELL:
By command of Lieutenant General
W. D. STYER, Major General, General Staff Corps, Chief Of Staff.
OFFICIAL: J. A. ULIO, Major General, Adjutant General.
This
study on Transportation
Systems and Communications was prepared for the
in
French Indo-China
MILITABY
GOVERNMiET DIVSION,
OFFICE OF THE PROVOST MARSHAL GENERAL
by the
FAR EASTERN UNIT OF THE BUREAU. OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE
UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
OFFICERS USING THIS MATERIAL ARE REQUESTED CRITICISMS MATERIAL INDICATING THE REVISIONS
TO MAKE SUGGESTIONS AND
OR ADDITIONS WHICH WOULD MAKE THIS THESE CRITICISMS SHOULD BE GOVERNMENT
MORE
USEFUL FOR THEIR PURPOSES.
SENT TO THE CHIEF OF THE LIAISON AND STUDIES BRANCH, DIVISION, PIGO, 2807 MWITIONS BUILDING,
WASHINGTON
MILITARY 25,
D.
C.
INTRCAIJ OTION
Purposes of the Civil Affairs Handbook.
The basic purposes
of civil affairs
officers
are
(1) to assist
the
Commanding General by quickly establishing those orderly conditions which will contribute most effectively to the conduct of military operations,
(2)
to reduce to a minim
the
human suffering and the material' damage result-
ing from disorder, and (3)
to create the conditions which will
make
it
possible for civilian agencies to ftnction effectively, The preparation of Civil Affairs
Handbooks
is a part of the effort to
carry out these responsibilities as efficiently and humanely as possible. The Handbooks do not deal with plans or policies (which will depend upon changing and unpredictable developments). it should be clearly understood
that they do not imply and ive

ready reference source
for planning
official
ro-ram oi' action,
They are rather
books containing
the basic factual information needed
and policy making.,
C IV IL
AFFAIRS
TOPICAL
H A ND BO0D
OU'TLINE
1. Geographical and Social Background
2.
Government and Administration
3. Legal Affairs
4. Government Pinpnce
5. Money and Banking 6, Natural Resources 7, Agriculture. 8. Industry and Commerce 9. Labor
10.
11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.
Public Works and Utilities Transportat ion Systems Communications Public Health and Sanitation Public Safety Education Public
Welfare
17,. Cultural Institutions This study on Transportation Systems and Coimmuhications in French Indo-China was prepared for the MILITARY GOVEB}IMENT DIVISION, OFFICB OP TE PROVOST MARSHAL (S.NIRAL by the FAR EASTERN UNIT OP TE BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMICE, U. S. DEPARTMZENT OF. COMMERCE.
CONTENTS
Pages
I.
RAILWAYS
A. Ownership and Personnel
1
1
B. C.
D. E. F.
Description of Lines Repair Facilities

Locomotives and Rolling Stock Economic Significance Recent and Proposed Developments
3 8
8 15 23
II.
MOTOR TRANSPORT A.
B. C.
26 26
30 36
Highway System
Chief Colonial Routes Public Conveyances
D., Private Conveyances B. Motor.Fuel F. Japanese Developments III.

IV.
38 38
39,
40
42
STREET RAILWAYS
INTERNAL
A,
B, C. D. E. F. G. H.
WATERWAYS AND CANAlS
Introduction
Types of Native Craft Tonkin Cochin China Cambodia The MAekong Laos Annam
42
43
46 62 67 69 80 83 91 91 93 94 96
V.
COM ARCIAL AIR TRANSPORT A. B. C. Air Services Airports and Airways Japanese Developments
VI.
SHIPPING
A,
B, C.
Port Regulations
Handling of Explosives and Inflammables Government Agencies Excercising Control
99
100 101
gBii
i1
Pages
VII. TELEPHONE, TELGRBAPH AND CABLE
A, B. C, Telephone System Telegraph System Cables
103
103 106 106
VIII. POSTAL SERVICE IBC. X.
108
110
RADIO AND WIRELSS PRESS AND PUBLISHING CONCGNiS MOVING PICTURE
124
128
XI.
BDBLIOGRAPHY
133
MAPS
Density of Population, preceding page Railroads and Motor Roads, preceding page Principal Streams, preceding page 1 1 42
Water Routes,
opposite page
46"
58
Dikes of Tonkin, opposite page TABLES 1, 2. Distribution of Railway Personnel Particulars of Rails and Ties
3
5
3.
Steam Locomotives and Rail Cars in
Operation
11
14 15
4.
5.
Rolling Stock as of December 31, 1937 Average Number of Goods Vehicles
6.
7.
Traffic Statistics
of 'Railway Freight Classification Relative Passenger Traffic Passenger Traffic by Section Passenger Traffic by Class Financial Returns Receipts of Railways Colonial Roads Chief Bridges on Colonial Route No. 1
16
17 18 18 19 19 21 28 31
8.
9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.
15.
16.
17. 18,
Commercial Vehicles
Bus and Truck Lines Street Railway Receipts Traffic on the Song-Cau Canal
37
37 41 60
Siii
iii
Pa es
75
80
190:
20,
Traffic at the Khone Falls

Distances on. the Mekong
21,
22.
Air Traffic
Shipping
92
96
23.,
Telephone Developments
105
109 110 115 .125,126 128 130 131
24. Postal Traffic 25. Radio Electric Statistics 26. Radio l.ectric Receipts 27, 28. Publishing Statistics 29. Moving Picture Statistics Gross Income from Theaters 30. Seating Capacities 31.
I and II,
Navigable Rivers and Canals
86-90
GRAPHS (Radio and Wireless Comrunication System) I. II. III. IV. V. VI. Number of Stations Paid Traffic Non-Revenue Useful Traffic Total Ujseful. Traffic Annual Receipts (Paid Traffic) Annual Receipts and Expenses 118 119 120 121 122 123
ANNAM
DENSITY OF POPULATION LEGEND S 02625 50
51 -100 101-200 201-400 I I401-800

OVER 800
D.D. 43-757-A
CAM
BODA
OVE 80
COCHINCHINA
~~:A':AvA
____
ifIllill 11111 UUUII I III III:vI~...;:..::;;:;;:. iv 11111iiumi~tII1fi@'~'
4 11111
.......
~.z'x:.v.t~:::,............ ii n m n ,.
26^oaas~ oe 5I-00
50
b4.
7 p
201=-m400
401- 800
rx.
OVER80
D.D 43-756-A
LAOS
DENSITY
OF POPULATION
LEGEND Y1_LLG.C~i
0-
5-
f/
OVER ~rlf 20
O..
43-755-A
T H
VZCAP ST. TRI

-<
EEDRAILROADS
'
fe
RAILROADS AND
PROPOSED RAILROADS ROADS (METALLED OR GRAVELLED) -'"+s"+++ROADS (DIRT, BEING IMPROVED)

______________RIVERS
0
{J
MOTOR
ROADS
CAMAU
BAC .IEU /c.

I
OF
.__
STATEBOUNDARIES NATIONAL BOUNDARIES
INDOCHINA
(SECONDARY ROADS OMITTED)
0.0.44 -S3
k\
TRA.NSPORTATION AND CO;U NICATIONS
IN Pa-,.rNCH INDOChINA
I. A. Ownership and Personnel 1, Ownership:
RAILUAYS
Approximately 85 percent of the railways of and are in charge of the at Hanoi. the
French Indochina are State-owned, Inspector General of Public Works, The two "Chef de Conscriptions"
with headquarters
are at
hanoi and Nha Trang,
"Chef de Reseau Sud" at Mongkolborey" at
Saigon and
the "Chef de Reseau
Pnom Penh-
Pnom Penh. of the remaining railway consists of the
All but 35 kilometers
line of the Compagnie

et
Francaise
des Cherins de
e'er
de 1' Indochine.
du Yunnan, from Haiphong to Kunming.
Its head office was in
Paris, but the operating director and general inspector had headquarters at Hanoi. Hanoi was not actually on the company's line,
but was about two miles from Gia Lam Junction, where the company
line crossed the Hanoi-Nacham branch of the State
'railways.
Its
capitalization was 38,500,000 French francs, but total 1939 assets were around 350,000,000 francs, The remaining 35 kilometers of privately-owned railway served
the leading coal mines, and was called the HonL-ay-Halma-Campha Mine and Canpha Port Railway.
See 'accompanying preceding map.
2.
Personnel:
Concerning the top organization of the State-
owned lines, an American Consular Report "Railway Conditions in French Indochina"' dated December 15, 1939, stated:
"The following are operating officials of the system: 1) 2) 3) General Manager: Assistant Manager:
Mr.
Ix.
iAlfano, Uhry,
at Hanoi at Hanoi
Chief Engineer in Charge of Traffic and Transportation Chief Engineer in Stock Chief Engineer in Chief Engineer in Service. Charge of Plant and Rolling
_)
5) 6)
Charge of Tracks and Buildings Charge of Administrative
"All the above officials reside at Hanoi. "There is an important workshop at Trnong Thi, and four district workshops at Hanoi, Tourane, Nhatrang and Saigon. "The purchasing office for the entire system is at Hanoi. It is managed by the Supply Service and conbrolled by the 'Chief Engineer in charge of the Administrative Service. "The system disposes of six warehouses managed by an Accountant in charge. "Purchases are effected either by oral agreement when they are less than 600 piastres, by private contract or by tenders. Purchases exceeding 600 piastres must be submitted for the approval of the Financial Department (Director of Finances or Governor General of French Indochina." The senior' personnel consisted almost exclusively of Frenchmen, of whom there were 21% on the State lines and 116 on the HaiphongKunming line. The 1939 distribution of personnel was as follows:
ivrnq
Distribution of Railway Personnel Equipment
Ways and
Baaidlng
State lines lunnan line Totals
N6~
133
2,695
2,956
30
3,073
30
2,788
4,389
22
4,451
215
13,007
Li
154 57 4,587 57
ISM
8,156
316
331
20,08
20,088
63
"E'
indicates Europeans -
ItN"
indicates natives.
B,
Descrivtion of Lines
1.
Mileag
The Indochinese railways are of meter gauge with

The Haiphong-Laokay section of the prithe remaining 464 kilome-
insignificant exceptions. vately-owned ters line
measures 395 kilometers,
lying in
China,
The mileages of the State-owned lines werie as not thought to have changed since that time,
follows in 1940 and are as the new lies in
connection between, the Indochinese
and Thai railways now
Thai territory.
Hanoi-Nacham
Hanoi-Saigon (including Tourcham-Dalat) Saigon-Mytho
8O kilomeers
1,866 kilometers 70 kilometers
bendongxo-Loc Ninh
Pnom Penh-Mongkolborey
69 kilometers .)
2 kilometers 2,524 kilometers
)J
From Saigon to B 4o o. urban railway is used'.
te.' Tire
6 kilometer line
is very6little
of a private interthe freight traffic,
electric trwm hauling one or tBwo
freight vehicles when necesary.
-12. Condition of Roadbed: The Chinese portion of
the
Haiphong-
Kunming railway proved one of the most difficult in the history of railroading but it does not lie
engineering feats in the purview of
the present study,
On the Indochinese
side of the border the line
follows the valley of the Red River and encounters no particular
handicap.
The long line between Saigon ard Hanoi skirts the Annamese As the hills come down to the
are required rails in parts
coast for a considerable distance.

water's edge numerous. curves,
tunnels and fills
of this picturesque section
of the route,
The steel
are from In
8 to 12 meters long and weigh frcm 20 to 30 kilograms per meter,
recent years longer and heavier rails have replaced the shorter and
lighter ones. Some of the ties are steel, weighing about
43
kilograms, measuring are
and of French manufacture, 12 by 18 centimeters
The others are of domestic wood, length 0 No sole-plates
and 1.8 meters in
used in securing the rails
to the ties,
Fish-plates
weigh
five to
The con-
six kilograms and are attached to the rails by four bolts. sular report gives the following details:
Table
2
Railwys
Particulars of Rails and Ties on Indochinese State Rail weight kilograms per meter 20 Rail length
in
Crossi.g
Line
Hanoi-Nacham
meters 8.00
No..
10 10 10 12
Type
metal or wood
25
Hanoi-Sagon
8.00 8.00 9.58 12.00

12.00
25 25 26
27
wood or
30
Saigon-iytho Tourcham-Dalat
12.00 8.00
11.75
15 or 17 15 17
12 15
metal
25
26
wood metal
26
Pnom PenhMlongkolborey
12.00
12.00
17
metal
30
17
metal
BendongxoLoc Ninh 26 12.00 14 metal
The Indochinese railways are laid on a platform 4.4 meters in width and covered with ballast of broken stone or sometimes sand
and river gravel from local sources, to a depth of 30 centimeters and 2.8 meters at the top to 3.4 meters at the bottom. Embankments have a slope ordinarily of 3/2 although some slopes are steeper. All lines in Indochina are single-track. The speed limit on
straight sections is 90 kilometers per hour, the Saigon-Haiphong ex-
press averaging 45 kilometers per hour for the entire distance. Hanoi-Haiphong
run at
The
express, a Diesel rail
car, was scheduled to make its
an average
speed of 55 kilometers per hour.
On the main line most curves have a radius of 400 meters or more,
only one having a radius of 300 meters. minimum radius is of the main line,
north tween 100 meters.
On most branch lines the 1:200 on most
The maximum gradient is
1:171
between Hanoi and Lao Kay, and 1:100 just the only steep gradient be-
of Tourane Bay on the main line
Saigon and Hanoi.

least one siding at cars, each statton capable of holding
There was at
seven or more freight
and the main line
was estimated to be
capable of handling six trains each way per day.
3.
Bridges and Tunnels: number.
Aside from the lines
in
Annam,
tunnels
are few in
The Cap Varella tunnel in southern Annam, is As in any country of heavy rainfall a very
1,175 meters in length.
large number of bridges had to be completed across the numerous streams. The largest and most famous of these is the Pont Doumer.
This combination road and rail bridge crosses the Red River at Haithng, .longitude 1050
50' East, latitude 210 5'
North.
It is approximately
2,023 yards in length touching at an island in the middle of the river, A picture of the origtnal bridge is to be found in the Far December 1923, since which time it has been widened.
Eastern Review,
This bridge was essential
to through traffic
from the main Saigon-
Hanoi line to all

Hanoi-Nacham,
of the three northern branches

which joined at
(Hanoi-aiphong,
Hanoi-Laokay)
Gia Lam about one mile
from the bridge. bridge.
Important. highway routes also converged on the
ice'
-7The second largest railway bridge is that over the Song-Ma north of Thanh oa on the main line at l140
S6' East, 220 3' North.
It
also is pictured in the December 1923 issue of the Far Eastern Review. It has single-lane traffic for both rail and highwar,, the
latter being the famous Route No, 1 Hanoi to Saigon. span is 525 feet.
Its largest
The combination of rail and highway traffic over the same bridge is found throughout the country, the rail track sometimes running Generally
down the middle of the bridge, sometimes along one side. the bridge is of trains, narrow and highway traffic is
suspended for the passage
The bridges were designed for rolling stock with
a width
of 2.8 meters.
13 Signal Controls and Safey
Devies:
There were permanent
signals which consisted of semaphore as well as moving signals consisting of green, yellow and red flags plus explosive signals or detonators. These signals were used in about the same manner as in
most other countries. The speed table, a rectangular, transparent white object,was lighted at night and bore black figures indicating maxid~mu speed. permissible
5. Sidings,
Terminals, Stations and Warehoses:
Since the
Indochinese railway system was particularly deficient in branch lines, the only great junctions and terminals which necessitated extensive terminal facilities were Saigon, Haiphong and Hanoi. One or more sid-
ings of 280 meters length sufficed at most stations.

serves
The railwa
br facil-
extnsive
of Tourane,
docks of Saig on and Haiphong
and the
ities
1ail housing facilities

There
in
o e ports will be
ensive freight yards junction
discussed in a succeeding section, both in the Haiphong station The Japanese have
are
yards and at the Gia
across
he river.
dno
reportedly built new and larger stay
at Hanoi and Saigon.
C.
Rair Facilities
A short
branch line ex
At
fom Vinh in northern Annam to its a little over a mile from Vinh are
The second largest line at
port
located
of
Benthuy.
th
Traong Thi
largest
workshps
in the country.
worksaops were those of the Haiphong-K nming

Tourane and Dian. between there were snialier shops
Gia Lam junction.
Saigon and Vienhoa had large workshops iihile at Hanoi, Hue, Saig on and
Laokay.
In were
December 1941 large concrete roundhouses arn1 other facilities

being
constructed
on the outskirts of Saigon but it

into
is
now possible
that they have
been developed
the country s leading repair
center.
D. Locomotives and Rolling Stock
1.
Loeomotives
Table
No.
3 gives details as to lcjim otimjs on Since that tip

;J
both lines at the er~d of
1937.
or more new steam
locomotives of the Pacific type pulling a train of 250
were purchased and were capable: of speed of 90 kilmes

per
tons at ' the
hour against a 300-tonf load at 0o ?uel supply should present no
kilomters for ,the :older locomotives.

ties to the Japanese for coal has
great
-9-
always briquettes
been the fuel were
in
the north,
but until the south.
recent years wood and
generally used in
/
rail cars to while 10 by
The Haiphong-Kunming line July 19L0, tives eight
increased its
being Diesel and two gasoline, number. However,
steam locomolatter numbridge at
increased to 185 in
60 of this
ber were stranded in
China when the International
Railway
Laokay was destroyed by the Chinese on September 10, 19b0.

outbreak of war in the Pacific it is thought there were a
At the
total of
235
steam locomotives in Indochina in addition to cars.
14 Diesel and two
gasoline-powered rail however, that
There have been indications recently,
some locomotives have been withdrawn from the Cambodian
line for use in Thailand or possibly Burma.
This latter
development.
is considered highly possible in view of the fact that United Nations' air forces have been particularly successful in attacks on locomotives, roundhouses and repair facilities in Burma, whereas have been reported to date on southern or central in Thailand. zno such attacks
Indochina and-only of railway fa-
one or two such attacks cilities to dictate
An equalization
therefore within the Japanese-controlled area would appear sharing of Indochinese in equipment with Burma. Indochina is oil indicated by frequent purpose.
The shortage of lubricants reports f
the use of various vegetable of securing special parts
seeds for this
The difficulty itated against
from Japan may also have millocomotives in first class
the keeping of Indochinese
Robequain,
Charles
The Economic Evolution of French Indochina,
Institute of Pacific Relations,
about April
10 -
repair.
An isolated report suggests that the Japanese have imported
80 additional locomotives into Indochina since the outbreak of war. The Hongay coal mine railway reportedly had 17 steam and five electric locomotives in 19h0.
;;4l/
- ]1Table Steam Locomotives
and
Rail Cars in Operation
December 31, 1937 State lines 3 21
Locomotives
Tank :
Tye
0-2-0 0-3-0 0-3-0 2-2-0 1-3-0
1-h-i
~Weight
M.tons
Yunnan line 2
Weight
M.tons
Total
9* 5
12 3
14.2 11-2 3 1x5.2 22.9 34.0 53.0

22.*2
13.0
5
21
9* 5 29*
31
58.9
12 32
Total Tender:
53
84
28.0
1-3-0
2-2-0 2-3-0 2-3-0 2-3-0 1-43-0 1-3-1 2-3-1 2-3-1 1-5-0 1-h-i
5
25 3 20 13 10* 7
10
29.0
300
20 31
4a.8
44.4
38.5
5 45 34
20
36**
13 7 10
48.9
46.8 54.4
56.5
57.5
47.0
Total Sum total Rail Cars Renault, 1 truck motor Decauville, 2 axle drive motors Decauville, 1 axle drive motor Micheline, motors 2 axle drive
3 142
193.
30.0
.27
13
Micheline, 1 axle drive motor Total

*
-
For rack railway. **Superheated. steam. Source:. Gouvernement General de 1'Indochine, Chemins de Fer Statistigues de 1'Annee 1937. Hanoi:53.
12
Indochina as is shown by
2.
Rolling Stock:
Rolling stock in freight
Table No. Ager cars,
totaled
4,Ll5 cars for
purposes and
645
passen-
The Haiphong-Kunming line
had one-fourth of the former traffic glar-
and one-third of the latter. in
The lack of density of freight
Indochina compared to other countries of Southeast Asia is by Table No. 5 showing the relationship
ingly illustrated
of goods
vehicles to the length of track. Malay States
The comparison with the Federated entrepot traffic and
railways which handle considerable territory
which serve an extremely rich port may not be fair,
without inland water transmore to the
but the comparison with Burma is
point since Burma like Indochina had no international rail tions and had extensive inland water transport facilities.
case of Burma, however,
connecIn the
extensive areas were served which were hunfrom those areas had to
dreds of miles from the sea and hence exports
make extensive journeys,
whereas the Indochinese railway is except for

the relatively
seldom
profit-
more than 100 miles from tidewater, able Haiphong-Kunming Practically all line.
the freight
cars were tour-wheeled
as in
the rest
of Southeast Asia.
The passenger cars specialized in
fourth class
traffic
wherein wooden benches ran along the sides of the cars, the
middle being filled
with
hr 'seold belongings, pigs, geese,

which was portable.
chickens
and almost everything else classes
The three upper number of pasclass, for in-
which hauled but a small fraction
of the total first
sengers were divided into stance, being in drawing rooms. Haiphong-Kunming
small compartments;
the corridor car and having luxuriously appointed Vacuum brakes were used on the State line is railways but the
thought to have used pressure brakes.
The Hongay mine railway had 800 freight to one report, and
care
in
19h0, according
1,050
cars "before the war" according to another.
There have been occasional reports of shipments of springs and other railway tools and, equipment to Indochina from Japan, and one
report mentions the shipment of 1,h00
trucks (presumably to be com-
bined
with freight-car bodies in
Indochina).
m14
Table
Rolling Stock as of December 31, 1937
State lines Freight Carso

ago 5
Yunnan line
-
Total
s
Closed
1ton and. 5-ton
Cares
converted
to
20-ton converted into
10-ton
10-tons
652
784
415
194
1,.067,
978
Gondola Cars: an -ton converted to 10-ton 20-ton converted to 10-ton
305
34,2
160 100
465 142
Flat Cars:
0-t nand 5-ton converted to 10-ton 20-ton converted to 10-tone
388 392
77 12
465
4oL
Tank
construction, maintenance and

191 3,059 98
1,056 289 Total
service cars
4,115
PassengerF Cars:h
Sleeping
cas
0
6
1
6
1
12
Privateand Service Cars First class with berths Second class with berths First and Second class with berths First, Second and Third classes
3
4 15 2 8 7 18 36 6 2 6 6 20 7 220 16 29 '26 1
-
4
15 2 8 10 26 62 9 2 13 6 22 7 339 32 29 26
1
Dining
Dining with Fourth class Second, Third, Fourth classes combined First, Second and Third classes combined First and Second classes combined Second class. Third class Third and Fourth with caboose Third and Fourth combined Second, Third and Fourth with caboose Fourth class Fourth class with caboose Fourth class with caboose and mail. car Caboose with mail car Mail cars
3 8 26 3 7, 2
-
119 16
Caboose
Total Source:
15
207
15
615
438
Gouvennnt General de 1'Indochine, Chemins de Fer Statistiques de lnn ee 1937, Hanoi: 1938,
Table 5 Average Number of Goods Vehicles per Kilometer of Track

Federated Malay States Railways, i3urma, 19h0 Thailand, 19h0
Indochina and Yunnan., 1938
1928 .2,91 1,81

0.89
E.
Economic Snicance:. 1. General Survey: The Indochinese railways were built as much
for strategic as economic reasons.
Hence there are very few branch
lines and the State railways seldom covered expenses including a fair charge for is the fact money invested. that Another feature of Indochinese railways
the economic Life of the country has been built The two deltas which include adequately the
around them to a very small extent.
majority of the population of the country are fairly by inland water transport, entire country. Moreover, while rather it will
served
adequate highways glance at
cover the the maps
be seen, by a
showing density of population in

large proportion of the total
the
fronitr of this Handbook, that a

within 40 to
population lives
50
the
miles
of the long coast line.
The one bright spot financially in
Indo-
chinese railway picture was the profitable
operation of the Haiphong-
Kunming
line when it
began to carry large quantities of war materials This sug-
and other goods between Kunming and the port of Haiphong.

gests the possibility line that the postwar linking
of the main Indochinese an
with the Thai railways and with the Chinese system may lead to
increase in
long-haul international
traffic
which will
make
the entire
railway system a profitable enterprise,
2.
Traffic
Statistics:*
Total freight carried in 1939 on the
State railways was as follows:/ Table Lines Hanoi-dachas Hanoi-.Saigon

Sai gon
6
Piastres Collected
Metric Tons
4 ytho
365, l$3 624, 50h

12,178
1,508, 653
h, 191,926
6,420, 699
Bendongco-Loc Ninh ?nom Penh-.Mongkolborey Total
65,681
2012-258 1.,268,774
The total freight ton-kilometers was 232, 300, 991 and the average journey travelled by a ton of freight was 183 kilometers, Rel&t5!ve
im:portance of. different types of freight in 1939 was as follows~
Railway CondUitions in French Indochina, Joseph Francisque, 19h1, French Jlerk, Amercan onsulate, aigon, April 14, Chemin de Fer Statistiques de 1'Annee, 1939.
Table Classification
Commodities
'7 Freight
Paid
of Raila
Total Frei h
pia 3astes)
State
Iiways
Grains Mineral oils
1,057, 231 772,701.
Foodstuffs
Manufactured goods
Building materials Forest products
672,9441
S6,533
333,952 311,800"
Metallurgical products Cotton products Coal Ores Empty cases

Hides and skins Arms and munitions Haiphong-
263,900 216,193 194,1190 )n1,107 115,766

114,1491 32,603
Mineral. oils
Cotton goods Manufactured articles
Metallurgical products
3,293,107
1,887,222
LaokaU
E-nnl
1,018,670
976,855
Foodstuffs
Building materials
693,789
591,007
Metals Forest products Machinery Chemicals and nedical supplies Coal Agricultural products Hides and skins
46,685
500,000
1469,801
I52,578
35, 895
297,739 213,023
The line of the Compagnie Francaise des Chemins de Fer de 1'Indochine et du Yunnan carried 565,088 tons of freight in average distance of 323 kilometers, the total ton-kilometers.
gest that beyond.
1939
an
being 169,790,169
Since the total trackage was 395, these figures sug-
most of the traffic was routed from Haiphong to Laokay and This is a bit surprising, since a li--mile branch line conand it would-be natural to assume that a and Hanoi. large part
nects with Hanoi, of the traffic
would be between
Haiphong
Ibid.
-18-
Relative statistics concerning passenger traffic are: Table 8 Haiphong-Laokay Line h,884,037 2 ,516,242 2144, 708,1477
State Railways Number of passengers 12,303,519 Passenger fares (piastres) 4,960,966 Passenger kilometers 710,199,1466 Average journey (kans.) 57.7
5o
The following details concerning passenger traffic are copied from Chemins de Fer Statistiques de l'Ahnnee, 1939. During the year .1939 the total passengers carried by the railways in French Indochina numbered 17,187, 556 compared with
17, 426,190
the previous year.

was as
The passenger traffic by railway section in 1939
follows:Table
9
Section
1st, 2nd and 3rd classes
4th Class 2,338,245 7,1467,2146 1, 505,109 145,366 5144,209 16,655,1406
Total 2,1423,139 7,662,889
Hanoi-Nacham Hanoi-Saigon and branches Saigon-Mytho Bendongxo-Loc Ninh Pnom Penh-Mongkolborey Haiphong-Yunnanfui Total
814,8014
195,643 10,9042 2146 12,519 228,806 532,150
1,515,151 145,612
556,728 lam,8814,037
17,187,556
The passenger kilometers in 1939 amounted to '954,907,943 as cornpared with 883,,776,6.71 in 1938. The following table shows the
pas-
senger
traffic carried in 1939 by the Indochinese railways.
19
Table 10 Total Passengers 532, 150 16, 655146 17,1879556 Passenger Kilometers 109,362,265 Average Distance Carried 2055 50.8 Revenue in. Piastres
Class 1st, 2nd and 3rd 14th Total
1, 6140, x71
515,55,678
951,907,9143
556
791477,208
Financial results of the operation of the State railways and the Haiphong-Kum ng line in recent years were reported as follows'g
Table 112
Finacia Retrnsof the State Railw (00 pastes)
1935 earnings s4,165 Operating expe rises 4,689 521 Net earnings
Gross
1936 5,163
14, 899
1937 6,728
1938 9 p335
8 ,1469
1939 13,156 10,572 2,5814
5,779
2614
9149
866
Financial Returns of Haiphong-Kunming Railroad

Gross
earnings s3,946 Operating expeexiles 3,155 Net earnings 791.
I4,5o14 2,929
1,575
6,003
9,708
59846 3, 862
15,5141
3,171. 2,832
11, 8140
3,701
The balance sheets of the two railways are extb
mly difficult to
follow, but the initial cost of construction ('depenses etablissenent") for the State railways are
de
premiere
lited in the
995#785,810
annual rail-
way report for 1939 as having amounted to figure is one
francs
This
'which
cannot readily be
converted
into any other cur-ren-
cy, for whereas the franc was worth about US$0,193 before the first
~/Chemins de Fer Statistique de l rAnnee,,1939.
S20
World War, when most of the

only about US.$0.0
construction was going on,
it
was worth
in 1936 when the main line along the Annamese
coast was completed. 191h, however,

the main line, Loc Ninh line ceptions,
Most of the construction took place before
the exceptions being the Tourane-Nhatrang section of

the Pnom Penh-IMiongkolborey and part line, line the Bendongcobeing the only ex-
of the Tourcham-Dalat
and had a total
length of about 99h kilometers out of a
total for the State railway system of 2,52h kilometers. Comparing the 1939 net earnings of the State system, amounting to 2,581,000 piastres 'with the original construction cost as given
above, the rate of earnings on original investment would seem to be
2.6 percent, against less than one percent for 1936, 1937 and, 1938, and a loss in 193S. It must be remembered that the great depreciation
margin.
of franc and piastre helped the profit
The balance sheet ("Bilan au 1 Janvier 1939") of the KunmingYunnan line is obviously constructed in a much different manner from
American balance sheets, so it seems best to turn to the estimate of

original cost of construction, francs. estimated by the railway annual as capital expenditures brought the
2h3,581,163
Supplementary
total
to 381,255,627 francs.
Once again it
must be remembered that the

construction than
franc was wbrth several times more during original during supplementary construction.
Moreover, whereas the piastre
equalled 10 francs after 1936, it first World War.
was, much less valuable before the
Comparing the figure of 381,255,67 francs or it
38,125x,63 piastres with 1938 net earnings of 3,862,000 piastres,
21-
would appear that supplies to rolling China, etc.
earnings in
that
year swelled
transport
of war
mounted 10 percent on investment, If, however, the investment were
not counting to be calcu-
stock,
lated in the sane kind of piastres (as to purchasing power) as the

net.returns, the showing would be much less On balance, therefore, the Indochinese to their owners, favorable, j
railways do not appear to except as political, stra-
have proved satisfactory
tegic and other non-economic considerations are taken into account.
The international line, however, freight shipents over its

that to postwar international maintain a better financial
had a fairly good showing while It is possible
entire length were high.

connections record, will
enable the State railways
The breakdown of 1939 receipts
on the State rai2lrays is
as follws:
Table 12 Receipts of the Indochinese Railways (In piastres

-
1939
State Railways Passengers. Baggage Freight Other receipts Totals
Hai phong-Kunming Line 2,516,242.1 393,818.25 12,492,171.09
4,960,966.11
166,717,00
6,253,984.32 1,7714,693.99 l3,l5,361 1 42
1390,54
15,512l27329
~/
The vagaries of placing expenditures of francs over a 5O-year period in the sane column, with no explanation, are demonstratedby comparing the official figure as to total cost per - kilometer
-Tonkin
on the extremely difficult Hainhong-Kunmning line with that on the relatively inexpensive Pnom Pen-Mongkolborey line, The fonner, built between 1903 and 1910, cost 321,410. francs per kilometer in and 562,142 francs per kilometer in Yunnan whereas the latter line, built in 1932-1933, cost no less than 665,312 francs per kilometer
4-qS-
From the foregoing table international line carried
it
is
evident that
the much smaller in that
so much more freight in China,
1939,
its
chiefly no gross re-
doubt on account of the war situation
ceipts actually exceeded those of the larger State s'rStem.

ing the State railways it is interesting to note that
Regard-
passenger
revenues of nearly
5,O,00,
piastres were almost as great as freight ire of the State railway is quite long,
revenues.
Although the main
most fourth class passengers travelled but short distances, meters being the average distance travelled in kilometers for first,' second 1939,
52.4
kilo-
against 266.4h
and third class passengers.
The corre-
sponding Journeys by fourth and upper class
passengers on the
Haiphong-
Kunming line were 46.4 and 124.7 kilometers respectively.

Fourth class tieket cost its holder less than ten cents, money
The average
erican
The average freight haul ("marchandises ?,V,") in
1939 was 163.3
kilometers
line
traffic The rice
-
on the State railways and 31O4
kilometers on the
Yunnan
the latter
hhich travelled
a reflection no doubt of the high proportion of

the full distance from Haiphong to Kunming. heavy in December and
shipments in
Tonkin are particularly
January and. again in June and J lyA after the two rice harvests.
Similarly, Zarch, April and May are the heavy months for rice traffic
on the
Cambodian line, after the harvest in that part of the country.

Competing
3.
Means of Transport:
In
Indochina practically' as in
every other country of the world there have been
humerous
complaints
on the part of the railway officials against highway competition since the
first World, War,
However, highways have been relied upon more
23 -
generally in Indochina than have railways -- the reverse of the situation in such countries as Thailand and durma where extensive northsouth railways were built at least a generation ahead of parallel and competing highways. Northern and southern Indochina were linked by
rail only in 1936 with the completion of the QuinhonNha Trang section. As indicated above, barges and river launches
"carriedmost
of
the freight traffic to the thickly populated delta regions while coastal facilities (prior to the present war) carried most of the north-south freight traffic. Air lines were beginning to compete for
traffic between Saigon, Vientiane and Hanoi prior to the outbreak of war in Europe.
F.
Recent and Proposed Developments At the beginning of the century Governor Doumer outlined a scheme
of railway development which involved links with China

-
and Thailand
which scheme has not yet materialized.
The removal by the
Chinese of rails on' their side of the border at Laokay in 1940 left Indochina with no international rail connections whatever. Within a
few days of the outbreak of war in the Pacific, however, a new nection was made as the gap between the Bangkok-Aranyah line in
con-
Thailand and the Pnom ?enh-Mongkolborey line in Indochina was closed, The French plans had been for the linking of Pnom Penh with Saigon and it tion. was supposed that the Japanese would rush this plan to compleRecent Japanese broadcasts, however, suggest the abandonment
of this project and the completion instead of another French project for the linking between Tan-Ap southwest of Vinh and Thakhek on the
emu%
24 Mekong, from
ioh a Thai line
was expected to run west to connect south of Udorndhani, thus ne-
with the existing Korat' line a little
cessitating the construction of approximately 240 miles of new rail-
way.
The figure 260 miles is
sometimes given,
but the first
18
kilometers from Tan Ap on the
main line to Xom Cue already has a
railwa,
a
while the last
16 miles into Thakhek from the east also has

years. In addition,
railway,
although it has not been used for
there is a,42-kilometer aerial cableway between Phao,
oin Cue and Ban Na
although it
is presumed that any railway would have to take a Thus the total
different route from that chosen for a cableway.
distance from Tan Ap to the Thai railways, including the 34 kilometers

previously built, is estimated at 260 miles. The line would encounfor at
ter certain natural obstacles in the Annamese cordillera, least either five sizeable tunnels would be required, have to be ferried, or crossed by a
while the Mekong would bridge.
long and expensive
There is no evidence at present that this project is being seriously undertaken by the Japanese It would, however, shorten the distance
between Hanoi and Bangkok from 3,500 kilometers by the present route
(via Saigon, assuming the Saigon-Pnom Penh gap were closed) to 1,400 kilometers according to a Japanese source. The recent linking of the
Burmese and Thai railway systems makes a linking of the main IndoChinese system with the latter all the more desirable. the chief seaport of
Such a northern link would leave Saigon, the country, Singapore, off the main through rail
route between Tonkin and
but the shortening of the distance would probably be jus-
_25
tified, particularly if emphasis is placed on the grandiose Japanese plan for
through
rail connections (including,
of course,
the 122-
mile ferry between Japan and Korea) between Tokyo and Singapore. Since the Indochinese railways already run to the Chinese border at Nachamn and Dong Dang, it is 'chiefly the Chinese section of the grand It is not un-
international railway which remains to be completed.
likely that such international connections would strengthen
the
in-
ternal position of Indochinese railways, providing bothfiancia. means and additional traffic to construct additional branch lines.
Should the reported Japanese plan to develop Hongav)
Port
Courbet (near would entail
instead of iaiphong be carried into effect, it
extension of the present Hongay-Canpha line to connect Haiphong-Kunming line at Haiduong.
with
the
In any event, such a connection
would appear desirable from the economic viewpoint, in view of the great and perhaps growing inportance of the Hongay area. Fragmentary evidence as to the present situation of the IndoChinese railways concerns a great reduction in the number and speed of passenger trains. Goods destined for Tonkin from Japan appear
to be shipped by sea to Saigon, and thence back north to Hanoi, Haiphong, etc. Extreme shortage of shipping appears to dictate this The presence of an estimated LO,000 tons of
roundabout procedure. rice at Saigon,
for which shipping is not available,
at the same time
Tonkin is experiencing a famine, can only be explained in terms of insufficiency of railway capacity, under existing conditions.
- 26 -
II. A. Highway System
MOTOR TRANSPORT
In Indochina, as in most other colonial countries,it was originally planned to make railways the central feature of the transportation system. However, an ambitious highway program was outlined in 1912, and from 1918 to the This has
by Governor General Albert Sarraut
present highways have eclipsed railways in importance.
been partially because of the unexpectedly heavy capital expenditure required by the railways and partially because the motor vehicle has proved much more useful and flexible as a means of transport than was originally contemplated. 1. Economic and Strategic Importance: The Indochinese highway Genuine all-weather
system is outstanding in Far Eastern countries.
roads reach nearly all large towns including even those of western Laos, if recent Japanese broadcasts are not greatly in error. Roads are classified as colonial, local and "penetration." Colonial highways are constructed and maintained by the Federal Government, thus corresponding to Federal highways in this country. Local
They are normally asphalted and fit for year-round traffic.
highways are supported by the individual States or their subdivisions. Some of them are adequate for all-weather travel but generally they are greatly inferior to the through colonial routes. The "penetration"
trails, about three meters wide, are suitable for foot, pack and cart transport, and in many cases are the basis for future road-building activities. roads. During the dry season some of them are used as motor
27
Width:
Most colonial routes are 19.5 feet l6.5 feet. In
in
total width of
they are
which the surfaced portion is somewhat narrower.
the
mountains
The chief state and other local highways are
approamately three, feet
narrower
than the colonial
highways.
Surface:
it rock is
In
most parts of Indochina, limestone, laterit. or gramb.
available close to the highway routes and the roads I ater-m
therefore have ordinarily been-given an adequate foundation, ito is used for surfacing
many
roads and is
spread to a thickness of
The camber .of the
12
centimeters against 10 centimeters. for granite.
highway varies from 1:60 on the older routes to 1:100 on those constructed more recently, A former vice consul conpares the better to
routes in Indochina to the river road from Washington, D.C.
'Great
Falls, Maryland. Six percent is the
Grades and Curves:
maxim=
grade except on
"penetration" trails
6he
where ten percent is
not uncommon. ordinarily
nl
radius of curves on colonial routes is
49 feet and those with a radius of less than 975 feet are both b
and
widened. Mai=speeds
of
I40
miles per
hour on
level stretches
and 20 miles per hour in
the mountains
a.th the
of hi
engineering.
Brids
in Cie-way bridges are the
rule throug out. Indochina
and
Re-
miany
cases the railway and the high
aV
use the a e
bridge.
enforced concrete is
used in bridges on the
mai
are
highways with steel
for particularly long spans.
Bamboo many
and wooden teporary structures built
are conmmon on local roads and
of them
for
one
season'as
use only, being washed away during the monsoon rai.ns,

have narrow sidewalks.
Most bridges
0,1
On some of the colonial routes bridges have a capacity of but the older ones are from five to
25 tons
nine-tons
in
capacity, with
bridges of only three-tons capacity common on some of the less travelled routes. Statistics of Roads: Table No. 13 gives the length of the variIt is
ous
types of roads throughout the country as of the end of 1938.
regretted that equally comprehensive rot available since it
figures for more recent years are
is. known that the French continued to
build
colonial highways after 1938 while the Japanese have frequently boasted of their own more recent road--building exploits, Table No. 13 Colonial Roads To be constrticted qr
Graded or
passable for
impassable
for
automotive
Length
automo-
Oountr Tonkin Annam Cochinchina, Laos Total.

1,749
Not
traffic 6 m,
ofe
"?~a~l z
tive
.
traffic 6 mno~of year.
763
817
3,30
1,008
546
1,346
l]
1,301 95 ,553
7341
189
102'
217
37
650
2,369
28
721 3,06
1,766 9,839
1,340C
880
State, Provincial and Municipal Roads
To n
Cochmh~in .
6,1479
590
1,287
1,815
1,113
1,899 2,780
2,392
3o954
Laos Total
2 4i4
301
1,9249
1,238
1.102
24114
2,305
26,627
8,115
Grand totals ,.36,41.66
5,18
13,565
8, 458
9,025
Source:
R2.
way
French
Development in French Indochina, Paulette Petra,

Clerk, r icn
.Conuate,
Saigon, dated August 5,
1940.
- 29 -
It of local
wIJll be seen that roads, Its in
Cochinchina has a much more complete
network
proportion to area,
than other members of the much greater fiscal re-~
Federation.
small size,
and possibly its
sources,
national
result in Cochinchina having much the smallest mileage of

or colonial roads. of reinforced
/
Bridges on the national highways are ordinarily concrete, Dirt roads normally have wooden bridges.
The Mandarin Route connects with the highways
of China and of
Thailand.
"Au Droit" left
An interesting feature of Poipet was a large sign,

which caused the bus driver side of the road, suddenly to swerve from the
to the right
as he entered the one Far Eastern
country which required driving on the right.
Planning and Financing:
The Inspector General of Public Works,

responsible for
an appointee of the Minister of Colonies, is tion and maintenance of colonial highwars.

ministration are his deputies for directing
construc-
The chiefs of local adactivities in the various
localities.
Road building is an important item under "Public Works"
which absorbed 9,090,000 piastr'es in 1932 and then declined in importance until 19h0 and 19h1 when it rose abruptly to 17,100,000 and 31,hh8,000 piastres respectively.
Local highways are provided for by local budgets which depend

chiefly upon direct taxes on real estate and individuals (i.e. poll
taxes).
District engineers are in

on public works,
charge.
In
1936 Cochinchina spent

for AxInam. It Tonkin, is
1,893,000 piastrrs 761,000 for
compared with 1,36,000
Cambodia,
7h7,000 for
Laos and as
451,000
for
not known what proportion
of these sums
spent on roads,
130
B,
Chief Colonial Routes The chief colonial routes are shown on the accompanying map1/ It
should be.emphasized,
portant routes,
of course, that there are scores of less imthe year around. The more
some of them motorable
important colonial routes may be briefly described as follows:

1. ries The "Mandarin Route" or Colonial Route No. of Annam traveled from 1: For centudomain to
the rulers
one end of their close to
the other by a route
which
kept fairly
the seashore.
Colonial Route No. 1 connects approximately the same cities but

with its trast
much greater breadth and sweeping
curves
it
is
a great conover
to its
predecessor 'which did not permit wheeled traffic
some sections of the route, the mandarins being carried in sedan chairs, It is 2,56L kilometers in length and extends from the Saigon and
'Chinese frontier
near Dong Dang through Hanoi, Tourane, Pratet at
?nom Penh to Pofpet near Aranyah
the old Thai-Indochinese
border,
The present frontier, established in

of this route in
1941, leaves approxiJust before the out-
mately 2h0 kilometers
Thailand,
break of war in
Prachinburi international
1941 the Thai completed their own highway through

route which thus assumes even greater
to connect with this importance.
There were in
1939 according to Robequain
only five
ferries
in
the
main Hanoi-Saigon section against approximately 50 a few years before. The chief bridges on this border shown in 1 See map the first route were at the distances from the Chinese
column of the following table: and Motor Roads, prececdng' page. 1 of this Handbook.
of Railroads
-31
Table
14
Chief Bridges on Colonial Route No. 1 Length in Meters 130 171 226
Kilometers
Name of Stream Song Thuong Song Can Canal des Rapi des Red River * Song Chan Song Lan Song Ma * Song Cam Lo Rao Vinh
Ba-giang
126
137 162 170 230 306 324
1,682
200 160
172
175 242
755
761 819 828
214,
400 388 263 107
941
964 971 1,010 1,036
1,074
1;213 1,340
1,340 1,620
1,882
1,350 1,567
1,882 1,902 2,11

2,343
Hung Giang Can-le Song. Ba-ren Song Ru-ri 107 Song Ba-I 203 Song Tra-bong 108 Song Cai-bua 115 Song Ha Gaio Song Dla Rang 185 1,090 , Song Da Rang 250 Ban Trach 250 Kaih Dinh 150 Song Long Song 125 Dong Nai 223 flong Ndi 279 Saigon River 290 Bassac 100 Stung Pursat
This route passes through the most densely populated part of the country and in Annam it the railway. It is follows the coast even more closely than does
therefore exposed to.damage by the typhoons which Road traffic, however, is orrail
are the scourge of northern Indochina,
dinarily more promptly restored. after a damaging typhoon than is traffic.

*
It is 16 feet wide to Dong Dang and then 18 feet to Hanoi,

W*
Pont Doumer at Hanoi.
Single-span, steel rail and highway bridge.
S3.2
being 20 to 25 feet exception of a few
in width from there to the Thai border with the
mountain sections.
Ja 18: nianoi is the highway center as well
2.
Route Nos. 2, 3,
as the railroad hub of populous Chinese border at founr kilometers in length,
Tonkin, roads fanning out to touch the

places, Route No, 2 which is 343
different
runs northwest to Ha Giang near the Chinese
border on the Clear River and thence turns west (as No0 4) following
the border to Laokay. It runs over
hilly
country for
the
last
part
of its
length and crosses the river several times.
Colonial Route No, 3 runs almost due north from Hanoi to the tin
and tungsten center of Caobang, 291 kilometers distant branch runs to the Chinese border at Soc Giang, whence a
Route No, 1 as mentioned above connects Hanoi with Dong Dang. It parallels the Hanoi-Nacham branch of Route No. 18 the coalnng
the railway.
north from Hanoi to
runs
mstl
east and a little
center of Hongay and then continues up the coast to
Tien Yen 240 kilometers from Hanoi,
Route No, 4 continues the remaining 102 kilometers to the Chinese

border at Moncay at the northeastern corner of the country, This
same route skirts the border to Caobang and is

Ha Giang on Route No. 2. ready been mentioned, It The section is
planned to continue to
Laokay has al-
from Ha Giang to
planned eventually to continue this
route
to
Luang
Prabang,
a very great undertaking.
There are a number of other and less important routes in Tonkin contecting these chief radial routes with one another and with the numerous navigable waterways,
3, is
RoutNo,
iaiphong: Hanoi
A very well travelled
rout
Colonial Route No.
5. connecting Hanoi with Haiphong,, X04 kilo-
meters
ists
distant,
Rather
high
speeds
,
hav been mitamned

farad
motor-
on this
straight, level,
road which frequently
travels
dustrial
on eman
ents through rice fields. The bridge at the

about 300
in.
town of Haiduon g is No, 6

-
meters ia length, is is a mostly incomplete
h. Route
Hano -Vientiane:
route gcross rather to the capital of
mountainous Laos.
country from the capital of Indochina
Only the first

,n
75 kilometers to Hoa there is
Binh are
metalled so far as is kn
at albetween S
If and when
and
it is doubted if
any road ouang.., c
Neua (319 kilometers
from Hanoi)and
eiang
completed it will still
further
increase the importance
of Hanoi as a transportation center.,
5.
Route No, a
7 -
Phu
Dlien to
Luang Prabang:
This 653 kilometer

south of Hanoi on
route st
at Phu Dien 1. It
It
which is 256 kilometers

is
Colonial Route No,
metalled as far as Con Cuong,
94 kilo-,'
meters from Phu Lien,
has probably been metalled is believed
over much of the
remainder of the route but the metalling
to be in
very
poor condition up to a point about 30 kilometers Prabang where it meets Colonial Route No, 13 -
southeast of Luang
13 from Saigon. This 1,750 kilo-
6,
Route No,
Saigon
to Luang Prabang:
meter route is
in potential
second
only to
In
the Colonial Route No, 19143
1 in length and
importance,'
Japanese radio broadcasts spent The French, h ever,
much
time in discussing its. completion,
fin-
ished considerable sections of the route so that Japanese accomplishment was much less than the radio broadcasts would
imply.
It
par-
-4
els the railway frou Saigon to
c Ninh after
which it
turns north-
west
to
Kratie
near the
loer rapids
of the Mekong
It is used as an
alternative to the Mekong for the Sav
et-Pakse section
and is
never very far from the east bank . of the river, all the tiane which is
to
way to Vienbelieved
almost due south of Luang Prabang. unexploited mineral
Laos is
have
considerable
and forest resources
and may
possibly prove capable of supporting a considerably larger tural population.
agricul-
The rapids in the Mekong River prevent inland navifor traffic
gation,from competing seriously with the highways
and
Iaiown plans do not call for a railway line to parallel this route,
Hence Colonial Route No, 13 appears to be the key to the future develop-
ment of Laos. 7, Route Nos, , 10 12:

These routes represent connecting links
between the
mandarin
13,
route Bnd
rua
line of the railway on the
at,
and
Route No.
the Mekong,
and the Thai highway system on the west, length connects the It is
Route No.
8,
282 kilometers in
important
center
of Vinh in northern Annam with Thakhek,

Laksao, from. its 132 kilometers
metalled as far as
from
Vinh and for the last part of the route
jznction with Route No, 12 to Thkhek
Route No, 10 connecting Pakse with Ubon was formerly in Indochinese territory for the first territory, Route No, 39 kilometers but
it
is
now entirely in
Thai
12 from Ha Tinh to Thb
hek
is only-270
kilometers in
length and the last stretches of it that it

is
are reportedly being metalled so 8.

From Tan Ap it follows
presmaably preferable to No.
the
route on the proposed international railway.
A ferry route crosses
the Mekong between Thakhek and Nakonphnom on the Thai side of the river. The latter town is connected by an all-weather highway with
Udon orsicther 8.
branch of the Thai railway system.

Dong Ha to Savannakhet: This is an entirely
Route No. 9 -
metalled route from Dong Ha on Route No.
I and the railway to
Savannakhet on the Mekong and Route No. Ai Lai Pass, L10 meters in height.
13.
Its
highest point is
it is
reportedly a better road
than either No. 8 or No.

from Hanoi to the Mekong.
12-although it represents a longer journey

A Thai road runs due south from to the railhead of Ubon in
Savannakhet after ferrying Thailand,
the Mekong
9.
Route No. l14 -
Saigon to Tourane:
This inland route is it
iden-
tical with No. 13 then due south to
as far as Loc Ninh whence
turns northeast and Annam. indicate It that it is
follow mountain valleys to central Tourane although some reports
reaches the coast at being extended to entirely 10.
Hue.
It
is
thought that by the present time it

lacking.
is
metalled but Route Nos.
confirmation is 15 and 16 -
Roads in Cochinchina:
Saigon is the
center of a ated here.
number of excellent
roads most of which are not enumer-
One of the best is Route No. 15 covering 125 kilometers Jacques.
from Saigon to St.
Route No. 16 runs 337 kilometers across the Mekong Delta to

Caau, the southernmost point on the Indochinese highway system. has recently become a state rather than a colonial route. It
Many fer-
ries are encountered.
1O .
w.
36
lU,
Route No. 17 -
Pnom Penh-Iatien:
This 225 kilometer route only one of
runs south and a little
west to the Gulf of Siam, and is
a number of roads in this section. Saigon. 12, Route Nos, 19 and 21:
It has several connections with
Connecting Route No.
114
through south-
central Annam
with
the coast are Route Nos. 19 and 21 leaving the
coast at Van My and Ninh Hoa respectively. 13. Route No. 20 Saigon to Dalat: This rather good all-
weather road is pal hill
the most direct route between Saigon and the.princiIt is 305 kilometers in length and is
station of Indochina.
asphalted or metalled throughout. 1,000
At Djiring it
reaches a plateau of
mees
elevation. Saigon to Kompong Thorn: This 322 kilometer
14.
Route 22 -
route passes through the well populated part of Cochinchina and Cambodia and is asphalted throughout. Route 1-B which goes from Pnom
Penh to Sisophon passes through Kompong Thorn, C. Public Conveyances Commercial vehicles regstered in 1936 were distributed among
five states as indicated in Table No. 15.
- 37-;
a a
31
Table 15 Commercial Vehicles in French Indochinain 1936 State Tonkin Annam Cochinchina Cambodia Laos Total Passenger Buses Trucks 300 300 620 280 50 1,550
440
300 560 310 110 1,750
Large buses, many of them charcoal-burners, operated on fairly satisfactory schedules along many highways. truck lines In 1936 were as follows: Table 16 Compny Delair (Caobang) Route in 1936 Nacham-Cao Bang-Tinh Tuc (Bus, truck ard trailer route) Xom Cuc-Ban Na Phao-Thakhek (Cableway to Ban Na Phao, bus and. truck to Thakhek), Dong Ha-Savannakhet (Dong Ha is on Route No. 1) (bus and truck route also extends from Savannakhet to Thakhek) Chon-Thanh-Minh Thanh (bus and. truck route)
Jvongkolborey-Aranyah
The leading bus and
Miles
68
122
Compagnie Indochinoise des :essacaeries Automobiles (Vinh) Malpuedh (Savannakhet)
205
Ha-la-Van-Sinh
10 I40
(inh-Thanh) Societe Indochinoise de, (Saigon)
Transnorte
(bus and truck route)
There have been recent reports of considerable road traffic around both Thakhek and Savannakhet and some indications that the
latter
route is proving more popular than the former due presumably
to its better surface and less steep sections.
It is possible on
the other hand that the Japanese are reserving the Vinh to Thakhek route for strictly military transport. The French laws affecting taxation of commercial vehicles should be the envy of railroaders everywhere in their chronic battle to increase the taxation of their principal rivals. In addition to small
license taxes the bus lines are required to pay a tax of .0001 piastres per passenger-kilometer or per quintal-kilometer if they do not compete with the railway. This is increased to .00015 for traffic
between two points which are more than five kilometers but less than ten kilometers from a railway station while a tax of .0002 piastres is levied on traffic between points both of which are within five kilometers of the railway station.
D.
Private Conveyances In 1936 there were reportedly h,300 pleasure cars in Tonkin, 1,600
in Annam, 6,000 in Cochinchina, 1,480 in Cambodia and 220 in Laos. According to Robequain over half of these belonged to wealthy IndoChinese, Registration and vehicle licenses cost but .60 and .30 piasIt is
tres respectively, while drivers' licenses cost 10 piastres.
thought that the Japanese have commandeered the few remaining motor vehicles which were in private hands. E. Motor Fuel Gasoline was already going out of use in Indochina before the
Japanese occupation, its place being taken by alcohol and by charcoal which was burned in special equipment both on private vehicles and on
buses and tricks
The Japanese are believed to be
making
use of a
great variety of substitutes for petroleum products including both dehydrated and hydrated alcohol, charcoal, fish and other animal
fats,
and
vegetable fats,
Every report indicates
a drastic shortage
and there is lit-
of motor fuel and possibly of lubricants as well,
tle doubt that nearly all motor traffic Ls Rnder the direct or indirect control of the Japanese military forces.
F.
Japanese Developments In addition to completing Route No. 1.3 as an all-weather highway have reportedly built Presumably these in difficulties amounts are some estimates or
from Saigon to Luang Prabang, the Japanese improved several roads, particularly in
Annam,
roads would be of considerable strategic against attacks from the direction
importance
of Thailand. Government
Large
being spent by the Indochinese
on highways,
running as high as 80,000,000 piasters per month. One extremely improbable project mentioned by a Japanese general Burma.
was a 500 or 600 kilometer' road up from northern Indochina into Such a route might have considerable strategic importance but it
would certainly absorb great quantities

would travel through sparsely populated
of equipment and manpower, and

mountainous country. rendered
The maintenance of road transport difficult repair parts
by the Japanese is
both by the shortage of motor fuel, for motor vehicles --
and by the shortage of
most of which were of French manu2,998 metric tons of motor tons
facture.
During the period 1935-1939,
vehicles were imported annually, of which no less than 2,27 came from France,
40
III.
STREET RALW4YS
The electric railways of Saigon, Cholon and vicinity measured
just unler 87 kilometers in trackage, most of which -
81 kilometers
-- is devoted to an interurban line to Hocmon, Thudaumot and Phunhuan. The Compagnie Francaise des Tramways de l'Indochine operates The capital is French and originally amounted to
this system.
8,00,000 piastres in 17,000 shares of.500 francs nominal value of

which 3,000 have been reimbursed at a par value of 500 francs per share. Saigon. The offices of the company are at 138 Rue Paul Blanchy, Receipts of the company during the period 193-1939 exceed-
ed expenditures but the interurban line was conducted at a net loss of 14,733 piastres, 1935, 1936 and 1939. In Hanoi the Societe de Tramway du Tonkin has an electric trolley bus system more than 29 kilometers in in Hanoi, Route du Village du Papier. companies for length. Its offices are located although a slight profit was made in the years
Financial operations of the two
1935-1939 are shown in the table below. It may be noted

a net profit for the period, this was achieved
that although there is
by a substantial increase in business in 1938 and 1939, as operations for the first three years were conducted at a deficit.
1/
See above,
for
discussion of connection between the main line
of
the railway and the railway line to Bendongxo and Loc Ninh.
Table Receipts
17
and
Expenditu res of Indochinese Street Railways Distances in kilometers and portions thereof) 1936 1937 28.9 119,279 135,335
-16,056
(Values in piastres. Lines

Hanoi
1938 28,9 202,742 16149 789 37,953
1939 29.14 300,239 198,392 101,847 59
Averag 29 1614,207 156,507 7,700 5.9 263,535151,711 111,822
Tgth Receipts Expenditures Net . Saigon.Cholon Length Receipts .Expenditures Net Cholon-HocmonThud aumo t and Phu-nhuan Length Receipts Expenditures Net Total Length Receipts Expenditures Net 1 piastre :10 Source
-
.28.9
110, 28)4
-
1)47,285 37,5141
28,9 88,1491 136,192

0_147,701
5.9
239,835 110,1)498 129,337
5.9
5.9
226,118 131,803 9)4,315
5,9
298,783 205,885 92,898
203,808 106,978
3h49,12)4
203,394 145,730
MIL
96,830
81 )400, 3 63 398,)423 129)40
81 371,052 364,071 9,981 115.8 666, 351

607,2)41
81 1432,890
81
81
650, 979 626,628 2)431
55)4,192
599,990 14,798
-
81 1482,1495
497,029
6)4,139
497,228
-_2141733
115.8
750,1482 656, 7)46 93, 736
59,110
116,3 115.8 115.8 778,287 1,055,717 1,300,3142 1,028,14114 970, 664 76)4,167 271,928 114,120 85,053
115.9 910,235
805,14146
1014,789
francs or about-US$0.30.
Chemins
de
Fer Statistiques de 1'Annee 1939.
P!art IV.
ITERTAIL WATERWAYS AN1D CETALS
This section of the Hanxdbook was prepared by the SPECIAL AREAS BRK'TH, FORMIGN ECONOMIC ADAUI STRATUI, UNIT, and THE FAR EASTER1 UNITED STATES
BUREAU OF FOREIGN1 AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE,
DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE.
PROVISIONAL EDITION
98
100
102
104
106
lOS
110
112
/1
FRENCH
INDOCHINA
)
24
I
0hiang Yuan
NAOFFICE
0000 4Gog100
PRINCIPAL STREAMS
OF ECONOMIC WARFARE
IRAPIDS 0
100 0 100 100,:
7
22 .... :N2
f0
La Lai Chou
Kan :0ou ~Tuyan Lo e"

80010
RESTRICTED
COrb1
20
'4 f 70 09
.5". "o"
oetr
%o9
800
SeptPogoda
HiPO'
HANGN.
P00000
"
"
Bnth
Tapo K N
,P...:GU MO"'n
' .h.~
."
OulohNonThnHo
0-og~e
C..)ooO
Dlo
81 V106an
MAP
10
NO::::. 104 SPEOEh0o14
10
RWNI H
110
00OReHESCIOO.
~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
MAPNO. 1044
SEPTEMBER 22, 1943
O.E.W. SECTION, IN THE CARTOGRAPHIC e o++a DRAWN
42 -
IV. A. Introduction
INTERNAL WATHWAYS AND CANALS
French Indo-China possesses a large number of rather short rivers, which are confined between the Annamite Chain or Cordilleras and the South China Sea on the one hand, or the Annamite Chain and the Mekong on the other, (see Map). Only two great rivers which enter the coun-
try from foreign territory, the Mekong and the Red River, have any exceptional importance: of Tonkin, The Red River is a vital factor in the economy of even greater importance to Cambodia and
the Mekong is
Cochin-China. Usually sandbars impede the mouths of Indo-China's rivers and For the most part
numerous rapids and shallows mar their upper courses.
the rivers are poor arteries of transport, but the principal ones do have important navigable reaches which are linked together, especially in Cochin-China, by a large number of natural and artificial canals. Thus,
even in the two large delta areas, which are most highly developed from the standpoint of land transportation, waterways are still the chief arteries for the movement of goods. Climatic conditions in Indo-China,which divide the year into a rainy season and a dry season, gation. are of great importance to inland navi-
The rains cause substantial increases in the depths of most
rivers so that the navigable waterways are both improved and extended during the wet season. Consequently, there is a considerable variation
43
jn
the types of craft
which can be-used on the watercourses
of the
country, depending upon the particular characteristics of the river or

canal to be navigated, said, tons, however, that also upon the season of the year. It can be
a flat-bottomed power boat able to carry some 30 and general
drawing not, more than 60 or 70 centimeters when so,,loaded, least 12 knots would probably have the greatest
able to make at utility
throughout Indo-China./
B.
Tves of
t i
e Cr
craft used for ordinary river navigation in but this is Indo-China
The native
are of the generally well known Chinese type,
not true of
those employed on the upper reaches of the rivers where rapids of all sorts occur more or less frequently. On these sections of the rivers,
and more particularly in upper Tonkin and northern Laos, craft of the
following general types

1. In
are used':
or dugout
the highest mountain .regions there are pirogues
canoes about 25 feet long.
They are usually slender, can be handled by
one or two natives, and are light enough to be dragged easily through shallow rapids.
In this connection it
should,
however, be noted that experience with
navigation on the Indo-Chinese waterways has not been as informative as of the Except in very recent years on certain parts it might have been. has been made to use or experiment with western Mekong, little effort of a construction especially adapted to the conditions of inpower craft land navigation in much of Indo-China.
/ Craft of different specifications and capacities than those described here will be noted in particular localities from time to time during the
course of this report.
-44 -
2.
Somewhat lower, where the rivers are wider, fairly substantial They are made of three hand-hewn
pirogues about 40 feet long are used.
boards, one for the bottom and one for each side, held together with pegs and caulked with palm fiber. The sterns are usually high so that the Amidships is a
helmsman has an unobstructed view in all directions.
rounded cover of thatched palm leaf to protect passengers or cargo from rain or spray. kilograms,/ 5. wide In the foothills there are generally long stretches without any These pirogues have crews of three and can carry some 500
water and here large pirogues or dugout canoes, some 50 to 60 feet Unlike the
long, with about four-foot beam, and two-foot draft, are used.
first two types, which are light enough to be dragged upstream in the worst places, this third type can only be poled, lined, (towed), or propelled by motor../ A superstructure of platforms is built on them while The bamboos
bamboos are lashed to each side to increase their buoyancy. are cut adrift going upstream.
A long steering oar is festened to the bow Two oarsmen sit on a
and another to the stern for downstream navigation.
platform near the bow using short oars with blades made from thin strips of bamboo lashed together. The oarlocks consist of bamboo bindings.
L/ The evidence is not entirely clear, smaller pirogues can carry this much.
and it
may be that even the
2/ By 1959 a good many pirogues were using Diesel motors, especially upon the Mekong.
Four men make up the crew on these craft.
Usually where there
are no rapids, they can average three miles per hour upstream by using the back currents along the banks, At rapids, however, it is often
necessary to spend a whole day unloading the boats and hauling them up. 4. On parts of the Mekong great rafts are the chief conveyances They are usually built upon two large pirogues Often a shelter, with a peaked roof Such rafts are A crew of four
for downstream traffi-c.
anywhere from 65 to 100 feet long.
about 10 feet high in the center, is erected on them. allowed to travel almost entirely with the current./
L/
The following is a detailed description of the two rafts used by the Coolidge and Roosevelt Expedition to descend from Luang Prabang to Vientiane in about 1932:
"The basis of each raft was two large pirogues about 65 feet long fastened about 5 feet apart and covered by a platform 15 feet wide amidships. On either side of the pirogues were lashed bundles of 80 or 90 long bamboo poles which added greatly to their stability. The floor was made of cross-woven strips of bamboo. Overhead a framework of poles supported a substantial peaked roof about 10 feet high in the center and 5 feet wide at the sides, covered by light mats made of palm leaves which were held in place by strips of bamboo. "Between the pirogues, which protruded a little beyond both ends of the platform, were two long steering oars forward and the same aft. The greatest use of these was made in the rapids. Just behind the forward steering oar was a roofed-over platform like a veranda, about 15 feet long, where the 12 piroguiers lived and where 8 of them who were oarsmen sat while they rowed, four on each side. We had a place about 20 feet long by 10 feet wide, in the after end of which we set up our beds. In front there was room for a dining table and four chairs. A covered passage ran the length of the raft on the right side. Here baggage could be stacked. The kitchen was on the back veranda. Amidships was a cross passage with removable floor which could be lifted to bale the canoes. Aft of this passage was a room smaller than the front one for the boys and more baggage. Then came an open porch about 12 feet wide with a sandbox on one side for the kitchen fire. Our two helmsmen stood on the back porch to manipulate the steering oars."
Illrrr
_46~
helmsmen and 14 rowers is required to control them, and they are un-= wieldy and hard to take down the rapids. for upstream travel, These rafts cannot be used
Upon reaching their destination they are dis-
mantled and the pirogues are used separately for the return trip.
5, parts On rivers of Tonkin) smaller than the Mekong sampans are widely used in (principally in Annam and before the also
upper reaches,
rapids become too numerous or difficult,
Sampans are,
of course,
common on the lower sections of most of the rivers throughout IndoChina. long,
long,
These sampans are likely
to vary in
dimensions from 3 meters to some 10 meters
50 centimeters wide,
1.50 meters wide,
and 10 centimeters draft
and 25 to 30 centimeters draft.
C.
Inkl
1.
gener
The waterway system of Torkin is composed basically of: 1) the
Red River, its branches, and its two principal tributaries, the Black River and the Clear River; 2) the Thai Binh with its branches and
principal tributaries, the Song Cau, Soag Thuong and Song Luc Nam; and 3) the canals of the delta
(Pee
Map
opposite cage
58).
In the area from Vietri to the coast and from Ninh Binh in the south to Phu Lang Thuong in the north launches drawing 1.50 meters can easily
reach practically all the principal towns at all seasons, while those
drawing 1.30 meters encounter occasional difficulty only

water season from November to May. inclusive.
during.
the low-
Ao
B K
ivT
xN
x}+
,.
TD, Gus_
:.-
}A
de abeXY Ps
-a
r/
00a
TiE Of /a /Le a\ 1C
"
OA o Gfoa/! Cp n"(C J
mia a muss
I
b ui/i
47
During the high-water months from June to October inclusive, steam

navigation for craft drawing 1.80 is possible to Laokay on the Red River,
Tu1yen Quang on the Clear River, and Cho
Bo
on the Black River,

draft
To some
can, of
points within these limits craft of considerably greater course, navigate.
Pirogues and sampans can continue above these points
most of the time, but passage of the numerous rapids is difficult at.very low water, while very high water often results in a current so swift that light craft In have to remain off take fullest the streams entirely. advantage of the navigable waterways of
order to
Tonkin,
steam or other power craft should have a flat

most, a draft not over 60 centimeters,
bottom,
length
of
least
50 meters at
and a speed of at
eight knots./
Such a craft would encounter no difficulties
whatsoever
in
the delta, and during the low-water months could probably proceed at least to the normal high-water limits of steam navigation.
2.
,. Red Rive. After the Mekong, the Red River is the most important From the !unnan frontier at
river in
Indo-China,
Laokay
it flows south-
eastward across Tonkin past Hanoi to enter several mouths just
the Gulf of Tonkin through
north of the Annam border.
a. stern parts has ound advantageous means ofshallower paddle-wheel, or wheels, rivers. in the of the Tenkinese
iPropulsion by
often been
"Noft.0
-48
The flow of the Red River follows a seasonal pattern, punctuated in many spasmodic rises which seriously endanger navigation. These are the
result of several causes including the steepness and barrenness of the slopes in much of the country drained by the Red River and its affluents in their upper courses. As a result there is a marked irregularity both
in the flow of water and in the rapidity with which changes in volume occur. The difference between high and low water at Hanoi is sometimes
only from one to two meters and at others it may exceed eleven meters. The river begins to rise a little in May, but usually falls again before its sustained rise in June sets in. The high-water season proper,
caused by the summer rains, extends from June through most of October. The river is at its highest in July, August, and September. In the latter In
part of October it begins to return gradually towards low-water level.
the low-water season the tide reaches somewhat beyond Hanoi, but at highwater it is practically non-existent within the river. The floods of the Red River are more dangerous than those of the Mekong because of 1) their suddeness, 2) their irregularity, 5) the lack
of a natural reservoir, such as the Mekong has in the Great Lake system, to regulate the flow of flood waters, 4) the lack of great uninhabited
areas over which the waters can spread without endangering human lives, and 5) the great amounts of alluvium which the river carries and deposits in its bed. This alluvium, estimated at some 80 million cubic meters
annually, also tends to form great mud or sandbanks which move downstream
~B8~Iowa-
49
at the rate of about 300 meters per year and render the. maintenance of a navigable channel difficult, The character of these floods has made
it necessary to construct a lengthy system of dikes in the delta region to. control them (see vap). P'rom south to north the principal mouths of the lied River are: Cua Day, Cua Lach, Cua Ba bat, Cua Lon, and The main mouth of the Red
Qua
Traly,
River
proper, is
the
Cua
Ba bat which passes
Hanoi,
It
is
impracticable for ocean-going vessels, however, because The
drying banks extend the six miles southeastward along its front. only mouth navigable by such vessels is the Cua Day which is
the outlet
for the Song Day, a minor branch of the Red River, which leaves the main river above Hanoi and follows a parallel course slightly west. i/ At high tide vessels drawing 2.75 meters can cross the bar at the
Cua Day.
With high tides, or probably at any time during the high-water
season of the year, they can then reach
'Hanoi by proceeding about 20
kilometers up the Song Day and crossing over to Red River via the Nam Dinh
Channel or Canal some 10 kilometers below Ninh Binh.
/ 'At low To
tide during.
the dry season, however, such vessels cannot navigate the Red River beyond the Phuly Canal which is a short .distance north of Nam Dinh. to Hanoi at this time continue
a vessel probably should not draw more than 1.80
meters at moet and possibly only 1.50 meters,
.L/ "Cua and "Songtare Annamite words meaning, respectively, "River mouth" and "river". 2/ Such vessels could also continue directly up the Cua Day or Song Day to Ninh Binh. At all seasons launches drawing from 1.50 to 1.80 keters can proceed up the Song Day a short distance beyond Ninh Binh and then Take the Song De as far as Phy Nho Quan.
50
Above
Hanoi the Red
River becomes appreciably shallower
after Vietri.
Although rapids do not occur until
beyond Yen Bay,
steam'.launches drawing
reaching the latter
1,80 would very likely have considerable difficulty in
town during the low-water season.

Between Yen Bay and Laokay the river and shallows and is more confined, is obstructed by numerous rapids in width as
averaging about 150 meters of Vietri
compared with some 500 meters in the vicinity meters at Hanoi,
and about 1,000
In this section of the river, as well as above it, navi-
gation is difficult in the low-water season because of the swiftness of the current. In fact, native craft, which can be hauled through the rapids at
low water, are frequently unable to ascend against a current which sometimes reaches as much as seven knots during the three or four months of the year when the river is at its highest. So far as the draft of vessels' is concerned, steam or other craft drawFrom
ing up to 2,10 meters can reach Laokay from.June to October, inclusive. November to May, inclusive, only junks and specially constructed steam or motor craft with a draft generally Native craft
not exceeding 60 centimeters can proceed which
much beyond Yen Bay. relative
might
be dragged up rapids with
ease could draw more than this,
and junks drawing 75 centimeters throughout
are often able these months.
to
use the river
without exceptional difficulty
Because it has apparently never proved worthwhile to construct craft
especially designed for the purpose,
steam navigation
during the dry season
S51.
has usually stopped at Vietri, although in some years launches have continued to proceed to Yen Bay. In at least one year a launch drawing perhaps
from three to four feet was able to continue operating to Laokay as late as February, but on its last trip it grounded frequently on sandbars. Above Laokay, junks (some up to 25 meters in length) and large pirogues drawing from 40 to 50 centimeters, and if flat-bottomed capable of Because of the For upstream
carrying from 9 to 12 metric tons, can reach Man Hao../
greater number of rapids, steam navigation is not possible. travel, poling is the chief means of progression. It is
sometimes possible,
however, to hoist a sail or to row.
In the dry season, even such light-
draft vessels must occasionally be dragged over the stones to get through some of the rapids and shallows. Beyond Man Hao the Red River becomes still narrower, the rapids increase further, and in most places the cliffs rise almost perpendicularly from the water's edge. Nevertheless pirogues capable of carrying 500 kilo-
grams at most can reach Yuan Chiang; although at one point, where rocks completely obstruct the river, they have to be dragged along the bank. It is believed that no navigation is possible beyond Yuan Chiang. To
navigate between Hanoi, Laokay, and Man Hao, in native craft (junks and/or pirogues), the length of time required, depending on weather and water con-
ditions and traveling only'by day, is as follows:
/ These specifications are taken from reports of persons who have traveled this section of the river, including M. Rocher, French Consul in Kumming in ,1890. Sources without first-hand experience give smaller figures, however, placing the draft of craft which make the Laokay-Man Hao trip at 25 to 50 centimeters and their capacity at 6 to 9 metric tons.
Haoi
Laokay
and
LaoCPk2 and Ban 9 o
weeks to1month 4 to 10 days
6 to1ddays
to
2 days
Black River.
After flowing across Tonkin south of and parallel to
the Red River for several hundred kilometers, the Black River turns sharply
north at Rca Binh and joins the Red River a few kilometers above Vietri Steam launches drawing 1.80 meters can reach Cho Bc (about 100 kilometers above the junction with the Red River) only during the high water season. Immediately above this town the first ordinary steam navigation./
native piroguies.
of many rapids halts all navigated only by
Beyond Cho Bo the river is
The largest of these craft are about 40 feet long with a five-foot beam and carry a maximum load of three metric tons. crew and are fitted They have a four-man
with short oars, but move upstream almost exclusively They can pro-
by
poling except where. rapids make it necessary to pull them,
ceed as far as Lai Chau.
To make the trip of some 550 or more kilometers
upstream from Cho Bo to Lai Chau it takes from 20 to 50 days, depending upon river conditions. Even at this slow rate as many as 20 rapids are sometimes Progress downstream is much faster, but during the
passed in a single day.
high-water season the swiftness of the current and the 'whirlpools caused thereby often
make
it impossible to move upon the river in either direction.
In August 1888 the French explorer, Pavie, was able to force a small I/ launch through this first extremely difficult rapid. He was then able to use the launch on the river above until it was wrecked at the Hoa about half-way to Lai Cbau.,
Above Lai Chau small pirogues ca
continue for a time under ever
increasing difficulties-
on both the Black River, or Nam Te as it is

Connections between however, by Chinese
sometimes called in this section, and the Nam Na, Lai Chau and Yunnan have usually been maintained, pack trains Clear rather than river traffic. in
Rive,
The Clear River rises
the mountains of Yunnan, southward
enters Tonkin northeast of the Red River,
and flows generally
to
join the latter
at Vietri.
From Vietri launches drawing 1.80 meters can navigate the Clear River
to Phu Doan during the low-water season and as far as Tuyen Quang (about 100 kilometers) during the high. Above the latter point the river narrows
and rapids are numerous, but sampans and small piroguies can reach Ha Giang, some 250 or more kilometers distant, except at highest water when the current is too swift. found that from 'yen it Above Ha Giang the river is not navigable.' usually takes from 30 to 45 days to transport The French have military supplies
Quang to Ha Giang via the river. to the Clear River is the Song Gam, which enters it a short
A tributary
distance above Tuyfl Quang.

drawing less
According to the season, 8-to 15-ton sampans

can navigate as far as Ma Don, whence they
than 90 centimeters
Supplies,
in
fact,
have usually been sent to the military
post at
Muong To, 100 kilometers or so further up the Black River and not far
inside the Chinese frontier, to nine days to make ,the trip. by small pirogues which take another six
54~
carry zinc downstream to
en Quaxig for transshipment to larger craft.
Small
sampans can reac h Pao
Van.
which flows parallel to the Red
Another tributary is the Song C

River and
j oins the Clear River not far below Thyen Quang
Fairly large
sampans or river
juks can navigate for a short distance above the conbecomes impassable for anything
fluence with the Clear River, but then it
but small pirogues or similar light Tai B River
native-craft.
the Gulf of Tonkin
The Thai Binh, which enters
north of the Red River is,
after the latter,
the most important river in it is
Tonkin,
As described by most writers and as shown on most maps,
formed by the
union of three rivers
the Song Cau,
the Song Thuong, and Below Sept Pagodes
the Song Luc Nam - near the town of Sept Pagodes.

the river which it begins to divide immediately the sea. into
the numerous branches by
empties into
From the sea to Sept Pagodes,

from south to north are: Cua Thai Binh, Cua Van Uc, and Lach The
the
princi
moths of the Thai Binh
Cua Lack fray,
Cua Cam,
Cua Nam Triou,
Huyon.
hai Bin is fronted by drying banks and is not accessible
to ocean-going vessels.
is conflicting
Within its
mouth the river is
deeper,
but there
evidence regarding
conditions of navigation over the en-
tire
distance between the mouth and the Canal des Iadides which leads
westward to
Hanoi from just
below Sept Pagodes.
It does seem certain,
how-
ever, that throughout the year lunches drawing up to 1.80 meters can
48laaasr
55
navigate as far as the River, from
Canal des Bambous leading southwest to the Red

to the Van Uc and Haiphong There is
this tide some evisection at during the
or the Canal des Riz leading northeast point a
little
above the Canal des BPambous*
dence that vessels drawing 12 to 15 feet least
can navigate in higb
during the high-water season and possibly at
dry
season
as
well.
However, this evidence is not sufficiently positive

The pre-
nor of recent enough date to warrant complete reliance upon it.
ponderance of available evidence indicates that the stretch of the river
between these two canals-and Haiduong is not suitable for steam
navi-
gation.
A final conflict of evidence then exists regarding the section

Pagodes.
of the river between Haiduong and the Canal des Rapides or Sept
It appears to be reasonably certain, however, that launches drawing 1.80 meters can navigate here at all times of the year, while very possibly those drawing 2.75 meters can do so during the high-water season.
With the normal tidal rise of about 10 feet,
the bar at the
Cua Van
tJi can be crossed at high tide by vessels drawing from 12 to 25 feet.

The river, however, does not appear to be suitable for steam navigation much beyond the Canal des
Riz
which leads west to the Thai Binh and north-
east to the Cua Lach Tray and Haiphong. The bar at the
~Cua
La.I
ra
might be. crossed at
high tide with some
difficulty by a vessel drawing 10 feet, but it

suitable for ocean-going ships.
is
not generally considered

so that
Within the bar the water deepens
steam craft drawing 1.80 meters, and possibly more,

in the stretch at least to the Canal des Riz.
can always navigate
56
The Cua However, it
Cam was f'ormerly the channel for vessels going to Haiphong.
the bar and the lower course of the river have so altered that Vessels drawing
has been abandoned, except for light draft vessels.
three meters can navigate the river to its about 50 kilometers above Haiphong.
junction with the Thai Binh,
Since the silting up of the Cua Cam, nearly all vessels approcahing Haiphong enter the Cua Nam Trieu and then pass through the Maritime Canal, or Dinh Vu Cut, which leads into the Cua Cam four miles below the city. Vessels drawing 6.50 meters can reach Haiphong by this route In the Cua Nam Trieu some 15 kilometers above the Dinh accessible to ships of four-meter draft.
at all times. Vu Cut is
Port Rodon which is
Craft of still lighter draft can proceed westward toward the Thai Binh via the Song Gia or the Song Da Bach. A narrow channel across the bar of the Lach Huyon permits the passage at high water of vessels drawing five meters. Inside the bar there
is deeper water as far as the mouth of the. Song Chang which connects the Lach Huyon with the Cua Nam Trieu via Quang Yen. At low water, however,
only craft drawing up to 1.40 meters can pass through the Song Chan to the Cua Nam Trieu. Above Sept Pagodes the Thai Binh divides into the three tributaries which form it: Song Cau, Song Thuong and Song Luc Nam. sometimes called Thai Binh, is the principal
SogCa, which is tributary.
It rises in northern Tonkin in
the vicinity of Lake Ba Be
and reaches the Thai Binh via the mining region of Thai Nguyon and Dap
57
Cau.
Launches drawing 1.80 meters can reach Dap Cau throughout the year, However, craft draw-
and steam navigation ordinarily proceeds no further.
ing less than a meter (about 90 centimeters, which has generally meant 15ton river beyond this to Bac Kan. junks or large sampans) sampans with a The transport can proceed as far as Thai Hguyen, and
capacity of about one metric ton can continue of military stores from Dap Cau to Thai Ngiron
by sampan has usually required
from 5 to 8 days.
Little information is
steam navigation along its
available regarding Sori

course stops at
Thuong,
except that
which can alless. However,
Phu Lang Thuong,
ways be reached by launches drawing 1.80 meters or a little the Song Cau Canal (52 kilometers long) Song Cau just
connects Phu Lang Thuong with the possible for 500-ton barges to
below Thai Nguyen and makes it
cover the entire distance between the latter
cityr and Haiphong.

Luc Nam as far as the
Launches drawing 1.80 meters can .navigate Song
town of Luc Nam and sampans can continue at least to Lam and probably to An Ohau. Song Bann Gianr. The Song Bang Giang is not navigable above Caobang.
Between Caobang and Lungchow, China, it is only navigable for sampans drawing less than 90 centimeters.
Song Ki Kong.
just
The Song Ki Kong flows northwest past Langeon and,

to Lungchow, China. Sampans drawing
south of Thai Khe, turns northeast
less than 90 centimeters with a capacity of from one to two metric tons can navigate between Langson and Lungchow. Because both the Song Ban Giang
-58-
and the Song Ki Kong are

transportation.of Canton,. China. sorts is
tributary
to the ' Si Kiang at Lungchow, water
possible between Caobang and Langson.and
3.
Caals and Delta Comainications The Tonkin Delta is formed by the Thai Binlh and Red River systems.
A number of natural and artificial their various parts,

water (see
canals
connect the two systems and
making it
possible to move throughout the delta by
Map).
The principal canals are:
1.
Canal des Rapides, connecting
the Red River slightly
above
Hanoi with the Thai Binh just below Sept Pagodes. 2.
Canal des Bambous, connecting the Red River just below Hung,
Yen with the Thai Binh at Qui Cao.
3.
Canal des Ris, extending the Canal des Banbous and connecting the Thai Binh with the Van Tic and Haiphong so that
direct communication is
Red River, 4. Canal du Song Cau,
possible between Haiphong and the
connecting
the Song Cau just
below Thai
Nguyon with the Song Thuong at Phu Lang Thuong and facilitating the exportation of minerals from the Thai Nguyon region. This is both an irrigation and a navigation canal. 5.
Canal de Phu Ly, connecting the Song Day at Phu Iy with the Red River just below Hung Yen and just above Nag Dinh.
6.
Canal de Nan
Dinh,
Nan. Dinh
Giang,
or
an
Dinh
Channel,
con-
necting the Song Day with the Red River near Nan Dinh so
that vessels entering the the RFed River proper.
Cua
Day can proceed to Hanoi via
This network of canals and rivers has led to the development of-a
large volume of inland waterway traffic maintained throughout the year-
by launches,
junks, and sampans.
All
types of craft
drawing up to 1.80
so*
THAI-hGUYEnM
Lin-o " 6
NlHA-NAM
c4Tuong
*KEP
oe
PHULANG-THUON
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is7
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ohLn
ICANA
Xu
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"SEPT JAGODES
nh74
D0N6-TRIEU
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Ventin Ph
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uT u
La
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o
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- 59 -
meters can navigate on the main canals,
as well as on the rivers within
the limits which have been indicated, although those drawing over 1.50 meters may occasionally have some difficulty during the low-water season. At high water, from June to October inclusive, boats drawing 3.50 meters can generally navigate between Haiphong and Hanoi, being via the Cua Cam and Canal des Rapides. At Hanoi some 3,000 launches enter and clear annually with 250,000 passengers, while smaller craft handle a volume of traffic amounting to some 250,000 metric tons. Many of the products for export reach Haiphong the shortest route
by water; traffic on the Song Cau Canal is some 300,000 metric tons yearly.
4.
Economic Significance With a fairly complete system of navigable waterways in the midst
of Indochina's most densely populated area, it
is
to be expected that Small boats can be the least
water transport should be of the greatest importance.
made in the village,by hand, during the season when there is
employment in agriculture, and hence they involve little or no out-ofpocket expense. At all times of year, but particularly after harvest, and it would
scores of craft of all kinds can be seen plying the waterways,
be almost impossible to secure dependable statistics as to their number or the total traffic carried by them. Most of the trips are short ones,
and only a small proportion involve trips past toll stations, such as that on the Song-Cau Canal. The traffic on that canal was estimated as follows
60m
for the Annuaire Statistique de l'Indochine: Table No,18
Traffic on the onaCua

(Monthly traffic-m-etric 1929 1930 1951
Canal
tons) 3,460 4,540 2,511
1952
1953 1934
2,765
2,555 2,226
1955
1956
1,852 2,316
The inland waterways of Tonkin are important not merely as a means

of transport of goods and people for the rural population---they have great
significance for the industrial life of this most industrialized state in the country. Coal from Hongay and the other coalfields reaches Haiphong,
Nam Dinh and the other factory towns by junk, while the raw material for the manufacture inland waterway. The canal and river traffic is probably much less susceptible to the effects of war than either rail or ocean traffic, for there is no question of damage to the right of way, the smaller boats can be made without scarce materials or labor, and tides, the wind and human muscles furnish the power. This observation is true in only a limited sense, of course, of cement at Haiphong is almost entirely transported by
with regard to the transport of coal and other commodities for use in the factories.
61
Reports indicate the possibility
that
the Japanese have
restored
the old Mandarin Canal between Thanh Hoak in northeastern Annam, and Nan
Dinh ,on the Red River. This increased reliance oninland waterways may
be both an indication of the inadequacy of rail age of ocean transport, Hanoi and Haiphong for it
transport,
and a shortfrom
is' possible that some of the traffic
'TThanh Hoa used the rail route to reach other points
farther south.. From Tourane to Saigon it is thought that coastal junks carry considerable freight. In case this assumption is correct, frequent
transshipment is required---a particularly inconvenient process when shortage of jute makes packing and shipping materials very scarce.
typhoons which affect the coast between Thanh Hoa and Tourane make it
The
dangerous to rely upon coastal vessels for the entire distance between
Saigon and Haiphong.
*62
I), 1.
Cochin-China
General
-The navigable waterway system of Cocin-China, is one of.. the densest. ,) the
in the world.
Dong Nai
It is composed, of... 1) the lower Mekong system,
(also spelled Donnai) system,. incling the Saigon- River and the .) an intricate network of natural and artificial canals. kilometers,
two Vaicos, and
The more important navigable water-,courses total some 5,000
roughly divided as follows:

Principal Rivers Canals Secondary Rivers and natural canals (mostly artificial). 700 kilometers 1,:00
1,000 2,000 5,000 kilometers
.Atificial Total
canals
These waterways-are exceedingly important to the economy of the area, because nearly all commodities, with'the outstanding exception of rubber, large volume. Traffic on the canals is very
are transported by water in
heavy, especially upon those like the Lap Vo and Duperre canals, which may handle four million and more tons annually./ It is maintained by a
In 1957, for instance, it was estimated that the Lap Vo Canal between the Bassac and the Mekong through Sadec handled 4 million metric tons and the Duperre Canal from the Mekong near Mytho to the Grand Vaico For 1913. it has also been estimated that the Mekong 4.2 million tons. in the vicinity of Mytho carried 13,5 miJJon metric tons, and the Canal
2/
Duperre. 5 million tons.
-63-
variety of craft, including river steamers, launches, motor barges, lighters, junks and sampans; generally there are more than 3,000 junks, most of them over 16 tons. Although the rainy and dry seasons are more distinct in Cochin-China than in Tonkin, this difference is not of primary importance to inland
navigation because Cochin-China, except in the north and northeast, is an alluvial plain not much above the level of the highest tides. Accordingly,
most of the important rivers do not have rapids and the chief factor affecting the movement of traffic upon the waterways is tide, which affects the entire navigable system l.. take advantage of its ebb and flow. the semi-diurnal
Native craft, especially,
They go with the flow of the tide as
far as they can and, if
their destination has not been reached when it
turns, they anchor and wait until the next tide. Except in the higher area well north and also well east of Saigon, it is possible to go almost anywhere by water in Cochin-China./ This is
true to such an extent that even some of the French firms with large interests in rice-land, such as the Credit Foncier de l'Indochine, keep
/ The tide reaches the Trian Falls in the jungle appreciably above Bienhoa on the Dong Nai, almost to the sources of the Saigon River and the two Vaicos, and, in the dry season, to somewhat above Pnom Penh on the Mekong. However, principally in the area flooded by the Mekong and primarily from August to October inclusive, the rains do modify the effects of the tide. 2/ Craft drawing 1.5 meters can navigate at all times throughout the system. For further details see under Canals.
'..~
'l
": * i *
'"*v
launches with which to make inspection trips of several weeks' duration among their holdings.
In,view of the Japanese wooden shipbuilding program, it may be worth
noting. that in earlier days Camau, towards the extreme southern tip of Indo-China, was a considerable communication center. Junks making the
seven or eight day trip from Singapore reached Camau by ascending the Song Ong Doc, discharged their merchandise, which was sent further north by inland waterway via Baclieu, and then regained the sea to the southeast ivia the Song Ganh Hao. Since that time interior water communications be-
tween Camau and Saigon has been greatly improved in order to facilitate the , movement of rice, and wood for making charcoal.
2. Rivers
The principal river in Cochin-China is the Mekong. It will not be
4ealt with here, however, but in a subsequent section of the report. All other important rivers of Cochin--China are parts of the Dong
Nai aystem.
The Dong Nai rises In the Lang Bian plateau of nnanm.
At
Nhabe it is joined by. the Saigon River which has passed the city of Saigon in its course from northern Cochin-China. Below Nhabe the Dong Nai divides
into numerous branches, one of which retains the name of the Saigon River. The westernmost branch is the Soirap, into which the Grand Vaico, formed by
the union of the Vaico Oriental and the Vaico Occidental not far from the Soirap, empties.
65
None of these rivers leads far into the interior of Indo-China. Large ocean-going vessels reach Saigon at all times and steam launches drawing at least 1.50 meters can proceed almost to the Trian Falls on the Dong Nai, to Thudaumot on the Saigon River, to a point directly south of Tayninh on the Vaico Oriental, and at least to Go Bac Chien on the Vaico Occidental.
3.
Canal
The canals in Cochin-China are both natural and artificial. Most
of the latter have been dug for-irrigation and drainage purposes as well as for navigation. In the natural canals, or arroyos and rachs, the ebb and flow of the tide are sufficient to scour the bed and maintain a constant depth. In some of the artificial canals, the action of the tide is insufficient for this purpose and dredging from time to time is necessary. The artificial canals have been constructed in two classes: 1) Prin-
cipal Canals, 2.5 meters deep at low tide and 40 meters wide at water levels; 2) Secondary Canals, 1.5 meters deep at low tide and 18 to 20
meters wide at water level. A number of the arroyos and rachs have been improved to the specifications of the principal canals,/ secondary. and many more to the dimensions of the
Several of the rivers naturally meet or surpass the minimum Accordingly, the entire
specifications of the two classes of canals.
See Footnote 1 on following page.
navigable system 'is,
generally divided into
Principal Waterways or Voices
d'interet (see Map).
principal and Secondary Waterways or Voies d'interet secondaire

Craft drawing 2.5 meters can at all times navigate on all
the Principal Waterways&/
and those drawing 1.5 meters on all the Secondsystem.
ary Waterways and throughout the navigable
CL_ _
~__ _
_I
_I
_ __ FI
/ An exception, however, occurs within the Saigon-Cholon port system. The ancient. natural canal, the Arroyo Chinois, though 60 meters wide, is xceedingly shallow at low tide. As traffic increased, it accordingly became necessary to dig the Canal de Derivation in 1906 and the Canal de Doublement in 1912. At lowest tides each of these is 5 meters deep and 80 meters wide at the water level. / With the exception mentioned in Footnote 1, above.
-67
E.
Cam bodia
The Mekong, the principal river in Cambodia, will be considered of con-
separately in sequence in portant part
subsequent section. state
The only other waterways
this
form the lake system which is
actually an im-
of the Mekong system. often rather loosely applied in central
The term Great Lake or Grand Lac is to the entire Cambodia.
body of water aligned north-west-southeast
In shape, it resembles the longitudinal section of an in-
verted gourd; the term Grand Lac applies only to the base or northwest section. The middle portion is the Petit Lac, and the mouth in the From the hbad of the
southeast is the Plaine de Boue or Veal Phok.
Plaine de Boue, near to town of Kampong Chhang, a river known as the Tonle Sapl/ connects the lakes with the Mekong at the point called the Quatre Bras where Pnom Penh is located.
The area and depth of the lakes vary greatly.
During the months
of lowest water, from February to May inclusive, the lakes have a total
length of about
meters.
140
kilometers and an average width of about 30 kilo-
At this time the depth of the Grand Lac and Petit Lac averages
some two meters or less, while in the Plaine de Boue, mudbanks are widely exposed and there is anywhere. no more than
30
to 40 centimeters of water the Tonle Sap
Steam-launch navigation is
thus confined to
Some writers
and cartographers
apply the name Tonle Sap to the
lake as well as the river.
-68
between the Mekong and Kompong Chhang, a distance of about 120 kilometers../ Launches which are in the lakes can, of course, continue to
navigate to a certain extent, but an approach to the slowly rising shore is so difficult that this practice is not widely followed. During
the low-water period only shallow draft native craft can navigate any of the streams which flow into the lakes. The Mekong usually begins its annual rise with the June rains. This
causes the Tonle Sap, which has been draining the lakes, to reverse its flow. The lakes start to fill and act as a great natural reservoir for,
and regulator of, the flood waters of the Mekong which otherwise would be much more dangerous. At their greatest extent, from about August to October inclusive, the lakes have a total length of some 250 kilometers and a maximum width of about 100 kilometers. The average depth of the Grand Lac and Petit Lac
is then about 13 meters and even the Plaine de Boue has a maximum depth of about 12 meters. In November the Mekong begins to fall; the Tonle Sap
again reverses itself; and the lakes gradually return to their low-water level. As a consequence, vessels drawing up to four meters can enter the lakes from about July to November, inclusive. They can then ascend even
the Stung Sen as far as Kompong Thom, the Stung Siem Reap to Siem Reap, the Stung Sang Ko to Battam bang, and the Stung Pursat to Pursat. 1/ Actually steam navigation beyond Kompong Chhang stops at the end of November or in early December shortly after the level of the lakes has begun to fall. They do not completely return to their minimum dimensions until February, however.
69 -
F.
The_ ekong
1.
,eneera The Mekong is the largest and most important river in Indo-China.
Like the Red River itis subject to annual rises and falls, but'its floods are not as irregular nor as dangerous. reasons for this difference is nished by the Cambodian lakes. The Mekong begins to rise and attains its maximum depth sooner in Laos than in Cambodia and Cochin-China. The following classification One of the important
the natural flood control system fur-
of the river's stages in Laos, therefore, does not fully apply to the latter states: 1. 2.
High water, June through October.
Medium water,
May and November through January.
3. Low water, February through April.

The difference between high and low water varies from about 18 meters
in the narrows of the Kemmarat Rapids to seven or eight meters where the
bed of the river is widest.
At Pnom Penh it is from eight to ten meters.
During the dry season the tide reaches beyond "PomPenh, but during the rains the force of the river's flow keeps it much nearer the sea.
Although the 'Mekong's course covers most of the length of Indo-China, it offers a most unsatisfactory means of communication because the several magnificent reaches are separated by rapids and falls of varying degrees of impassability. For all practical purposes the Knone Falls are completely
impassable and the navigability, of the various rapids depends upon the type
1-~
of craft and time of year.

It
would have been
possible, however, to use the Mekong to a
greater extent as an artery of
traffic.
The Compagnie Saigonnaise
de Navigation et, de Transport, which held the concession for operations on the river for some 40 years (ending in 1957) could never
,bring itself to use craft especially adapted to conditions on the Mekong. Every year, it suspended freight service almost completely
at low water.
Undoubtedly many of the unfavorable estimates of the
river'a navigability are based on'the experiences of this company In 1938, however, special flat-bottomed craft were placed in operation, primarily on the Savannakhet Reach. With a full load of
50
tons they draw only 70 centimeters and can tow several lighters.
Although these boats can not surmount the Knone Falls, they probably
could navigate the Sambor and Preapatang Rapids below the falls throughout the year, while above they might be able to reach Luang Prabang from May through Januiary and possibly Tang Ho from June through October.
This possibility is to be borne in mind during the more detailed consideration of the different sections -of the Mekong which follows.
2. 8eotins of the kver
Lower Reach -frog the Sea to Kratie. 550 kilometers. This reach, though navigable in its entirety, is most properly divided into two sections because of a considerable decrease in depth above Pnom Penh.
Zhe
Sea to Pnom Feri
(320 kilometers).
From north to
The Mekong enters the
sea through eight mouths.
south they are:/
1. 2. 8. 4.
Cua Tieu Cua Dai Cua Ba Lai Cua Bar Luong
5. 6. 7. 8.
Cua Co Chien Cue Cwng Hau CuaDinh An Cua fraxib De
The first
correctly
six are commonly
called the mouths of the Mekong; more

or Fleuve Anterieur.
they are months of the Mekong Anterieur,
The two most
southerly mouths are those of the Mekong Posterieur, or commonly, the Bassac..
The Mekong and The
Fleuve Posterieur, or, most Bassac join at
Pnom Penh as two of the Four Arms or Quatre Bros.
two northern arms of these are formed by the Tonle Sap and by the united
Mekong north of Pnom Penh. In general the eight mouths of the Mekong have 7 to 10 feet
of
water at their bars which is spring tides.

are likely
increased
by a
rise of 10 to 12 feet at
Shallow banks extending some distance off shore, however,

the bar of the Cue Tranh De (and
to hamper navigation, while of the Cue Ham Luong)
possibly that pletely
does not appear to have been com-
sounded. event,
Inside the bars the depth usually increases but,
in
any
the Cua Tieu is
the only mouth normally used by ocean-going
vessels.
It has about eight feet of water at the-bar and a rise at
spring tides of about 12 feet. Once well over the bar, vessels drawing five meters can reach Pnom 8e footnotes on page 730 S/
See footnotes on page.73.
ef.
r,
B :721
-.
Penh by way of the Cua Tieu at all times, while those drawing 2.5 meters can do so by all Chien the other mouths except the Cua Ba Lai and the Cua Co
Phom Penh to Irratie

river port.
(250 kilometers).
Phiom Penh is
a considerable
In recent years prior to the war, the normal volume of

the neighborhood of 500,000 metric tons. As
traffic in the port was in
long ago as 1926 it going vessels

pletion
had two floating metal landing stages for oceanThe com-
and 600 meters of stone quays for river boats.
of both rail
and highway connection between Cambodia and Thailand
at the end of 1941 must have added to the importance of Pnom Penl as a
river port. There are radio reports of recent date telling of Japanese
decision to bolster navigation on the Mekong, enlarge the port of Phom Penh and place it District under control of.the Civil Engineerin Other information tends to Director of the
of Cambodia.
confirm the Japanese
claim as to the
purposes.
nicreased use made of Pnom Penh for inland navigation /
During the
continue above
high-water season ships drawing five meters can probably

Phom Penh to Katie, but at low water only craft drawing
1.5 meters, by
or less, cane navigate the five kilometers of

Cbblog and
shallows
caused
sandbanks near
rieach
Kratie.
Between the shallows and
Kratie the river is S borC an
deeper again. .Raids. The Sambor Rapids are located some

.tapang Rapids about 50 kilometers
Preaa
40 kilometers above Kratie and the. P
further.
At
low
water they would ordinarily render the Mekong completely
impassable except by native pirogies, for a distance about 90 kilometers

above Kratie.
However,
a great deal of labor has gone into the dredging
of a rather narrow, winding channel through the worst parts of these rapids which permits the passage, at low water, of small craft rot more
than 25 to 30 meters long, probably drawing less than one meter, and possibly able to carry a matximum load of 15 tong when of standard type construction./ At high water there is passage way for at
'least 100
tons, drawing 1.5 meters4./ St ns Trong Reach, This reach, extending for about 80 kilometers
between the Preapatang Rapids and the foot of Khone is navigable even in
Falls
at Khone Sud,
the dry season for light draft steam craft, drawing
possibly up to 1,50 meters.
j/ Sometimes a below.
ninth mouth
is
added or included,
See Footnote 2,
g/ Some writers and cartographers consider that the islands at the entrance of the Bassac divide it into three mouths and, accordingly, list a Cua Bassac. Sometimes the name Cua Bassac is merely substituted for Cua Tranh De.
/ The evidence regarding these standards is not satisfactory. However, they are conservative rather than otherwise, and do seem to be borne out by the fact that little effort was normally made to transport goods downstream from Khone during at least the height of the dry seaso. Instead merchandise was. allowed to accumulate, sometimes for several months, until the water again rose sufficiently to make it possible to get through the rapids with larger loads.
/ There is some generally reliable evidence can navigate at this time.

-
that craft of even 200 tons
74
Khone Falls.
The Khone Falls area, which begins some 720 kilometers
from the sea, consists of a mass of islands, channels, falls, and rapids extending over a total. distance of about 15 kilometers from north to south
and 12 kilometers from east to west, 300 meters wide and 15 meters high.
The Khone Falls themselves are some

They
'have
a flow of about 70,000
cubic meters at low water and about 90,000 cubic meters at high water,
When empty, pirogues, 25 meters long and drawing l.5 meters, can be brought down around the falls with great difficulty by means of cables. On at
least one occasion a small launch 15.2 meters long with a draft of
60 centimeters and a total weight of 7 metric tons was also able to descend through a channel made for the purpose of floating teak downstream,
For all practicable purposes, however, the falls are impassable in both
directions for all types of craft. a portage across buffalo carts.
Consequently, they are by-passed via
Khone Island0
Originally the portage was maittained by
The French soon laid an
30centimeter
gauge railway
over this route from Khone Sud to Khone Nord, and later extended it for a total distance of some seven kilometers to B. Det (see Map), The
steam craft used on the river above Khone were taken up by means of this railway. The. only other statistics given in Indochinese inland water traffic, the Annuaire Statistique for
besides those for
the Song-Cau Canal
./ One source in 1916 gives the gauge as one meter, of evidence is against it.
but the balance
75
as
cited above, relate to traffic at the
Khone falls.
It is thought
thaf
"importations" refers to up-river traffic and "exportations" to Annual tonnage was as follows: Table No, 19 Traffic at the Khone Falls (metric tons) Year 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 Bassac or Khone Reach.
down-river traffic.
Rstream
3, 303 3,455 3,946 2,453 2,118 1,829 2, 265 3,635 5,286
Downstream 4, 868 5,542
4,434
1,934 1,635 1,594 2,131 4,509 4,644
This reach extends for 160 kilometers or
more from Khone Nord (or B. Det) to about 45 kilometers above Pakse where the Se Moun flows into the Mekong from the
West.
Sometimes the reach is
considered to extend as far as Keng Ya Peut, some 30 or 40 kilometers further up-river. The entire section is navigable throughout the year
for native craft, and the most recent evidence available from a generally reliable source./ indicated that improvements have also made it passable There is some possibility, how-
for steam launches drawing 1.5 meters,
ever, that at lowest water, from February to April, inclusive, steam
I_
/
__
IIL
1__111_
uillaume Grandidier, Atlas des Colonies Prancaise, Paris, 1934.
76
navigation is not feasible on the first 15 or 20 kilometers of the reach.

Kemmarat_ Rapids. This series of rapids extends for a distance of
approximately 120 kilometers from a point some 40 kilometers above the Se Moun at about Keng Ya Peut to Keng Tha Chan, 40 to 50 kilometers below Savannakhet. Steam or motor craft drawing about one meter and capable of making about 12 knots At lowest water, can navigate-these rapids from May to January, inclusive. however, from February to April, inclusive, it has never
been possible to avoid at least one transshipment to motor pirogues.-2/ Savannakhet or Vientiane Reach.
meters,
This reach covers some 550 kilo-
extending from 40 or 50 kilometers below Savannakhet to Sam Pa For commercial navigation it
Na, about 40 kilometers above Vientiane.
is the most profitable of all the upper Mekong reaches (above Khone or Kratie), but its nearest outlet to the sea is the overland route to the
coast of
Annam
rather than the downstream course.L
1/
The river narrows so in some places that during the months of highest
water (June through October) 9 to 10 knots.
the current is
likely to attain a rate of
.g/ In
former times a number of transshipments were necessary in

This one at
these
rapids.
the Keng Ya Rapid probably has remained necessary
because prior to 1938 no effort was made to use boats adapted to naviAnd in 1938, when such craft were gation conditions on the Mekong.
obtained, service below Savannakhet was abandoned. after 1937 when regular service between Savannakhet Merchandise from the Savannakhet and lorthern areas reached the coast over the Savannakhet-Dong Ha road, and that from SThis was made clear
and Khone was
abandoned.
the Pakee area found its
way to Saigon likewise by road.
77
The reach is
navigable at all
times for steam and other craft the months of lowest water from
drawing 70 centimeters, and only in February to April, inclusive, is
there a possibility that craft drawing
one meter will encounter aiw difficulty. Prior to 1958 service on this reach was maintained by launChes which had a maximum capacity, tons of goods in water months./ as fo11oia: i. Express service for mail and passengers by motor pirogues capable of covering the distance between Thakhek and Vientiane, for example, in from 1 to 1.5 days (about 370 kiloby reason of their draft, of 25 metric
the high-water season and 15 to 20 tone during the lowIn 1958, however, the service was completely reoganze4
meters).
2. 5. 0rdinary".mail and passenger service by the former means.
Freight service by powerful, flat-bottomed tugs (a special type of motor boat) with a draft of 70 centimeters when fully loaded, and able to carry 30 tons and tow several lighters. In reality this is not a reach at all, but a Sam Pa
LuangPrabang Beach.
convenient designation for the entire course of the Mekong from Na J to the point where it
enters Indo-China at the Chinese frontier.
hese figures are open to several interpretations so far as months h/ are concerned, depending upon whether the medium water of May and November to February, inclusive, in included in the high water from 3June through It would appear October or the lowest water of February through April. probable, at least, that the launches could generally carry 25 tons in June through October, 20 tons from November through January and in May. and 15 tons in February through April. / Some 40 kilometers above Vientiane, as has been indicated. However, for practical purposes Vientiane, representq t* division between this reach and the previous one, because nearlyall tircugh havigation starts from or continues to it instead of Sam Pa Na.
-.78
Over this distance of some 1,100 kilometers the river consists of several very short reaches separated by numerous rapids, the uppermost of whic h are navigable only with great difficusilty even by sma. Sometimes the two principal reaches in to
n
rogues.
this section are themselves referred
as the Paklay Reach and Luang Prabh<' Peach. This section of the river will be considered in two parts: a) Vien-
tiane to Luang Pragang / and From
b)
Luang Prabang to the Chinese frontier.

In spite
Vientiane to Luang Prabang is about 430 kilometers.

native craft, commonly rafts built
of many rapids,
upon two large piro-
gues (see section on Type of Native Craft), year. tiane,-9/ They require about one month to
navigate here throughout the
reach Luang Prabang from Vien-
but only about eight days to return,
There has never been a regular stea

river. In the 1890's, however, launees
service. on this section of
the
were taken up to Luang Prabang It is probable that
on several occasions during the high-water months.
craft such as those %escribed (ni.der

Prabang from May to January, inclusive. advantageous and. in 1938 some are
eFreit
seev
cv) could reach
Luang
Motor pirBgies have been found put on this Vientiane-Luang Prabang
rm,
effecting reduction in
transit
time by a little
more than half,
A practical rather
than a geographical division.
See Note 2,
preceding
page.
g/ However, the pirogues used in tL scheduled make the trip up in three weeks or less.
services could apparently
791
The distanoe from Luang Prabang to the Chinese frontier is about 700 kilometers. meters, the rier From Luang Prabang to Cbieng (Xien)
Sen,
some 400 kilo-
is generally about 1.50 meters deep during the dry It is obstruoted, however, Above Chieng
season ard about four meters during the wet.
by more than 50 rapids, some dangerous but none impassable.
Sen to Tang o, 50 kilometers farther, there is less depth but nkvigation

is easier.
Beyond Tang Ho, rapids and rooks become so numerous that
navigation is difficult even for small pirogues, especially at low water and above
Chieng
Iok (lien Kok).
In September 1895 the launch, La Grandiere, attempted the upstream passage from Luang Prabang but was unable to get beyond the rapids of Keng Hoi. On October
15
it set out again, reached Chieng (lien) Khong
after struggling for five days, and pushed on to Tang Ho arriving there on October 25.. Thin feat has never been repeated. It has remained merely
an exploit, but it does seem to indicate that powerful, shallow-draft boats of special design might be able to operate between Luang Prabang and Chieng Sen or Tang Ho at highest water from. June through October.3I Between Tang
-Ho
nd Luang Prabang the common means of navigation are
as usual the native pirogues and pirogue rafts.&/ These can reach Luang Prabang from
CbLng Son
in about 10 days, but take a month to return.
There
./ One source doe state that launches ply between Chieng ten and Luang Prabang, but this seems extremely improbable unless the feference is actually to motor pirogues. / See Text on the following page.
g00:':
is in
some good evidence,
however,
that in
l958 motor pirogues were placed
regular operation throughout the year on tbis run between Luang PraAt high water,
leads
bang and Chieng Sen.

Kok whence a good trail
pirogues often go as far as Chieng
to Muong Sing.
3.
is
=e
onw
e Mekqo
The table below points on the Mekong
shows
the distance from the sea of the principal only approximate,
Above Khone Sud the location is
being figured to the neaest 50 kilometers.
Table
Place
Noc20
Distance from these
(kilometers)
Pnom Penh
Kratie
Khone $iid
Khong
Pakee
320 550 720 750

850 1,200
1,550
Savaxinakhet Thakhek
Vientiane
Sam Pa
Na
1,600
Luang
Prabang
Ban
'0
2,000
Houes. Sai -and Chieng- K-hong Frontier S~: aia
Chieng Sen
Tang Ho
Chinese %t~$
:ia~ea~~~-ll~~~
2,550 2,400 2,450 2,700
In the
tion
to
Mekong,
Laos has several other .. rivers
All of
flow into the Mekong
and are of some local: importane
because
of
the state's topography.
From north to south the principal streams are:
81
Above Vientiane Nam Tha
Nam Being
Nam Hou
Nam Seng or Nam Suong
Vientiano and below

Nam \Ngum (Egoum)
Nam Ca Dinh or Ban Theun
Nam Hin Bon Se Bang Pali
Se Bing Hieng Se Don (Done) Se Kong!/

Prom may to Octoberi especially north of Vientian,, the upper courses of the least 'streams become rushing torrents which cannot be crossed. The greatest rise occurs in
July and
and
taugust; the Nam Hou
frequently reaches 12 meters.
In March
April all the streams are in
at their lowest; even the Nam Hou can be Shallows and rapids 'are numerous .on all
forded
many
places.
of these .rivers.
In
laroh .l956,
at low water, an automobile which had come overland from Kengtung was brought down from Chieng ?en te The car had been especially
'wig Prabang on one
of these rafts,
prepared so that it
was easy to separate
the body from the chassis and put for the sake of balance.
them
on different parts of the raft
~/ This river flows through Laos for most of its course, but actually joins the Mekong in Cambodia at Stung Treng after receiving Se San and the Srepok.
82
Nevertheless,
pirogues can navigate thboughout the year for
varying
distances from their mouths; at
high water launches can operate on
the
lower sections of several of these riversJ
Nam Tha,
The Nam Tha is
navigable
for pirogues for about 200 across the
kilometers, as far as
hills from Muong Sing.
the
village of. the same name which is
a .
After the at P
ekog,
'Hou, is
the
Nn Hou, which joins the Mekon just
above
Laos.
g Prab
the moat important river in northern
On the lowest,
calm section of the Nam Hoy (also on the Naar Khan
and--the Nam
bamboo rafts
Seng) natives take their produce to Luang Prabang on large
and return home afoot
or in
],l pirogues.
At
all
seasons
fairly large pirogues can ascend as far as Muong Ngoi, 150 or more klnmetersa from the Mekong, or possible Muong Knong, about 100 kilometers able to carry a pay load of 300 kilo-
furthers while. smaller pirogues,
grams, can always reach Hat Sa, the river port for Phong Saly, except for a few weeks during the height of the rainy season. For practical
purposes Hat Sa is the upper limit of navigation, but.the smallest pirogues can continue to Muong Va or beyond. The greatest obstacle to
navigation on
-the Nan
Hou between the Mekong and
Muong Ngoi are the
Based on experience in
northern Laos,
an average schedule
for
pirogue travel at medium water is:
ascent, 25 kilometers per day
of 6 or 7 hours; descent, 50 kilometers per day of 9 8o 10 hours, For motor pirogues the rate is about four times as great.
rapids
of
Kng
Long,
situated
somethig over a t
of the
ep.
drop &he
here is about one meter
and
on the ascent goods must be unDescending,, pirogues shoot
loaded and carried aro
the rapidso
tbrough
Ha
the rapids without Noua or

NgOUo
d ficul
probably of the
e that navgate
of
Pirogues,
to Hat Sa, can also ascend two of the

the Nam Houa or Ngoua, which
tributaie
ham N
oH o
jois
The
Nam
Hou about 40 kilometers
beBien
low
ong Khoua,
pirogues an
reach Sop Mao
at all times and
Din
Phu with considerable difficult
at medium water.
Th
can reach
Muong
Larvia the Heam

K-n
Pak, which meets the Ham Hon at Moung On te S Kong launches
Khoua.
ave, on occasion, ascended as
far as Attopeu.
R, 1
General
In general the onlay rivers of
ar importance
Song Ca.
in
Anna
are those in
the north-the Song Ma, Song
Chum
In central and southern
An the &nmte Chi

squeezed
a close to the sea and the rivers are that the

distance from source to mouth is not
in
between, so
great.
As they approach the coast,
these
rivers often
turn
and flow
more or less parallel to the coast
through
a series of lagoons which are Since the sands shift, not only
separate
from the sea
merely by bands of sand.
the mouths of the rivers are subject to frequent, modification, in
depth but also in position.

At one time there were a considerable nuber of canals in nnm;
many of them linked together the different lagoons and lower courses of the rivers and others connected with the Tonkin waterways system. sequently, it Con-
was possible for junks to ply between Hanoi and Huo with-
out taking to the sea, line,
except to turn mountain spurs reaching the
coast-
For a good mangy years prior to the war these coastal canals due
to neglect, were gradually filling up; a recent report, however,suggests
that they are being reopened.J

As in other parts of Indo-China, cool, the climate in'Annam is characterhowever, the
ized by a hot, dry season and a although the climate south that in
rainy season.
that
In
general,
the north approaches
of
Tonkin and in effect a
of CochinwCan,
the mountains and wonlQaons
pro-
gression of the seasons in Annam somewhat different from elsewhere on the peninsula. Thus, the rainy season, when the rivers are at their
highest, -runs from September through about February.
The balance of the
year comprises the drier veason when the rivers are low.
During the high-water months, steam navigation is possible over a

total of about 1,000 kilometers; at low water this is reduced to about 300 kilometers. Sampans, however, can navigate about 3,000 kilometers
of waterways at all
times,
1/ One of the principal canals ran from Phat Diem on an arm of the Cua Day in Tonkin to Thanh Hos in Annam, The report referred to, dating from year, states that a canal is being dug towards Thanh April of the current Very possibly the old Phat DiemHoa but does. not specify from unhere. Thanh Hoa canal is being improved.
85
2. Rivers Sony IA This river rises in western Tonkin near Dien Bien Phu and
flows southeast passing Thanh Hoa before entering the. sea.
Its
nouta is
fronted by a shifting bar which never -seems to have more than five feet of water over it, Launches are probably able to navigate in the section
near
Thanh Hoa, while sampans can ascend to Phong Y,
Small pirogues can through
continue considerably further, though somewhat intermittently,

the numerous rapids.
Son
This river
rises
in
Laos near Sam Neua and flows more or just above
less parallel
to the Song Ma until joining it
Thanh
Hoa.
Launches can ascend the Song Chu for
about 50 kilometers
and pirogues for
100 kilometers.
Soina C. coast; The Song Ca also rises
in
Laos and flows
southeast to
the
it enters the sea after passing IBenthuy, is fronted by a
the river port for Vinh. channel which has a
The mouth of the river
bar cut by a
depth of 12 feet at low tide but at pass through it. of 6,5 to 10 feet.
high tide vessels drawing 18 feet can
The wharves at Benthuy, 10 miles up river, have depths
At high water, launches can reach Do Luong and possibly Cua Rao.
Fairly lhire sampans can reach Cua Rao at all times and pirogues (or even
small sampans,.by means of portages)
can continue through 120 or more
rapids to MIuong Hua Muong, only some 50 kilometers from the river's
N
source*
~o
The Nam Mo, a tributary to the Song Ca at Cu a Rao, can be
navigated by pirogues as far as Ban Thado on the Laotian border above Muong Sen.
Tabl~e I
NAVIGABLE
RIVERS
River
Watershed
(Sq miles)
_______________ _______(miles)
Area
of
Length'.(miles)
Navigable Length (for river boats)
ganTributaries Stream
ManStream
.Tributaries
Tonegawa
Shinanogawa
Kitakamigaw Yodogawa Kisogawa Mogamigawa
6,086,00
200.1 229.3
2,538,3 2,164,6
275.0570
152209
4,734,0
4,138,72 5,841 3,513,41 2,856,41
151.3 52,81 143.9

134.2
2,196,3
144,123. 52,81
153853.7243
1347121.8164
' bPl
I (cont'd.).
Mvigable, Rive~rs
Arakawa-
1,857,72
139,98
(Sumidagawa)
Tenryugawa
1,857,72
134.2
1,222.6
134.2
87.6
Gonogawa
1,471,04
124.03
95.1
Ishikai'igawa
5,501992
226.8
1,181.2
(e
Tokachigawa
3,389,96
121.7
768.7
Teshiogawa
2,2471G
190.-1
451.4
See
remarks
Yoshinpgawa
1,428,57
146,6
68,3.
TAL88I
.Ti:Si.E II:
No.
Name of Canal
Length km (miles)
Width m (feet)
Remarks
amaatsu Canal
5.8 (3.6)
8.2 (26.9)
Extends
between the
town of Hamamatsu and

the Hamana Lagoon, Completed in 1872.
Kaamagawa (Canal)
16.5 to 36.5
Connects the city of
(5;59)
(54 to 120)
i<yoto with the B;iwa

Lake. For description see page 6-47
Kitakami Canal
12.3
12.7
Connects the Kitakami
(7.63)
(4.66)
and Naruse Rivers. Can

be used by boats of a of 1.1 m(3.61 ft draft
Lake Biwa Canal
11.1 (6.9)
6 to 18.25 (20 to 60)
Connects the city of Kyoto with the biwa Lake. For description
see page 6-45
Lake Biwa Branch
Canal
8.3 (5.2)
2.15 to 56.4
For description, see
7.5 to 285
page 6-46
ALE
I (Co ntld
NAVIGABLE CANI
No.
Name of Canal
Length
km (miles)
Width
m (feet)
Remarks
Nakaawa (Canal)
6.25 (3.9)
63,4 to 90.2 208 to 296
Connects the town of Nagoya with its port. One lock, 35 ft wide, 358 ft long, depth of at low water, 7 ft, (See page 6-61) water.
Nakanouchi Canal
30.9 (19,2)
36.4
to 289 (131.23 to
Connects the Shinanogawa (River),with the
948,13)
port of Niigata. 6-50.
For
description see page
Nishikawa
(Canal)
43 (26.71)
20
Connects the town of
(65,62)
Okozu, on the-Shinanogawa (River) with the For port of Niigata. see page description
1
9 Tona Canal* 11.4 12.7
-50
(7,07)
(41,66)
Connects the Nar'se River with the 'kat-
sushira Bay. Can be used by boats of a

draft of 1,1
in
(3.6 ft)
The length of the Tona Canal, given in Item 12 of theBibliography (M-.4819) It seems possible, that the decias 114 km, seems to be an exaggeration. mal point should be moved one place to the left and the length of the canal The Tona Canal could n 9 t be located taken as equal to 11.4 kn (7.08 miles).
with certainty on any of the available
maps.
TABLE
II& Y
(Cont'd)N
No,
Nam
of
Canal
Legh
Width
mf
Remarks
km.
(miles)
(feet)
10
TonegawaEdogawa
8.1 (5.03)
18.2 (59.7)
Connects the Tonegawa and Edogawa (Rivers)
(Canal).
See page 56.
11:
Teizan
Canal
33.7
14.5 to 30. (47.57 to
Connects the Abukuma River with. the Miatsushima
99.71)
Bay.
Czrosses
the. Nanakita and Nator Rivers.
-91
V.
COMMEOCIAL AIR TRMTSd ORT
A,
Air Services
Most of Indochina) s 130odd, air fields and landing strips were
obviously constructed
more for military than for commercial reasons.

and have
Undoubtedly the Japanese have enlarged. some of these fields
built others-for the same reason but this study is concerned only with the rather limited commercial aspects of aviation, 1, china. in Air
France:
In
Air Orient
commenced commer ia1 flights to Indo-
192?
1935 this
company was combined with one orbto others of French Indochina participated to the extent
to form Air France, in
The
Government
the financing of the latter
company
of
6,000,000
francs
and was latter 480,000 francs,
called upon to pay to the liquidators of Air Orient nearly
This copany maintained
weekly service by meAns of three-motored.
flewoitine.-338 planes which were considered less efficient than the Dlougla planes used. by competing Chinese and. Thtch lines, in Paris and follow approximately. the This line originated
seme
routes as Imperial Airways
(British) and the Dutch line as far as Bangkok whence it

and Nanic, and after. 1938 its terminal at Hong
reached Saigon
stops
Kog,
Occasionaly
were iade at ,traffic
Vientiane, a
Table No, large part
21
gives
details
as to the commercial by Air France similar in
of Indochina,
of which was carried
view of restrictions
imposed on British
planes as a result of
restrictions against
French planes flying across India,
TA1~LI
NO.
21,
Air Traffic by ports in 1936

m.4~4~4
fPi ~.c 44, ith
4
and
1937, interior traffic

-S.WAO
~
Franc
aiA
and
#fv~a4~v~
fore n
Types
Arrivals Air-.Franco Sai do Viersj tiara
SOW.A.C Hanoi
C~AII1tT'i county;es B7pABTT
r~
Hano
Air-France Saigon Vien tiei
Al.r-Jirano e From Hanoij
Hanoi
Hanoi
to Vien-
tian.e
17 12 188 4,398
From Vientiane to paoi
Number of passengers: General Public 4
Agents
Express Mail
of company
64 9 909 19775
2
27 16 691
122 13 439,660
70 18 ?,876 606
50 12 971.
21 5 152 179
(kg). (kg)
3,480 2,665
269 68
74
1S7
1,700
1936
Nuimber of passengers;
General Pblic
Agents
Express Mail
of company
32 15 ,556 ,500
12 13.
80 7 3,390 1,240
58 12 1,24 243
26 6 208
12 1 109 2,909 113 123
(kg) (kg)
2,900 1,904
S69 492
The airlines serving Indochina are: (a) The Marseille DaacuBangkok-"ienti lHanloi line, with a junction at Bangkok to Saigon, of the Air-France Compan (1 trip a week in each direction), The Hanoi-Canton line of the Southwestern Aviation July 10, 1936 (1 trip a week in each direction),
(b)
Corporation
commenced operations
Source;
Annmaire Statistique De L lndochine
1936437,
93
2,
Imperial Airways:
Imperial Airways had a branch and
line
from in
Penang to Ring Kong with stops at Saigon,
occasionally Tourane, The British
the first instance, and stops at Hanoi only after 1940. planes used on this route were considerably
smaller than those used on
the main line to Singapore and Australia. 3. Airline

using
-K41I.LM.: The Netherlands Indies Branch of the Royal TIDtch

maintained a weekly service from Batavia to Saigon
via
Singapore
Doglas 4. Chinese
planes, Dines: After considerable jockeying the Southwest
Aviation Corporation with its headquarters at Canton succeeded in 1935

in
establishing
its own connection Aviation
with Hanoi in
place of
the proposed
China National stopped at Indochina,
Corporation. connection,
The Cantonese -nlanes
aking and Lunchow in
China and at Langson and
Hanoi
in
The Eurasia Aviation Corporation, a a regular service from Kunming to Hanoi. 5, Dai Ii-pnon:
Sino-German Company, maintained
This company maintained a service between Tokyo
and Bangkok with alternate calls at

6, Government Control:
Hanoi and Saigon,
In 1930 the Bureau of Air Travel was
set
up as part of the Indochinese Government, functions is B. not available,
Information as to its exact
Airports and Airways Estimates as to the number of prewar airports and flying fields in
Indochina vary from 100 to 150, equipped with all-weather running
Saigon and Hanoi with two, large fields each, strips probably had the best ,facilities
~s
- 94
in the country, Vines, Tourane, Vientiane, Langson and Laokay appear to have been the only other cities commercial traffic,
with any significant amount of

to publish a complete air map of
Were it possible
Indochina under the classification "restricted" it would
show airfields
close to all
towns of any size
and covering
all
parts
of the country,
quite thoroughly except for
aos,
There were
many
seaplane landing bases

In the early
along the Mekong and the other
streams of the country,
days frequent fogs in the Mekong Valley were a definite hindrance to air
traffic while the crachin or heavy seasonal mists of Tonkin and northern
Annam.were
flying
likewise a handicap,
It is presumed that modern implement
has gradually reduced the importance of these features.

fairly large meteorological rainfall, etcetera
The Government of Indochina maintained a
service and rather detailed data as to temperature,
were published in
the
Annuaire Statistique and specia.ized reports,
se Devel ment. eje In addition to using Indochina as a base of military aviation the Japanese appear to have permitted Air
Prance
to maintain a considerable
amount
of commercial air traffic
within the country.
Tokyo broadcasts
in March 1943 indicated plans for a

and a weekly service to Bngkok, to make, t itinerary, 1, 1943.
regular
semiweekly service to Singapore
Geographic consideration would appear
'necessary that
both lines include Indochinese points in their
The Dai Nippon Airways were scheduled to open this route April
95 -
Air france has maintained,
Fwith some interruptions,
scheduled
service
between Haoi and Saigon, and Hanoi and Vientiane,
In view of the great
difficulties of lend travel from Hanoi or Saigon to Vientiane surprising the capital That the
it
is
not
french
have attempted.
to maintain air connection with
of Laos,
The service between Saigon and Hanoi is said to
be at weekly intervals and that between Hanoi and Vientlane at fort nightly intervals, In addition Cantonese broadcasts in.Angust 1943 reported
the opening of service between Hanoi and Laokay by Air France.
It is thought that the French have been building airfields in the

western Mekong Delta for the further extension of commercial aviation. There have also been reports in civil aviatione of the opening of a. training school for Annamese
The lack of spare parts and possible difficulties

ment of aviation petrol
in
securing allotan
have hindered commercial transport and have
occasion compelled
temporary suspension of services,
VI.
S IPPING
The seaborne trade of Indochina was carried in French. and foreign ships. In
almost exclusively the
the case of the French ships,
rice of Saigon
and the coal of Hongay and vicinity comprised a large
share of the export. cargo carried,
"Likewise,
The
the greater part of
imports ce
Japanese
from
france ,on
French,ships,
largest British and

but three small-
vessels did not stop at
Saigon or Haiphong,
er British companies scheduled
and
the 'two leading Japanese companies provided

A 1940 consular report f'rom
service
to Indochinese ports.
Saigon gives. the

French Indochina:
following details as to scheduled shipping in
Shiping
nrenc
Indochina
Name
French Lines:
Services
1.
essageries
Maritimes
a)
Subsidized
fortnightly
freight
and passenger service from Marseilles to Saigon, ending
at Kobe.
b)
Subsidized monthly
freight and
passenger service from Marseilles, stopping at Pondicherry, ending at Haiphong,

c) Monthly freight service,
Northern and Southern French

ports to Indochina
2.
Chargeurs Reunis
a)
Monthly freight
and passenger
service, France to Saigon, Tourane and Haiphong.
b)
Monthly freight service, Northern and Southern French ports

to Indochina
French Lines (continued)
3..::.-Compagnie
1'Annam
Cotiere de
a)
Fortnightly Saigon.
passenger and freight
service between HaiJphdng and
h.
AI:freteurs Maritimes
Indochinois
a)
Weekly passenger and freight service Saigon to Singapore.
Japanese Lines:
1. Nippon Yusen Kaisha a) Monthly passenger and freight
service,
2. Osaka Shosen Kaisha a)
Japan-Saigcri-Liverpool,.
Monthly passenger and freight
service,
Japan-Saigon-Bangkok,
etc.
British Lines: 1. Indochina Steam Navigation Company. a) Monthly passenger and freight
service, Calcutta-SingaporeSaigon.
a)
2*
Ellerman Bucknall Steamship Company
Monthly. freight service
Great Britain-France-Indochina, etc.
3.
Burns Phillips Line
a)
Bi-monthly freight
service
Italian Line:
1. Lloyd Triestino
a)
Monthly freight and limited

passenger service, Italy. Monthly freight Saigon-Trieste. Indochina-
service,
American Lines:
1. Oceanic and Orienttal Navigation Company
a)
Monthly freight and passenger service, San Francisco to
Japan and China, via Indochina* 2. Isthmian Steamship Co.

a) Monthly freight service, Indochina-U.S .A.
'
98
Danish Line: 1. East Asiatic Co. a) Monthly freight and passenger service, Saigon-Singapore-
Marseilles.
Dutch Line: 1. K.P.M. a) Monthly freight and passenger service, Indochina-JavaSouth Africa.
German
1.
Line: a) Monthly freight and passenger service, Indochina-Europe.
Norddeutscher Lloyd
Norwegian Line: 1. Wilhelm Wilhelmsen Line a) Monthly passenger and freight
service, Norway-FranceIndochina.
Swedish Line: 1. Swedish East Asiatic Co.
a)
One or two ships per year

called at Saigon.
The outbreak of war in 1939 caused the curtailment of some of these services, while the outbreak of war..in the Pacific limited Indochinese seaborne trade to the Japanese-controlled from occasional blockade runners iwho plied Far East. all in With Singapore, Bangkok, area, aside
between Germany, and the Maila a and Hong Kong position,
Batavia, in
Japanese hands,
however,
Saigon-is
very central
so far
as trade routes are concerned.
- 99 There is every indication of a considerably reduced total volume of trade at present between Indochina and other countries, due to the Japanese shipping shortage. Moreover, it appears fairly well
established that small wooden ships carry a sizeable proportion of what trade now takes place. Saigon is much more important as a port
than Haiphong, due to the reported sinking of ships in the channel between the latter port and the mouth of the river. have mostly disappeared from the Far Eastern seas, French ships due to deteriora-
tion and destruction, and Japanese shipping is believed to provide for nearly all Indochina's present seaborne trade. A. Port Regulations: There are port regulations in effect (before
the war,
at any rate) at both Haiphong and Saigon, Indochina's prinThese regulations relate to the use of wharves and
cipal ports.
berths; bills of health and pratique (permission to hold intercourse with a port, given to a ship that has satisfied health regulations); duties of masters, on arrival, while in port, and on departure; Some of the Haiphong
handling of explosives; and handling of inflammables.
Saigon regulations are given in the following paragraphs. regulations are not given in available consular reports.
At Saigon berths and space along the wharves are alloted by the captain of the port. Vessels are required to berth at the buoys or
at the wharves within the extent of the port comprised between the Place Rigault de Genouilly and the last berth farthest down stream.
a _..I600ifto
- 100
The master of a vessel arriving at Saigon is required to hand
his bill of health to the pilot and give hir. pli necessary informa-
tion
about the condition of the ship and the health of the crew.
to
He is required pratique
observe any instructions

If the bill
about quarantine and of health and the ship
given by the pilots.
are clean, the pilot, in ordinary circumstances, will grant the pratique. The master of a vessel must immediately upon arrival present him-
self to the customs for entry of his ship and must deliver to the
port police a list of the non-immigrant passengers of all nationalities and to the immigration authorities a numerical list of immigrant Asiatic passengers; and he is responsible for seeing that none of
the.
the
Asiatic passengers entering as immigrants leave the ship
without
permission of the Chief of the Immigration Service.

No vessel may quit tain hours of the port. notice. its berth without- the permission of the cap-
Upon departure the master is required to give 24 No vessel is permitted to leave itiout permission
and
the following documents must be presented0 1. 2. Certificate from the postal authorities. List of passengers0
3.
h.
B.
Clearance from the customs. Receipts 'for navigation taxes and charges.
and Inflammables: are required Commercial vessels beto discharge explosives Vessels
Handling, of Explosives
fore entering the port into calling a lighter regularly in front
of Saigon
of the quarantine
station at Nhabe.
at Saigon may be permitted to keep explosives on
board provided they are equipped with hermetically sealed powder magazines which can be flooded.
101
Inflammables be imported into including mineral oils
for lighting
purposes may
French Indochinaonly through the ports of Haiphong,
Tourane,
Saigon and Pnom Penh.
At Saigon the oil installations
and
warehouses
panies have sels
axe
restricted to. the Nhabe region and the three oil comfor the handling of oil in bulk. Ves-
tanks and factories
carrying inflammables
are required to hoist
a red flag
and can
anchor only in a spot away from other ships.
Go
de la
Government Agencies Exercising Control:

early in 1941. in
The merchant marine of
Indochina was reorganized
A service called "Direction Saigon. Office, This service was the Seaboard
Marine Marchande" was established
to include the local Maritime Transportation
Conscription Service,and the Merchant Marine Service, and was placed under the direct control of the Governor General, The Commandant of
the Navy in
The relating nel in
Indochina was made the Director of Merchant
Marine.
matters person-
)irector to
of Merchant Marine was given charge of all
maritime navigation namely:
and the merchant marine and its
Indochina,
The preparation and execution of regulations concerning maritime navigation in Indochina and between that country and
neighboring countries,
The preparation of shipping agreements, amendments or cancellation of existing agreements made between the Government
General and shipping companies. The control of freight and passenger tariffs, The maintenance of relations between French and foreign
shipping companies. Control of fishing along Indochinese coasts, and matters relating thereto.
- 102 -
At the same time a Bureau of Merchant Marine was established at Hanoi. This Bureau was placed under the direct control of the
Governor General and serves as the permanent liaison office between the Governor General, Government services. Seaboard Conscription Services, tablished in Saigon and Haiphong. as existing in France, was esThe Saigon office controls the the Director of Merchant Marine and other
coasts of Cambodia and Cochinchina, and the Saigon and Donnai Rivers. on which navigation is considered to be maritime. The Haiphong ofand the Cua-cam
fice controls the coasts of Annam, Tonkin, Kwangchow,
and Cua-nam-trieu Rivers where navigation is considered as maritime. These two offices are under the Director of Merchant Marine.
-crpr
103 TELEGRAPH AND CAJLE
VII.*TELEPHONE
A.
Telephone System Radio and wireless communications were much better developed
in
French Indochina than was
the telephone
system.
'There were two
short telephone networks, chief towns of Tonkin
one centering at
Hanoi and reaching the as far south as Tourane,
and northern Annam,
and the other centering at
Saigon and connecting with Pnom Penh in as far north as Nhatrang. 1938, and were
Cambodia as well as southern Annam cities The Saigon telephones were of the dial reportedly efficient. factory, but details is
type in
Haiphong's system was also reportedly satisare lacking. For a more detailed a 1931 report description by
of facilities it
necessary to go back to
Vice Consul Scotten of Saigon, published in

"Commerce Reports." The table
the October 26 issue of

brought down to
given by Scotten is
1936 from later official figures.

"Telephone Systems in French Indochina: Each of the five
countries in the Union of French Indochina possesses a 'Service des Postes, Telegraphes, et Telephones' constituting a Government monopoly of the postal, telegraph, and telephone systems, administered by a 'Sous Directeur,'
or subordinate manager placed under the authority of the chief executive officer of the country. In turn, these local organizations are grouped for administrative pur-
poses into a general service controlled by the 'Directeur

des Postes, Telegrapher, et Telephones' at Hanoi, as a department of the colonial government responsible to the Governor General. "The personnel consists of a group of superior officials, detached from the administrative organization of tihe French Ministry of Posts, Telegraphs, and Telephones and recruited from the local administration, and of native employees.
w~r~
- 104 -
"Finances, Rates, and Equipment: The receipts and expenditures of the service throughout the country form part of the general budget,which invariably shows a considerable deficit for this department, due apparently to the fact that a large number of unprofitable installations have been made for the benefit and development of the country,
to the cost of certain postal lines over which mail must
be carried by automobile, and to the length and high maintenance costs of the lines in proportion to the traffic carried and the return therefrom, "Subscriptions are divided into two classes: first, the strictly private installations which only the subscriber and his family, guests, employees, or business associates are expected to use; second, those placed at the disposition of the public,. as in hotels, restaurants, etc. For the first class the yearly rate is 60 piastres in the cities of Hanoi, Haiphong, and Saigon-Cholon, and 50 piastres in other exchanges. For the second the rate is 85 rnastres in the cities mentioned, and 75 piastres elsewhere. Extensions cost 20 piastres each up to 10 from the same regular installation, 15 piastres each for a number between 10 and 50, 10 Piastres, each for a number between 50 and 200, and 5 piastres each for any number above 200. (1 niastre = approximately $0.392). "The equipment provided all over Indochina is uniformly an obsolete and usually badly worn magneto type. The installation of an automatic system in Saigon is proposed, but as yet there is no indication as to when this project can be expected to materialize. "The following table shows the length of lines, number of subscribers, number of calls, and amount of charges over a period of years.
105
Table 23 Telephone Developments in Indochina
Year
Length of lines -on Dec.a31 (in kilometers) Under- Length No. of Aerial ground of wires subscribers
No. of Calls 3143, 000
Charges in
Pate
1913
1922
1.923
1,51
156
93
660
3,685
12,318
16,739
20,1472 7, 085
810
h42,ooo0
131,000 160,000 200,000
252, 000
1924
1925
1926
2,266 2,793
237
383
2,523
2,915
3,361
5,44
954,000
2,028,000 3,0h9,000
3,267
3,9829 3,788
h43h
5514
566
h4,269
5,118
3,380,000
14,019,000
1927
24s832 27:t650
28,651
593019000
8,585,000
9,S55O,000
362,000
391, 000
1928
1929
3,911
621
784
6,106
405,32
5,608
1930
49961
6,517
31,77h
35, 016
6,939
810
7,747
7,599
11, 583,000
'6349000
576,000
153,000 8 ii4 8 , 000
1931
1932
1933 19314~
521
835
931
37,273
38,962
6s537
7,127
1,017
1,022 1,855
4493
7,362
11,757,000 9,810,000
6,670
149,1514
1935 1936 ~/1
7,7h40 8,583
piastre
50,I499
59,338
6p665
6,772 7,293
9,398,9000
9,092,000
6114,000
617, 000
542000
616,000 6314,000
8,013,000 10,297,000
-approxdimately
$0.392.
"Radiotelephone Service:. Since April 1930, there has been maintained a radiotelephonic. service from Sai gon Cholon and from Pnom Penh to France, Germany, Austria, Belgium, Great Britain, Hungary, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Sweden, Switzerland, and Czechoslovakia, through the medium of a large transmitting station at Saigon on a powerful longwave length, with the alternative of a short wave for distance work." It seems safe to assume that France supplied-nearly all equipment,
supervisors and engineers,
and that Japan supplies new equipment at
the present time, probably with the technical help of the French staff.
106 -
B.
Telegraph System Inland telegraph lines measured 20,300 kilometers in 1936, with
43,800 kilometers of wire, according to the Annuaire Statistique.

The lines ordinarily followed the railways, although there were several branch lines. Service was reportedly poor, and the radio
system appears to have been called on to supplement telegraph facilities. There were prewar connections with Bangkok and Rangoon. In
1936 internal traffic consisted of but 538,000 private and 247,000 official telegrams. The postal administration was in charge of telegraph facilities. Receipts, excluding receipts for telegrams transferred to the wire-
less system, amounted to 626,000 piastres in 1936, but a large part of this consisted of cable receipts relating to foreign traffic. C. Cables In addition to the overland wire to Rangoon (whence cables led to India and Europe) an important submarine cable passed along the Indochina coast, there being a station at Cap St. Jacques, near the mouth of the Saigon (Dong Nai) River. The cable and station were of
British ownership, and connected Hong Kong and Singapore, whence there were cable connections to all parts of the world. branch line to Kienan, near Haiphong, Haiphong. There was a
from which a land wire led to
This was reportedly an efficiently-run enterprise with a
high degree of reliability. In 1936 there were reportedly 700 cablegrams originating in Indochina for France, and 19,000 destined for other countries. Incom-
107
ing cablegrams were about 50 percent more numerous 0
Scant available information as to operation of cable and
tele-
graph
facilities
unixer the Japanese suggests the near-monopoly of

since ordinary commercial traffic is
the lines strictly
by the military, limited.
The Katakana Japanese
syllabary
is
reportedly in
use,, but it is assumed that French is still guage, for cable and telegraphic purposes,
the most important lan-
- 108 -
VIII.
POSTAL SERVICE 1936, compared to
There were 338 post offices in Indochina in 119 post offices in Thailand the same year.
Thailand, however, had so it
31 railway postal agencies and 281 "other postal agencies,"
is difficult to ascertain which country had the more adequate service. Receipts from the sale of stamps were 1,279,000 piasters in
1936 compared with receipts of 5,561,725 baht for ordinary inland letters aone in Thailand in the year 1936-37.
The Indochina
rate for an ordinary letter was six cents against 10 sattangs in Thailand, and.this helps to account for the greater receipts in a country with two-thirds Indochina's population. The Annuaire
Statistique does not give the number of pieces of ordinary mail in internal postal traffic, but the following figures are taken from the 1936-37 issue:
Both figures from statistical annuals of the respective countries. At the beginning of 1930 one baht equalled 1,50 piastros. At the end of the year they were about equal in value.
'PI\
109
Table 2 Postal Traffic Domestic Parcel post packages sent, ordinary Parcel post packages, total Postal money orders Total value of postal money orders (piastres) Foreign Ordinary letters despatched to France 80,100 in Indochina, 1936
1714,600 592,000
3o ,428,002Q
1,688,000 2,011,000
Ordinary letters
received
from France
Registered and insured letters, despatched to France
17.2,1400
229,200 (kg.)
Registered and insured letters,

received from France Weight of air mail received
51765
5,927
Weight of air mail sent (kg.)

Total letters received by air mail Total letters sent by air mail Parcel post packages received Parcel post packages sent Receipts for international parcel post service (piastres)
554,000
525,000
83,000 15,200
52,300
There is
some doubt as
to the amount of postal
traffic
permitted
between the outbreak of war in the Pacific and March 19143.. Japanese broadcast from Tokyo, March 6,
19143, .was reported as
follows:
"Japanese military postal organization and IndoChina Government postal authorities have agreed concerning exchange of postal matter, enforceable immediately: exchange limited to Japanese
subjects in Indochina and other co-prosperity sphere."
regions
within
-110IX. RADIO AN) WIRELESS

system of French head, in in an article 1939: (a appearrough
The radio or wireless communications Indochina is ing in translati described as follows by its
the Bulletin Economique de 1'Indochine on)
"The Radioelectrical Service of Indochina, created/by decree of April 30, 1909, has reached its 30th year of existence The development of the Radioelectrical Service really became apparent since 1921 and has been accelerated
between 1930 and 1939.

"The purpose of this note is to give for the period 1921 to 1939 statistical information relating to the Radioelectrical Service. The following table provides an abstract of the subject in question: Table 25 "Radio Electric Statistics"
1921 Number of stations

Daily average
1938
39
320
1,0h0 1,360
Paid radio transmissions

Useful but free radio transmissions Total transmissions
10, 86)Number
26,h70) of 37,316)words
Revenues
47
3,05l Plastres
"During the years 1921 to 1939 the principal achievements relating to the development of the Radioelectrical
Service are as follows: "1.

"
External Radio Telegraphic Communication:

The Cie. Gle. de T.S.F. (General Wireless Telegraph Co.) created the Saigon radio electric center for the benefit of the colony. Radio telegraphic connections between Saigon and Paris by long wade lengths. were created. Service in one direction was started in August 1922 and in both directions in
January 1924.
" In November 1929 a bilateral short wave connection was made between Hanoi and Paris,
111 -
"From December 1927 to the beginning of 1930 the Saigon radio center used both long and short wave equipment but from the beginning of 1930 short wave equipment was used exclusively.
"At present Indochina is in direct radio electrical communication through Saigon or Hanoi with Paris, Beirut,, Djibouti, Madagascar, Reunion, New Caledonia, Tahiti, Thailand, China, Hong Kong, Japan, Netherlands Indies, the Philippines and San Francisco. A number of direct transmittal services were organized between Indochina and the various countries just mentioned.
"Whereas,
compared to 1921 foreign communications of IndoChina were limited to a foreign-owned cable, approximately 90 percent of outgoing traffic now makes use of French radio facilities and as concerns the traffic of France and Europe this proportion has reached 99 percent. Internal Radio Telegraphic Communications: The use of short wave radio permitted the economical development of interior communications in Indochina. Several low-powered stations have been created to provide new connections such as with certain islands or areas relatively undeveloped, or to substitute radio service for telegraphs in regions such as Upper Laos where the upkeep of lines is difficult. There were 16 radio stations in 1920 against 39 at present. Several additional stations should be built, particularly in the center of the Mekong Valley. Short Wave Radio Telegraphic Connections: A-radio electrical connection was opened between Saigon and France in April 1930. It was empowered to handle official information in February 1936. Actually it provides communication with all of France and by relay through Paris with Europe, French North Africa and the principal countries of North America., During 1936 connections were opened with Japan, Thailand and Java; in 1937 with the Malay States and in 1938 with the Philippine Islands. " In December 1938 there was opened but still in a restricted manner the Hanoi-Saigon connection. Other connections are under study.
"2.
"
"3. "
"
S12
"t,.
it
Direction-finding for Aerial Navigation:

During recent years radio direction-finding stations navigation at up for the aid of aerial have been set Gia Lam (Hanoi), Vientiane, Vinh, Kienan and Fort
Bayard. This service is used increasingly with the Other stations are development of commercial aviation, at Saigon and now being constructed, particularly Finally there will Battambang with others to follow. arrive shortly. four special direction-finders
night flying airfields tain "5. Statistical
(gonios)
provide cersignal instruments which will night service. for with facilities Information:
statistical information is condensed in
Supplementary
the six graphs which follow.
Graph No,
1 shows the num-
which has grown very rapidly in recent ber of stations, is meant transmission or reception By "station' years. apparatus. The stations are. of different importance. There are small stations with very low power in charge of a single native agent. Such stations are Cac-ba, Gow-tow, Dan-yen, etc.
"t
Small stations of low power with several operators, Luang Prabang, Padar an, etc. Examples: Coastal stations with continuous service have a Frenchf
"
station chief and- native personnel,

telegraphers and mechanics, Kienan, Tourane, 1Ttho, etc.
"
comprising radio
Fort Bayard,
Examples:
Direction finding stations Gia Lam, Examples: only. and Kienan.
operated by French p'ersornel Vinh, Vientiane, Fort Bayard,
"
More important stations such as Hanoi and Saigon provide with France) a large number of connections (particularly personnel and are equipped with a have need of a larger office. radio electric transmission center and a central receiving center, For Saigon there is also a special Each station, whatever its importance, is counted as a unit in Graph No, 1.
"
U3
Graph No. 2 sets forth
the quantity of paid traffic.
One observes:
a) The greatly. increased traffic from 1920 to 1930. A marked decline from 1930 to 1933, due in great part to the economic crisis in Indochina ard in
b)
part to the opening of the air-mail line at the

end.of 1930, c) The progressive operated directly
"9
increase
in traffic from 1933 to
1938, particularly as it
concerns the stations
by the colony. for
Graph No. 3 sets forth useful traffic
which no rev-
enue was collected, by which is meant traffic for other Government departments, etc., considered to be for the common good. These statistics relate only to needs other
than those of the radio service itself.
In
1938 this
reached a daily average of 28,212 words divided as follows:
a)
At the Saigon radio center (average of 6,0Oh

per day). epidemics. Time signals and announcements
words
concerning
b)
by the colony operated directly At the stations (average of 22,167 words per day).
"
The free traffic
excchanged with sea-going ships averaged
1,19S words per day and consisted of weather bulletins, notices of typhoons and miscellaneous notices to navigators.
"
The free internal traffic averaging 18,510 words per day was broken down as follows:
Press infbrmation received and transmitted,13,800.

Internal weather reports,1,000.
Aviation information, '210. derived from the post and telegraph Traffic department, 2,500.
General information and notices, 1,000.
- 114 -
S The free traffic for outside connections with a daily average of 388 words included telegrams exchanged free of charge between the postal and telegraph administrations, and general information and miscellaneous "notices of the international union of telecommunications, etc. "
R
Graph No. 4 shows total useful traffic and gives the totals of the figures set forth in Graphs No. 2 and No. 3. Graph No. 5 shows annual receipts in piastres and corresponds to Graph No. 2 which shows the number of words. Table No. 26 shows the annual receipts by divisions of the service for the period 1920 to 1938. It will be noted that the receipts have increased considerably in each category but not in the same proportion. S Revenue from traffic with ships increased from L,165 piastres in 1920 to 18,400 piastres in 1938, although the number of paid telegrams between ship and land did not increase greatly.
'
Receipts from internal traffic increased from 2,U444 iastres in 1920 to 39,700 in 1938. This increase is chiefly due to the progressive substitution of radio for wire service in certain regions, but even yet the charge of only four centimes per word does not provide a large income. It is necessary to mention that, to simplify bookkeeping, the traffic shunted from wires to wireless because of too heavy demands for the service of the former, does not provide income for the Radioelectrical Service. Contacts with airplanes have not up to the present provided an income of any consequence. The recent inclusion of paid private telegrams between land and airplanes will increase receipts very little.
H
"
Practically the total of actual receipts came from outside connections. It should be noted that these corresponding receipts tally with the share of Radioelectric revenues reverting to the colony.
115
Table 26 Receipts for Radio_ Electric Services (Anounts in piastres) Saigon Central Radio *
Stations
Maritime Traffic ,10 6 8,450 6,850 7,163 6,249 6,372
operated Traffic
Interior
2,444
Year 1920 1921 1922 1923' 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930
the State Exterior Traffic 2,590
Total
14,328 16,548 89,000 127,000 170,000 205,000 268,618 407,392 h72,373
4,073
4,475
4,278
4,500
6,565 5,054 8,685 17,353 26,700 36,278
9,199 17,023
32,218 33,043 108,587 154,839 210,114 268,517
4,653
4,114
6,778 14,810 10,147 10,291" 7,175
6,636
12,4.29 11,401 13,320 15,557 14,753 12,379 10,457 10,202 9,446 9,626 13,607 18,400
154,367
227,339 247,050
444,533 658,342
742,166
1931
1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938
*
395,493
352,220 332,076 348,494 366,597
427, 426
7,242
11,343 15,355 14,164 14,662 17,072 21,062 39,700
199,731
120,650 104,318 103,584 109,928
617,220
496,592
462,206
476,44 500,633 564,167 832,815 1,112,600
110,043
185,753 376,500
612,393 678,000
Exterior traffic
"
The .'Indochina Terminal Tax' continues to be paid to the

Telegraph Department as is natural, and this also applies to telegrams forwarded by cable. The use of wireless in external connections therefore has not caused loss of income to the Post and Telegraph Department, and it has brought to Indochina and to those using the service considerable financial benefit. ( Receipts from exterior connections in 1938 provided 94 The greater percent of total radioelectrical receipts. portion (about 60 percent) emanated from the Saigon radio center which is properly equipped for this purpose The remaining 40 percent is practical* all from the Hanoi station. The rapid increase in receipts for external traffic since 1934 is worthy of note. To some extent this increase is due to the increased value of the gold franc as well as to the great increase in paid traffic, especially at Hanoi.
- 116 "
Graph No. 6 shows annual receipts and working expenses. It permits easy comparison-of these two quantities..... It will be noticed that expenses increased much less rapidly than receipts....... From 1928 to 1938 useful traffic increased 1,068 percent and working expenses increased only 34 percent. Comparing curves 'D' and 'R 1 ' , i.e., between total expenses for personnel and material, and receipts retained by the Indochinese Radioelectrical Service one notices a constant reduction. In 1938 the Finally, the difference was only 338 piastres,.... number of words exchanged via T.S.F. (wireless) is not in itself a sufficient datum for services rendered which are impossible to evaluate in money. External connections are remunerative but they are of obvious political usefulness and have an influence on the economic development of the country. Many interior connections have small traffic and cannot be remunerative but they have great administrative and political value as well as providing for national security. The free reception and transmission service for the A.R.I.P. (press) as well as the free reception service of the foreign press requires a considerable outlay but its value should not be underestimated....... And finally there is no question but that the services rendered by the growing number of stations contribute greatly to the safety of maritime and aerial navigation. In summary, the 'real' receipts of the Radioelectrical Service correspond only to the paid traffic and have had a truly remarkable income in the past years, but the use-. ful and free traffic has developed even more, and the importance of certain services more and more numerous cannot be evaluated in piasters. Therefore,, by taking all these features into consideration one may appraise the activity and efficiency of Indochina's Radioelectrical Service." In addition to the radioelectrical communications described
"
"
"
above the American Consulate at Saigon reported in 1938 that there were two radio stations, one at Saigon and one at Hanoi, while a third, a Philco station was expected to be erected ih the near future. The Saigon station had a power of 100-120 watts and that at Hanoi
117 -
100 watts.
Other information of more recent date mentions the pres-
ence of seven stations near Saigon with 250 watts to 12 kilowatts capacity operated by the Havas News Agency, Boylandry, and Philco. Most if not all of these stations accepted commercial advertising. In addition all radio receiving sets were taxed at the rate of six piasters per year. A consular report at the end of 1933 stated that the market for radio equipment in French Indochina was very limited because of: "The extremely strict regulation of amateur radio activities which prohibits absolutely all transmitting stations and make it difficult for any except Europeans and a few natives to own receiving sets. This regulation was imposed at a time when it was feared that the radio might become a channel for subversive propaganda and has never been removed. "The distance and atmospheric conditions intervening between Indochina and any stations broadcasting programs interesting or even intelligible to the local population, both French and native. "The closing of the Saigon broadcasting station in May 1932. "The rapid deterioration of radio equipment under local climatic conditions. "The reduced buying power of both French and natives due to the severe economic depression." It is believed that the situation changed greatly between 1933
and 1941 and that radio came to play a much more important role in the life of the country. Moreover there is evidence of the shipment
of large numbers of radio receiving tubes from Japan to Indochina and Thailand.
.......
.,
118
GRAPH N..
N~fumber of stations
40
y~Ijw
- 119 .
GRAPH
/1.000
NO.IL.
'did Traffia' AVer ye efr y /1ut er of Wad
/04001eal
9.000
Colony
C~wter
7~000
I0
6000
IQ
*1
.1
aooo
-0 2000a
r~o
a!
1 /
.1.1
h.
Nt
Nt
"l7
MS
years
.120
30000
RAHrOTh
NonjP eL'P ,e 4'sefa( Traf f'c

A/eraye dai/y bundr efWad
N'e
25000$Io
adoChe
0000
I-
/5000
It~
Ile
.....
toooo
121
GrRA PHI'
NO.1 Tot./ Usei'u/ Trrffrc, Au'rrte co/iy hwinber of words ,
35000
......
*i/oA
Radio Center
30000
I
- p
2000
$0000
I I YI
15000
Y N
00o
hi
tta
'w Nh$
GRAPH
NQIV,
of 1 'oofres
-122
Annuai Pe'ceipts (fle',WiaffiK) i' thousantds n

'0S0
-Cc
5 4,ion
R 10//0
C~i'PA'
ii
5tItrnS Sf
goo)
Boo
700
'
qg
600
5oo
p.';
* 4f~.
400
*1.J ~A4~ ~
300
r
200
b/
t4
"4
e AAA/
"4
JOC
0
S N hN
-N
^'! a
"
^f
Years
GR-APH
4000
'N O..V1
Aiiiw/. Receipts &Working Expen13es i/v l fhai4r. of fU'a i're$

0- An,'ioi
orkrny 9expe~nse,s
4".
-----
R'- Arnua/ Wceipf, (A(a/o' tra f e,) .*..p ARrh / Pec'eipts correspo#, i1
to, the ano,, ofUsefk
e~~
31000
'4. 94'.
oS
2000
1000
N
~%
N
-
N N
*%
~' N
-..
lo N #uNN @~ ~ oh
q
IS
Years
124-
X.
EBSAN
PULISHING CONCEGNS
The Indochinese press dates from 1879 when the Imprimerie Nationale opened a branch in Saigon. official, however. Its work was almost entirely
Almost immediately newspapers and journals were Some of these like
started both in Cochinchina and Tonkin.
L'Opinion belonged to the Bank of Indochina, the Distilleries l'Indochine and other financial and commercial organizations. The
French press thus represented vested interests in many cases or else the interests of a particular French politician. Native newspapers have been regulated and suppressed on innumerable occasions because of intemperate criticisms of the Government. The regulation of Annamese newspapers was naturally much more severe than the regulation of papers published and edited by Frenchmen. In some cases, therefore, Annamese owners have hired FrenchSome papers are published in
men as "fronts" for their enterprises.
both French and Annamese and one in those two languages plus Chinese. The 1936 statistics relating to publication of books and pamphlets are set forth in the following table. It is obvious that the leading publishing houses are at Saigon, Haiphong and Hanoi, and that little publication of books is done elsewhere. It is also interesting to note that whereas French is
the leading language of the newspapers and magazines, Annamese is the language in which three-fourths of the books and pamphlets are published.
mIw
125-
Table 27 Number of Books and Pamphlets Published. in 1936 State andLanguage

a5
All of' Indochina 1
Language French Annamite Cambodian Laotian Chinese characters French and Annamite French, Annamite arid Chinese characters French, Annanite and other languages French
2
92
1936 169 580
1935,
206 750 31
6
24
-
7
1 23
63 270
2
-
92 23
4 3
-
21
47
3
1
and
Cambodian
1
French and other languages Annamite and Cambodian Annamite and Chinese characters Annaiite and other language Other language Total Maps 39
1
6
1
i -
1 1
-~C
lt 371
"
3
1, 053
33
1409
57
The table following sets forth the number of daily, periodi-
c?.l (weekly,
fortnightly,
monthly, quarterly)
nrd; annual
publica-
tions
issued in 1936. Table 28 Nu-iber of: Publica.tions in
1936 by State and Language
All of Indochina Language Used Dailies: French
1936
1935
5d8
1
Annamite Cambodian Chinese characters Total Periodicals: French Annarnite Cambodian

Laotian
6
109
6 6
1 1
1014
109
68 14
1
614
2 1
Chinese characters Two or more languages Total
2 11.
114 191
114 190
Annual Publications: All languages Grand Totals 13
37
153
6
8
51
145
130
140
188
15h
1418
S127
It
is interesting to note that whereas progressive Cochinchina

Tonkin took the lead
led the other states in the number of dailies, both as to periodicals and annuals, language publications predominated Cambodia, in spite of the fact that in
It is significant that FrenchCochinchina, Tonkin and could not pos-
French citizens
sibly have supported that many publications.
128
XI Motion pictures
MOVING P CtIUNS
are not produced in
Indochina.
Praictically local branches
all films shawn in the country are imported by
the
of two
Paris
firms:
Societe indochine Films et Cinemas and The Societe Indochine Films

the Tanque de leIndochine, After showing in the
Societe des Cine-Theatres d'Indochine.

et Cinemas was reportedly controlled by These firms own
the larger local theaters.
respective theaters of the two leading firms, the films are rented to small theaters owned by Chinese or Annamites who lack the capi-
tal
necessary to import directly.
Only a few American fiLms were

Chinese and,Indian films
imported directly
from the United States,
were usually imported from Singapore According to local exhibitors
or Hong Kong.,
about 160 films are required year-
ly to supply local needs. report shows the visas first films. six months
The following table from a Saigon consular
issued by the censorship during 1939 and the the country of origin of the
of 19140 according to
Table 29
Moving Picture Films Passing Indochinese Censorshi months
Country of Origin
Chinese
Annamese
1939 66 10
119
1910
53 3
Indian
French
It
78
American
Total
23
213
34
172'
129 -
American films were well received in Indochina but French films were preferred. Dubbed films were preferred to originals or to
those with French subtitles, since very few persons have a fluent knowledge of English. The native population enjoys American films
according to the extent of action depicted. There were no quotas or contingent laws in effect which might reduce the distribution of motion pictures. There were no laws re-
quiring a certain percentage of domestic films on each theater program nor were there any laws giving any country preference. In the
past the main factor affecting the showing of foreign films was the natural preference for French films and the fact that most of the importing was in the hands of the two leading firms with head offices in Paris. Censorship was imposed upon motion picture films after the outbreak of the war and was unusually severe, especially in the case of films tending to glorify or justify insurrection, revolt and acts of terrorism in connection with the liberation of "protected nations films reflecting on the prestige and power of France, In 1940 there were about 92 theaters in Indochina with a seating capacity of approximately 31,000. in Two of these theaters were opened or
June of 1940, one at Bach-Mai near Hanoi, Tonkin and the other at One of the largest theaters gave one performand three on Thursdays and Sundays. The
Kompong-cham, Cambodia.
ance daily, two on Saturdays,
other theaters give one or two performances daily and three on Sundays. The small theaters in te
5
outlying
tricts give in
general two or three
performances
per week.
The larger
theaters
are equipped with two Practically
projectors; the smaller ones usually have only one. all theaters in Indochina are wired for sound,
Income:
While definite information concerning the annual gross
income is not available, it is annually. total.
estimated at about 2,000,000 Piastres
Cochinchina contributed much the largest share of this
The following table, from a
1940 consular report, shows the
gross income derived from the eight principal theaters in Saigon and Cholon controlled by the two companies and from Chinese theaters of Saigon and Cholon, Table 30 Gross Income from Theaters in Saigon and Cholon Indochine Films & Cines-Theatres Chinese Cinemas de 1' Indochine 'Theaters 270,000 l50,Q00 280,000 lho,000 l140,000 80,000
Year
1939 1940 (six months) Educational Films: ment was not large.
The market for educational films and equip-
In 1939 there were S00 educational films and
about 30 schools equipped with limeter films were used.
35 millimeter projectors.
No 16 mil-
The following table supplied by the Saigon Consulate gives the list of principal theaters of Indochina and their respective seating capacities, where available.
-131-
Table 31 Seating Capacities Qf Indochinese Motion Name of Theater Cocc hincHina Eden Majestic Casino Rex Asam Casino Dalcao
Modern
Picture
Theaters Seating
Location Saigon
Cpct
650 L460
00
It
380 380 35O

300
It
Cine-Tandinh Cristal Trung-Quoc Majestic Eden Cinema Petit Casino
"300
"
_Cholon
It
250
800 450 1,200
r "300
San Tai Luck

Trung Hue Hue Kieu Hoc-Ho Cine Baclieu Majestic Chaudoc
Casino Canth'o
400O
200 200 Cap St. Jacques Baclieu Chaudoc
Omnthn
300
Cine Poulo-Condore Caserne Palace Majestic Cine Rachgia. Cine Sadec Perfect Soctrang Cine Travinh' Majestic Tonkin g~3estic. Eden Olympia Cinema Philhannonique Modern Thank Long Trung Quoc Eden Colibri Casino Omnia Universal
Poulo-Condore Thudaumot LMrtho Longxuyen Rachgia Sadec Soctrang Travinh Vinhiong Hanoi
'I ft
800 600
350 250
Haiphong
It It It
i450 250
350
300
Namdinh
-132
Seating Location Tonkin (continued Diamant Cinema Chantecler Richard Modern Aihambra Central Cinema Select Hongay Hatinh
fTetrC ,pait~ae
Lingson
Sont1ay Tuyen Quang *Dap-Cau Caobang Yenbavr Haiduong Campha-Mine Moncay Thaibinh Vietri Tong
Thai-Nguyen Phuly Vinh
Cinema
Cinema Cinema Cinema Concorde Cine Cine Annam Annam Cine Majestic C inem~a Morin Freres. Morin Freres Manin Freres Majestic Alhambra Cinema Cinema Cinema Cinema Cinema Camnbodia T.Iaj estic Cine-Bij ou Cinema Eden Maj estic Majestic Cine Kampot Cine Siemreap Laos Cine S avannakhet
Vinh Dal-at Hue Tourane Quinhon

Phanthiet Nhatrang Tuyhoa Quangngai Thanhoa
Mont
Ba-Vi Tan Tan
?norn Penh
t t 'I
500
1400 350
.500
Battambang Kornoong-Chamn Kampot Siemreap Savannakhet Thakhek Vientiane Pakse
Cine
Thakhek
Cine Vientiane Cine Pakse
133-
Bibliography
Transportation and Comunications in
French Indochina
Economic
Evolution of French Indochina to
be released
by the Institute of Pacific Relations, April 19i.

Charles Robequaain.
French Policy and Developments inIndochina.

Thomas E. Ennis.
French Indochina. Virginia Thompson.
Chemins De Fer Statistiques de L'Annee 1939.
Numerous official U.S. Government publications of limited distribution.
Annuaire Statistique de 1'Indochine -'1936-37.
Bulletin Economique de l'Indochine.
(Bi-monthly).
American
Consular Reports from Saigon and Hanoi.

Civil Affairs Handbook French Indochina Section 11 and 12

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ARMY MANUAL SERVICE FORCES

HEADQUARTERS, ARMY SERVICE FORCES,29M ARCH1944

FRENCH INO- CHI NA

HEADQUARTERS, ARMY SERVICE FORCES,29MARC H1944

NUMBERING SYSTEM OF ARMY SERVICE FORCES MANUALS

Civil Affairs Handbook has been

Sep 43). SOMERVELL:

By command of Lieutenant General

W. D. STYER, Major General, General Staff Corps, Chief Of Staff.

OFFICIAL: J. A. ULIO, Major General, Adjutant General.

Systems and Communications was prepared for the

OFFICE OF THE PROVOST MARSHAL GENERAL

TO MAKE SUGGESTIONS AND

OR ADDITIONS WHICH WOULD MAKE THIS THESE CRITICISMS SHOULD BE GOVERNMENT

USEFUL FOR THEIR PURPOSES.

Purposes of the Civil Affairs Handbook.

The basic purposes

human suffering and the material' damage result-

ing from disorder, and (3)

to create the conditions which will

is a part of the effort to

that they do not imply and ive

ro-ram oi' action,

They are rather

the basic factual information needed

and policy making.,

1. Geographical and Social Background

Government and Administration

Description of Lines Repair Facilities

D., Private Conveyances B. Motor.Fuel F. Japanese Developments III.

WATERWAYS AND CANAlS

VIII. POSTAL SERVICE IBC. X.

RADIO AND WIRELSS PRESS AND PUBLISHING CONCGNiS MOVING PICTURE

Steam Locomotives and Rail Cars in

Rolling Stock as of December 31, 1937 Average Number of Goods Vehicles

Traffic at the Khone Falls

Navigable Rivers and Canals

DENSITY OF POPULATION LEGEND S 02625 50

51 -100 101-200 201-400 I I401-800

ifIllill 11111 UUUII I III III:vI~...;:..::;;:;;:. iv 11111iiumi~tII1fi@'~'

VZCAP ST. TRI

PROPOSED RAILROADS ROADS (METALLED OR GRAVELLED) -'"+s"+++ROADS (DIRT, BEING IMPROVED)

BAC .IEU /c.

STATEBOUNDARIES NATIONAL BOUNDARIES

TRA.NSPORTATION AND CO;U NICATIONS

I. A. Ownership and Personnel 1, Ownership:

hanoi and Nha Trang,

"Chef de Reseau Sud" at Mongkolborey" at

the "Chef de Reseau

Pnom Penh. of the remaining railway consists of the

All but 35 kilometers

line of the Compagnie

du Yunnan, from Haiphong to Kunming.

Its head office was in

line crossed the Hanoi-Nacham branch of the State

See 'accompanying preceding map.

Concerning the top organization of the State-

Charge of Tracks and Buildings Charge of Administrative

The Indochinese railways are of meter gauge with

insignificant exceptions. vately-owned ters line

measures 395 kilometers,

follows in 1940 and are as the new lies in

connection between, the Indochinese