USE OF FLY ASH AS AN ALTERNATIVE LANDFILL LINER MATERIAL

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY In GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING By Soumyadip Chowdhury

Under the guidance of

Dr. Anil Kumar Mishra

Department of Civil Engineering INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY GUWAHATI Guwahati 781039, India July 2011

Certificate

This is to certify that the project work entitled Use of Fly ash as an Alternative Liner Material being submitted by Mr. Soumyadip Chowdhury (Roll No. 09410441), for the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of Master of Technology is a record of bonafide work carried out under my supervision. The content of this project work has not been submitted to any other institute or university for award of any degree.

Dr. Anil Kumar Mishra Assistant Professor Department of Civil Engineering Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati

Acknowledgement
I would like to express my sincere gratitude and hearty thanks to my advisor Dr. Anil Kumar Mishra for his guidance, encouragement and gracious support throughout my work. His vast knowledge and expertise in soils has motivated me to do my best and for that, I am forever grateful. And his support at every stage proved very much helpful in successful completion of this work. My thanks are due to all faculty members, laboratory staff of civil engineering especially Mr. Upadhay who has helped me a lot for doing experiments in the laboratory. I am also thankful to all my friends for their kind co-operation and specially, Mr Srikant Vadlamudi, Mr Pawan Kumar Shah, Mr Pravudatta Pradhan and Mr Amol Shivdas. Without their charming company, my small endeavor could not have been so pleasurable. I am indebted a lot to my parents for their whole hearted moral support and constant encouragement towards the fulfillment of the degree and throughout my life. Above all, its the most gracious and the most merciful Almighty God for his help to enable me to complete this research work.

Soumyadip Chowdhury

Abstract Landfill liners are used for the efficient containment of waste materials generated from different sources. In the absence of impermeable natural soils, compacted mixtures of expansive soil and sand have found wide applications as landfill liners. It is to be noted that, in case, these materials are not locally available, the cost of the project increases manifold due to its import from elsewhere. Also, sand has become an expensive construction material due to its limited availability. With this in view, the present study attempts to explore a waste material such as fly ash as a substitute for sand. The major objective of this study is to maximize the use of fly ash for the said application. Different criteria for evaluating the suitability of material for landfill liner have been studied in this study. However, further investigations are required with different source of fly ash and alternative material to generalize the findings.

Keywords: Landfill liner, Design criteria, Fly ash, Cement, Bentonite, Hydraulic conductivity, Compressibility

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No. CERTIFICATE ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ABSTRACT CONTENT LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF TABLES Chapter-1: Introduction 1.1.1. Prevention and Reduction 1.1.2. Recycling 1.1.3. Composting 1.1.4. Sanitary Landfilling 1.2. Containment System Chapter-2 2.1. Types of Liner 2.1.1. Single Liner 2.1.2. Single Composite 2.1.3. Double Liner 2.1.4. Double Composite Liner 2.2. Design Criteria for Landfill Liner 2.2.1. Standard Design 2.2.1. Alternative Design 2.2.3. Equivalent Design 9 9 9 10 11 12 14 14 14 15 15 15 16 17 17 18 2 3 4 5 7 8

2.2.4. Arid Design 2.3. Selection of Liner Material 2.4. Type of Landfill Liner Material 2.4.1. Bentonite Liner 2.4.2. Asphalt Liner 2.4.3. Soil Asphalt Liner 2.4.4 Soil Cement Liner 2.4.4.1. Dry Mix Soil Cement 2.4.4.2. Plastic Soil Cement Mix 2.5. Necessity for the Requirement of a Alternative Liner Material Chapter-3 3.1. Materials 3.2. Method 3.2.1. Consolidation Test 3.3. Determination of hydraulic conductivity and compressibility Chapter-4 4.1 General 4.1.1. Compaction properties of the mixtures 4.1.2. Hydraulic Conductivity 4.1.3. Compressibility 4.1.4. Co-efficient of consolidation 4.2. Scope of future Work 5.0. References

18 18 20 20 20 21 22 23 23 24 28 28 28 28 31 33 33 33 34 35 38 38 39-40

LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. No. Fig.1. Fig. 2. Fig.3. Name Cross section of different liner system Acceptable water content and dry density for compacted soil Relation between void ratio and hydraulic conductivity for the three mixtures Fig.4. Relation between void ratio and over burden pressure for the three mixtures Fig.5. Fig.6. Relation between pressure and co-efficient of compressibility Relation between coefficient of consolidation and over burden pressure for the three mixtures 37 39 36 Page No. 11 13 34

LIST OF TABLE Table No.

Table 1. Table 2.
Table 3.

Name
Past research and Result OMC and MDD values of fly ash- cement mix with different proportion Values of compression index and expansion index

Page No.
26-27 33 31

Table 4.

Classification of Potential Expansion of Soils Using EI

38

Chapter-1
1.1 INTRODUCTION The high population and rapid industrialization in the last few decades have led to the generation of huge quantities of hazardous wastes, which have further aggravated the environmental problems in the country by depleting and polluting natural resources. Therefore, rational and sustainable utilization of natural resources and its protection from toxic releases is vital for sustainable socio-economic development. Indias garbage generation stands at 0.2 to 0.6 kilograms of garbage per head per day. Also, it is a well known fact that land in India is scarce. There are several methods of treatment and disposal of solid waste1.1.1. Prevention and Reduction: The best method of managing waste is prevention and reduction, which can be achieved in a number of ways like recycling and making use of second-hand items. 1.1.2. Recycling: Recycling involves processing used materials (waste) into new products to prevent waste of potentially useful materials, reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, reduce energy usage, reduce air pollution (from incineration) and water pollution (from land filling) by reducing the need for "conventional" waste disposal, and lower greenhouse gas emissions as compared to virgin production. Recycling is a key component of modern waste reduction and is the third component of the "Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle" waste hierarchy. Recyclable materials include many kinds of glass, paper, metal, plastic, textiles, and electronics. Although similar in effect, the composting or other reuse of biodegradable waste such as food or garden waste is not typically considered recycling. Materials to be recycled are either brought to a collection center or picked up from the curbside, then sorted, cleaned, and reprocessed into new materials bound

for manufacturing. In a strict sense, recycling of a material would produce a fresh supply of the same material, for example; used office paper would be converted into new office paper, or used foamed polystyrene into new polystyrene. However, this is often difficult or too expensive (compared with producing the same product from raw materials or other sources), so "recycling" of many products or materials involve their reuse in producing different materials (e.g., paperboard) instead. Another form of recycling is the salvage of certain materials from complex products, either due to their intrinsic value (e.g., lead from car batteries, or gold from computer components), or due to their hazardous nature (e.g., removal and reuse of mercury from various items).Some disadvantages area) It is a very expensive procedure. b) Some waste cannot be recycled. c) Technological know-how is very essential for this process. d) Separation of useful material from waste is very difficult job. 1.1.3. Composting: Compost is composed of organic materials derived from plant and animal matter that has been decomposed largely through aerobic decomposition. Organic matter constitutes 35%-40% of the municipal solid waste generated in India. This waste can be recycled by the method of composting. The process of composting is simple and practiced by individuals in their homes, farmers on their land, and industrially by cities and factories. The compost itself is beneficial for the land in many ways, including as a soil conditioner, a fertilizer, addition of vital humus or humic acids, and as a natural pesticide for soil. In ecosystems, compost is useful for erosion control, land and stream reclamation, wetland construction, and as landfill cover. The process occurs naturally and is a critical component to soil health. After plants and animals die, bacteria

10

go to work decomposing the remains. Once the decay process is complete, the original matter is no longer recognizable and a rich, dark, soil-like substance remains. The living organisms involved in the decay process thrive in an environment of the right combination of air, water, nitrogen, and carbon. The better the conditions, the faster the compost process. Composting of organic materials from the solid waste stream not only provides a valuable benefit to nutrient deficient soils, but also reduces the amount of waste that ends up in landfills or incinerators. Other benefits of composting organic matter include the increase in beneficial soil organisms such as worms and centipedes, suppression of certain plant diseases, the reduced need for fertilizers and pesticides, prevention of soil erosion and nutrient run-off, and assistance in land reclamation projects. Material resulting from the composting of bio-solids and yard waste is used primarily as an organic soil conditioner and partial fertilizer. It is applied to agricultural lands, recreational areas such as parks and golf courses, mined lands, highway medians, cemeteries, home lawns and gardens. 1.1.4. Sanitary Land filling: The term "sanitary landfill" was first used in the 1930s to refer to the compacting of solid waste materials. Initially adopted by New York City and Fresno, California, the sanitary landfill used heavy earth-moving equipment to compress waste materials and then cover them with soil. The practice of covering solid waste was evident in Greek civilization over 2,000 years ago, but the Greeks did it without compacting. Sanitary landfills involve well-designed engineering methods to protect the environment from contamination by solid or liquid wastes. A necessary condition in designing a sanitary landfill is the availability of vacant land that is accessible to the community being served and has the capacity to handle several years of waste material. In addition, cover soil must be available. Today, the sanitary landfill is the major method of

11

disposing waste materials in India and other developed countries, even though considerable efforts are being made to find alternative methods, such as recycling, incineration, and composting. Among the reasons that landfills remain a popular alternative are their simplicity and versatility. For example, they are not sensitive to the shape, size, or weight of a particular waste material. Since they are constructed of soil, they are rarely affected by the chemical composition of a particular waste component or by any collective incompatibility of co-mingled wastes. By comparison, composting and incineration require uniformity in the form and chemical properties of the waste for efficient operation. Out of all these methods, sanitary land filling is generally used for the waste disposal. 1.2. CONTAINMENT SYSTEM The design of sanitary land filling typically involves some form of barrier that separates the waste from the general ground water system. This barrier is intended to minimize the migration of contaminants from the facility, thus the environmental impact of the facility is intimately related to its design and long term performance. Natural clayey deposits or compacted clayey liners frequently represent a key component of these barriers. These days, barriers are usually includes one or more of the following types: (i) Natural clayey soils such as lacustrine clay or clayey till; (ii) Compacted clayey liners; (iii) Cut-off walls; (iv) Natural bedrock; (v) Composite liner system consisting of geomembranes. Out of the above mentioned types generally compacted clayey liners and composite liner system with geomembranes are used on the waste disposal site.

12

Compacted clay liners have been the subject of debate with respect to both the hydraulic conductivity which can be achieved in the field and the potential impact of soil-leachate interaction on hydraulic conductivity. However, the experienced has shown that with good engineering practice and quality control, good quality, low hydraulic conductivity liners can be constructed. Compacted clay liner can be designed with or without a leachate collection system. The liner may be required for one or two reasons. Firstly, if the natural soil is fractured clayey soil then the liner may be required to retard movements of contaminant along the fractures. The second reason for constructing a clay liner is that, while intact, the surroundings natural soil does not have a low enough hydraulic conductivity to provide an adequate barrier. There are some situations where the conceptual designs may not provide sufficient confidence that there will be negligible effect on ground water quality. Under these circumstances, an additional level of engineering in the form of a secondary leachate collection system or hydraulic control layer may be provided.

13

Chapter-2
2.1. TYPES OF LINER The different types of architecture used for landfill liners are as follows: single liner (clay or geomembrane), single composite (with or without leak control), double liner, and double composite liner. 2.1.1. Single Liner A single liner system includes only one liner, which can be either a natural material (usually clay), Figure 1a, or a single geomembrane, Figure 1b. This configuration is the simplest, but there is no safety guarantee against the leakage, so a single liner may be used only under completely safe hydro geological situations.

Figure 1. Cross section of different liner system

14

A leachate collection system, termed as LCS (soil or geosynthetic drainage material), may be placed above the liner to collect the leachate and thus decrease the risk of leakage. 2.1.2. Single Composite A single composite liner system, Figure 1c, includes two or more different low-permeability materials in direct contact with each other. Clayey soil with a geomembrane is the most widely recommended liner. Geotextile - Bentonite composites are often used as substitutes for mineral liners (liners using stones or rocks as material) for application along slopes, even though many engineers prefer clay. One of the main advantages of composite liners over single liners is the low amount of leakage through the liner, even in the presence of damage, such as holes in the geomembrane. 2.1.3. Double Liner A double liner system, Fig 1d, is composed of two liners, separated by a drainage layer called the leakage detection system. A collection system may also be placed above the top liner. Double liner systems may include either single or composite liners. Nowadays, regulations in several states require double liner systems for MSW landfills. A clay layer may be placed under a double liner made of membranes as shown in Figure 1e. 2.1.4. Double Composite Liner Double composite liners are systems made of two composite liners, placed one above the other, Fig 1f. They can include a LCS above the top liner and an LDS between the liners. Obviously, the more components in the liner system, the more efficient is the system against leakage. 2.2. DESIGN CRITERIA FOR LAND FILL LINER Solid waste land fill liners are design to prevent the movement of potentially harmful pollutants beyond the boundaries of the landfill. The design criteria of a soil liners involves many facets

15

such as selection of proper material, assessment of its chemical compatibility, analysis of slope stability, consideration of the cracking due to desiccation of the material etc. Most of the environmental agency requires a hydraulic conductivity value of less than 10-7 cm/sec for the clay liners used to contain hazardous, industrial and municipal solid waste. Since the hydraulic conductivity of a compacted soil depends upon its initial dry density and compaction water content (Lambe, 1953), the field compaction conditions for a soil liner is generally taken into account for verifying the proper compaction of the soil. In order to achieve this, the soil liner is required to be compacted within a specified range of water content and a given dry density.

Figure 2. Acceptable water content and dry density for compacted soil

An acceptable zone which represents the combination of the zone of acceptable water content and dry density is required for practice. The soil is generally required to be compacted at a percentage P of the dry density and w of optimum moisture content. Previous research had

16

shown that the value of P is usually 95% of dry density and w is 5% wet of optimum water content. There are four types of liner design2.2.1. Standard Design In case of standard design we need minimum 4 ft. thick layer of re-compacted clay or other material with permeability of less than 10-7 cm/sec. Finished liner must be sloped at 2%. This method is not suitable where large quantity of liner material is not easily available on site or nearby site. 2.2.2. Alternative Design This is the most desirable liner system because of the reduced permeability and thickness requirement. It is feasible for areas with no available silt or clay material. The added cost of synthetic liner is often out-weighted by cost reduction in clay material. Alternative design provides a liner which consists of two liners. The thickness of upper liner should be 50 mm and for lower liner 2 ft. Upper liner should be made of synthetic material and lower liner of compacted clay. The hydraulic conductivity (k) of lower liner should be 10-6 cm/sec 2.2.3. The finish layer should be sloped at 2%

Equivalent Design

Equivalent design is consist of some specific criteria like double liner and very deep natural deposits of material with higher permeability than the standard case. It should be approved and justify for the situation of the particular site.

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2.2.4.

Arid Design

In that case liners are not required in arid areas like Rajasthan. In those places annual rainfall is <2 inch. Whether it is arid area or not for all four design method we have to check for liner system need or not before design. 2.3. SELECTION OF LINER MATERIAL Selecting the appropriate landfill liner depends mainly on the environmental protection regulations of an individual country, which often focus on protecting against leachate leakage. However, from geotechnical aspect, the landfill liner selection depends on the slope sections fill heights, interface properties and horizontal strain compatibilities. Recent landfill failures have indicated that failures are occurring along the low interface friction angle zone within landfill liner components. This has lead to the researches to be carried on the internal and interface shear strength properties of landfill liner components, which consist of subsoils, compacted clay liners (CCLs), geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs), geomembrances and geotextiles. The soil geomembrane or any other liner interface combination could act as a possible plane of potential instability of the liner under static and seismic loading (Hoeks et al. 1997).We have to study to prevent failures due to poor interface properties under static and earthquake induce forces (seismic loading) for both based and cover soil liners. Interface stress and horizontal strain behavior for various liner configuration was studied to understand the peak and residual shear stress trend to select suitable liner configuration which can act as a composite member during failure. Understanding the stress and horizontal strain behavior of liner member component is critical in order to allow the transfer of failure stress between interfacing member to resist continuous or progressive failure from occurring. Other than this we need to know the required

18

operating life of landfill (i.e. construction purpose) and of liner after closer of the landfill. Soil properties of nearby side are needed to be investigated. Hydrology and hydro-geology of the land fill construction site is very helpful information for design of the landfill liner. Permeability and different environment factor is very important for success of the landfill. Reliability of materials such as seams and joint of geosynthetic membrane or material is very important. The following items are some of the criteria that should be considered during the initial selection stage: The selected site should be conformed to land use planning of the area. The selected site should have easy access to vehicles during the operation of the landfill. The site area should have adequate quantity of earth cover material that is easily handled and compacted. Landfill operation will not detrimentally impact surrounding environment. The selected site should be large enough to hold community waste for a reasonable length of time. 2.4. TYPE OF LANDFILL LINER MATERIAL Now a days several materials is being used for landfill liner material. Some of this is discussed below; 2.4.1. Bentonite-Soil Liner Bentonites and bentonite containing sealing materials are used for many years for sealing purposes in foundation, dike construction, hydraulic engineering and landfill construction, especially for encapsulation of old waste deposits. Because of their exceptional physical, structural and chemical properties, bentonites are offering manifold possibilities to protect the environment against the negative effects of dumping grounds. Often the observance of legal regulations for waste dumping or for the encapsulation of contaminated areas is possible only by

19

using bentonite containing sealing systems. Sodium Bentonite is easily available in powder form that can be mixed with soil. Bentonite soil liner typically used in lifts 4 to 6 inches thick. For Bentonite soil liner Plasticity Index (PI) should be greater than 15% and percentage finer should be greater than 30%. For horizontal technical base liners the adsorption ability, the ion exchange capacity and the swelling behavior of bentonite is important. For cut-off walls bentonite controls the rheological behavior of the slurry and is responsible for the low permeability of the hardened bentonite-cement-wall. 2.4.2. Asphalt Liner The asphalt landfill liner has a number of advantages, the most important of which is increased environmental safety. The asphalt liner can have a hydraulic conductivity that is 100 to 1,000 times lower than traditional compacted soil liners. Hydraulic conductivity describes how a liquid flows through a material, and is important when preventing leakage from landfills. Landfills with traditional soil liners may have a flow rate of about 140 gallons per acre per day. With asphalt alone, the flow rate decreases to about nine gallons per acre per day. After completing the liner with a layer of sprayed asphalt and a geosynthetic fabric on top, the flow is almost immeasurable. Another environmental safety advantage of the asphalt liner is that it is more flexible and pliable than traditional soil liners. This allows it to handle deformations without cracking, which sometime happens with traditional soil liners. In addition, the layer of sprayed asphalt on the liner's surface has the ability to seal itself against punctures, a feature traditional plastic membranes do not possess. Asphalt liner is used as a mix which is known as Hydraulic Asphalt concrete (HAC). HAC is a control hot mix of asphalt and a high quality mineral aggregate that is compacted into a dense layer in order to achieve max permeability <10-7 cm/sec for standard design and <10-6 cm/sec for alternative design.

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Asphalt landfill liners also take up less space. Traditional soil liners are more than two feet thick, but asphalt liners are between four and six inches thick. Because the liner takes up less space, the landfill can hold more trash. . Landfills that hold petroleum wastes, hydrocarbon wastes or organic solvents could not use asphalt because these wastes could degrade the liner. He added that installation costs are comparable between asphalt and traditional liners. 2.4.3. Soil Asphalt Liner Asphalt is a dark brown to black cementious material, solid or semisolid in consistency, in which the predominating constituents are bitumens (i.e., high molecular-weight hydrocarbons) that occur in nature as such or are obtained as residual in the refining process (Yen, 1990). Incorporation of affected soil as an ingredient to produce an asphaltic product is achieved by stabilization, solidification and encapsulation. Stabilization is where chemical fixation techniques render a waste less toxic or harmful to the environment. The hazard potential of what was once considered a waste is subsequently reduced. Generally soil asphalt liner is mix of a liquid asphalt and an aggregate of poorer quality than HAC. Typically the preferred soil type is silty, generally soil with 10%-25% fines. In the areas of temperature variation asphalt liner is not good. 2.4.4. Soil Cement Liner Soil-cement linings are constructed with mixtures of sandy soil, cement and water, which harden to a concrete-like material. The cement content should be from 2-8% of the soil by volume. Permeability of mix can be achieved up to 10-6 cm/sec by compaction. However, larger cement contents are used. For the construction of soil-cement linings two methods are in general use: (1) the dry-mix method and (2) the plastic mix method. For erosion protection and additional strength in large channels, the layer of soil-cement is sometimes covered with coarse soil. It is

21

recommended the soil-cement lining should be protected from the weather for seven days by spreading approximately 50mm of soil, straw or hessian bags over it and keeping the cover moistened to allow proper curing. Water sprinkling should continue for 28 days following installation. Soil-cement linings are often a viable alternative to channel lining if locally available materials are not suitable for compressed earth or clay earthen lining. A great advantage of this technique is that practically all types of soil normally encountered in earthen channels can be used. For lining the beds of large channels this type of lining is considered ideal from its combination of cost, efficiency and adequate results. 2.4.4.1. Dry-Mix Soil-Cement The cement is distributed by hand-raking or by mechanical cement spreaders to a uniform depth. While the cement is being mixed into the soil with a rotary tiller, water is added simultaneously to the mixture from a tank truck or hose. After the cement and soil are thoroughly mixed and the moisture content determined to be proper, the mixture is compacted by rubber-tyred road compactors or heavily loaded trucks to approximately 100 mm thickness, within one hour of the cement being spread. The soil mixture is usually cured for several days with intermittent sprinkling. The durability and water tightness of the dry-mix soil-cement lining depends on the soil used. Tests indicate that for ease of mixing, placement and using a low cement content, the soil should be a well-graded, sandy, gravelly material. If it is poorly graded then the cement content required is higher and cost increases. Material mixing for standard soil-cement is best accomplished by travelling mixing machines or stationary plants. Mixing in place in the channel and on side slopes has been found to be satisfactory.

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2.4.4.2. Plastic Soil-Cement Mix Plastic soil-cement has higher water and cement content than dry-mix and a consistency comparable to that of concrete used for slip-form lining. The soil is mixed with cement and water in a paver or mixer traveling along the channel or in a stationary plant. The mix is then poured by hand or by slip form on the sub-grade to produce the lining. Thickness ranges from 75-150 mm. It is recommended that joints similar to those of concrete linings be provided. Installations of soil-cement linings in the United States have shown that the greater the cement content of the plastic mixture, the more durable the liner. All of the linings installed continue to be effective at reducing both seepage and erosion. The sections with higher cement contents were made serviceable for many years with reasonable maintenance. 2.5. NECESSITY FOR THE REQUIREMENT OF AN ALTERNATE LINER MATERIAL The reviewed literature highlights that the liner is the most important element of a waste disposal landfill that minimizes the migration of harmful contaminants to groundwater. Several researchers have proposed different criteria for the design of different type of liners. In terms of design there are two important factors: (1) thickness of the liner and (2) the mix design of soil used in the liner. It is observed that the most significant factor affecting the performance of liner is hydraulic conductivity and hence there is universally accepted guideline for minimum hydraulic conductivity for liners. Hydraulic conductivity is found to depend on various factors such as soil mix, water content, type of cement, dry density, degree of saturation, desiccation and freezing. Some studies also report that hydraulic conductivity depends on the lift thickness, type and weight of roller, number of passes and coverage and also the size of the clods. Several empirical relationships and predictive correlations have been proposed for determining optimum

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water content, dry density and hydraulic conductivity of the soil based on easily measurable soil properties. In particular, hydraulic conductivity, compressibility and strength of the liners are crucial for construction of the liners. However, no definite guidelines have been laid down for liner design in terms of compressibility and strength. Also, no guideline exists to account chemical interaction of liner-contaminant, which also plays a very important role in contaminant migration. It is believed that this factor would help to reduce the thickness of the liners and thereby make the project cost-effective. There are different studies that deal with the use of variety of soil-admixture combinations for liner construction. The details of all these studies and their result have been tabulated in Table 1. From these studies it is found that one such material is fly ash which has a high utility potential in these geo-environmental projects. Past and recent research has established the potential of fly ash for use in a variety of construction applications. However, its utility in geo-environmental projects still need to be explored in detail. To enhance its utility, the various criteria for liner design need to be defined for fly ash type of materials. There are not many studies that deal with the characterization of fly ash-cement mix that can be used for liners. Most of the studies deal with strength and compressibility of the mix. The reviewed literature clearly suggest that a lot of systematic studies are still required in terms of physical, chemical and geotechnical characterization of fly ash-soil mix so that its mass utility can be enhanced in geo-environmental projects like landfills. The aim of this current research is it to evaluate the effective use of the mixtures fly ash and cement as the liner material.

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Table 1. Past research and result Hydraulic conductivity (cm/sec) <1x10-7

Sn 1

Title Feasibility of mudstone material as a natural landfill liner Preliminary investigation into the use of secondary waste minerals as a novel cementitious landfill liner Rubber and bentonite added fly ash as a liner material Mineralogical and sorption characteristics of Ankara clay as a landfill liner Assessment of crushed shales for use as compacted landfill liners Bentonite coated liner Removal of CU(II) from leachate using natural zeolite as a landfill material

Author Sheu et al.(1998)

Materials used Mudstone material.

Ganjian et al.(2003)

Alkali activated concrete,Clay Rubber,Bentonite and Fly ash. Ankara clay

<10-7 and strength 5mpa 2.63x10-6

3 4

Cokca and Yilmaz (2003) Sezea et al.(2001)

Yahia et al. (2005)

Crushed shales.

<10-7

6 7

Roberts et al.(2008) Turan and Ergun(2008)

Bentonite,clay. Natural Zeolite,Bentonite,Co pper flotation waste.

6x10-10

Potential use of laterite and marine clay soils as landfill liners to retain heavy metals Laboratory and field testing for utilization of an excavated soil as landfill liner material

Chalermyano et al. (2008)

Laterite and Marine clay. Soil with 95% fines, Hydrated lime and permeants

1x10-7 10-6 and 10-5.

Bozbey et al. (2005)

25

Sn

Title

Author

Materials used

Hydraulic conductivity (cm/sec)

10

Liners for waste containment constructed with class F and C fly ashes Stabilised fly ash use as low permeability barriers Permeability and leachate characteristics of stabilized class F fly ash.

Palmer et al. (1999)

Class F and Class C fly ash. Class F fly ash, lime or cement Class F fly ash, bentonite, cement or lime Permeation with 5% methanol with lime and lime bentonite. Permeatition with 5% methanol.with cement and cement bentonite Permeation with 3.2% acetic acid solution with all specimen except with 10% bentonite Class F fly ash, sand, bentonite and cement. Sand bentonite fly ash mixture 7.2x10-6 Addition of bentonite did not affect k. Decrease in hydraulic conductivity. Increase in k.

11 12

Bowders et al. (1987) Bowders et al. (1990)

Lowered the k.

13

14

Permeability and leaching characteristics of fly ash liner material. Constant flow and constant gradient permeability on sandbentonite-fly ash mixtures.

Creek and Shackelford (1992) Shakelford and Glade (1992)

1.2x10-4 to 4.5x10-7 k upto bentonite content up to 18% and increased later. <10-7 Fly ash and red mud are effective adsorbent for removal of zinc 1.7x10-9 to 8.9x10-8

15 16

Permeability of fly ash and aly ash-sand mixtures Use of fly ash,photogypsum and red mud as liner material for the disposal of hazardous zinc leach residue waste.

Vesperman et al. (1985) Corub et al. (2009)

Fly ash with sand (0 to 90 %) Fly ash, photogypsum and red mud, leachate containing zinc.

17

Hydraulic conductivity of fly ash sewage sludge mixes for use in landfill cover liners

Herramann et al. (2009) Fly ash and sewage mix.

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Chapter-3
3.1. MATERIALS In the first phase of this project was pure fly ash used. The specific gravity of the fly ash is 2.04. To improve the hydraulic conductivity of the liner 43 grade Ordinary Portland cement with pure fly ash was used. In order to study the effect of the cement content on the linear shrinkage, hydraulic and compressibility behavior of the mixtures, tests were carried out for the five different mixtures, i.e. 100 % fly ash, 98 % fly ash + 2 % cement, 95 % fly ash + 5 % cement, 93 % fly ash + 7 % cement and 90 % fly ash and 10 % cement. In order to get better idea, mixture of fly ash and bentonite was also in the different proportions i.e. 95 % fly ash + 5 % bentonite and 90 % fly ash + 10 % bentonite. 3.2. METHODS 3.2.1 Consolidation test Consolidation test was carried out in order to assess the hydraulic conductivity and compressibility of the mixture. Indirect determination of the hydraulic conductivity from consolidation tests has several advantages and disadvantages over permeability tests, which are in the following. (i) can apply vertical pressures simulating those in field; (ii) can measure vertical deformations; (iii) can test sample under a range of vertical stresses; (iv) can test compacted specimens and undisturbed samples; (v) thin samples permits short testing time; (vi) cost effective method for obtaining hydraulic conductivity data over a range sample states; However it has also some disadvantages over other methods. Those are,

27

(i) Some soil types may be difficult to trim into consolidation ring; (ii) Thin samples may not be representative; (iii) Potential for side wall leakage; Despite of some disadvantages, the consolidometer permeability test is potentially the most useful among the other methods viz. rigid wall permeameter and flexible wall (triaxial) permeameter because of the flexibility which it offers for testing specimens under a range of confining stresses and for accurate determination of the change in sample thickness as a result of both seepage forces and chemical influence on the soil structure. Furthermore, the thinner samples relative to the other test type means that the pore fluid replacement can be achieved in a short time for a given hydraulic gradient. The hydraulic conductivity can be calculated from the consolidation test results by fitting Terzaghis theory of consolidation (Terzaghi, 1923) to the observed laboratory time-settlement observation and extracting the hydraulic conductivity from calculated coefficient of consolidation. The fitting operation was carried out using Taylors square root method. A question may arise, how the hydraulic conductivity calculated by Terzaghis theory is comparable to that determined directly by permeability tests. Terzaghi (1923) made such comparison when he first developed the theory; he found satisfactory agreement. Casagrande and Fadum (1944) reported that they always found satisfactory agreement provided that there was a distinct change in curvature when the primary settlement curve merged with the secondary settlement curve. Taylor (1942) presented comparison for remolded specimens of Boston blue clay, based on the square root fitting method, and showed that the measured hydraulic conductivity generally exceeded the calculated values. He attributed this difference in hydraulic conductivity to Terzaghis assumption that the sole cause of delay in compression in the time

28

required for the water to be squeezed out, i.e. to the hydraulic conductivity of the clay. Taylor (1942) concluded that the structure of clay itself possessed a time dependent resistance to compression so that the total resistance to volume change came partly from the structural resistance of the clay itself. By attributing all of the resistance to low hydraulic conductivity, Terzaghis theory must inevitably lead to an underestimate of the hydraulic conductivity. On the based of several experiments Mesri and Olson (1971) concluded that the calculated hydraulic conductivity was low only by 5 to 20 % for both remoulded and undisturbed clay provided the clay is normally consolidated at the time of determination. In regards to the determination of the hydraulic conductivity of clayey soil, the consolidation test has been widely used (Newland and Alley, 1960; Mesri and Olson, 1971; Budhu, 1991; Sivapullaiah et al., 2000). This test generally provides the hydraulic conductivity comparable with the permeability test (Terzaghi, 1923; Casagrande and Fadum, 1944) although slightly underestimates the hydraulic conductivity compared with the permeability test (Taylor, 1942; Mitchell and Madson, 1987). Consolidation tests were carried out to determine the hydraulic conductivity of the mixtures. The test was carried out on the sample of 60 mm diameter and 20 mm thickness according to ASTM D 2435 using standard consolidometers. The samples were prepared by adding water to the different fly ash - cement mixtures (with cement content of 0 %, 2 %, 5 %, 7 %, and 10 %), and fly ash-bentonite mixtures (with bentonite content of 5 % and 10 %). Then the mixtures were mixed with water to obtain the optimum moisture content (OMC). Then the sample was kept in a humidity controlled desiccator for 24 hours in order to attain the moisture equilibrium. The inside of the ring was smeared with a very thin layer of silicon grease in order to avoid friction between the ring and soil sample. Filter paper was placed at the bottom and top of the sample. A

29

top cap with a porous stone was placed above the soil sample. Then the mixtures were compacted in the consolidation ring to its maximum dry density (MDD). The entire assembly was placed in the consolidation cell and positioned in the loading frame. The consolidation ring was immersed in the water. Then the consolidation cells were allowed to equilibrate for 24 hours prior to commencing the test. All the samples were initially loaded with a stress of 0.5 kg/cm2, increasing by an increment ratio of 1 (i.e. 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2 kg/cm2 etc) to a maximum pressure of 8 kg/cm2. 3.2.2. Linear Shrinkage test Linear shrinkage, as used in this test method, refers to the change in linear dimensions that has occurred in test specimens after they have been subjected to soaking heat for a period of 24 hours and then cooled to room temperature. Most insulating materials will begin to shrink at some definite temperature. Usually the amount of shrinkage increases as the temperature of exposure becomes higher. Eventually a temperature will be reached at which the shrinkage becomes excessive. With excessive shrinkage, the insulating material has definitely exceeded its useful temperature limit. When an insulating material is applied to a hot surface, the shrinkage will be greatest on the hot face. The differential shrinkage which results between the hotter and the cooler surfaces often introduces strains and may cause the insulation to warp. High shrinkage may cause excessive wrap age and thereby may induce cracking, both of which are undesirable. The test was carried out on the sample of 25 mm diameter and 125 mm thickness according to using standard mould confirming to IS 12979: 1990. Soil sample weighing about 150 g from the thoroughly mixed portion of the material passing 425 micron IS Sieve [IS 460 (Part 1): 1985] obtained in accordance with IS 2720 (Part 1): 1983 was taken for the test specimen.

30

About 150 g of the soil sample passing 425 micron IS Sieve was placed on the flat glass plate and thoroughly mixed with distilled water, using the palette knives, until the mass becomes a smooth homogeneous paste, with moisture content approximately 2 % above the liquid limit of the soil. In the case of clayey soils, the soil paste shall be left to stand for a sufficient time (24 hours) to allow the moisture to permeate throughout the soil mass. The thoroughly mixed soilwater paste was placed in the mould such that was slightly proud of the sides of the mould. The mould was then gently jarred to remove any air pockets in the paste. Then the soil was leveled off along the top of the mould with the palette knife. The mould was placed in such way that the soil-water mixture (paste) can air dry slowly, until the soil was shrunk away from the walls of the mould. Drying was completed first at a temperature of 60 to 65 C until shrinkage has largely ceased and then at 105 to 110 C to complete the drying. Then the mould and soil was cooled and the mean length of soil bar measured because the specimen was become curved during drying. 3.3. DETERMINATION OF HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY AND COMPRESSIBILITY For each pressure increment the change in the thickness of soil sample was measured from the readings of the dial gauge. Then the change in the void ratio corresponding to an increase in the overburden pressure was calculated by the Eq. 1, e= H(1+e)/H Where, H = Change in the thickness of sample due to increase in pressure H = Initial thickness of the sample, e = Initial void ratio From the calculated void ratios, a plot of void ratio, e vs log of pressure, p, was plotted. The compression index (Cc) was calculated from the slope of this curve, or Compression index (Cc) = log pi / p j e i e j

(Eq. 1)

(Eq. 2)

31

Where, ei = Void ratio corresponds to a consolidation pressure of pi ej = Void ratio corresponds to a consolidation pressure of pj From the consolidation test result, a time-settlement curve was obtained at each pressure increment. The coefficient of consolidation c was obtained using Taylors square root time (T)
v

method. The co-efficient of volume change can be calculated by the formula, m = av /(1+e)
v

(Eq. 3)

where, av = coefficient of compressibility = /e where,

= Change in pressure e = Change in void ratio The hydraulic conductivity, k, was calculated using the Eq. 4 for various pressure increments using the c , and coefficient of volume change, m
v v

k=c m
v

v w

(Eq. 4)

where, is the unit weight of the pore fluid

w

3.3.1. DETERMINATION OF LINEAR SHRINKAGE The linear shrinkage of the soil shall be calculated as a percentage of the original length of the specimen from the following formula: Linear Shrinkage (LS), (%) = (1 - Ls / L) 100% Where, L = Length of the mould (mm) Ls = Length of the of the oven dry specimen (mm)

32

Chapter-4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1. General The results of different tests carried out on various fly ash-cement mixes and fly ash-bentonite mixes are presented in this chapter.

4.1.1 Compaction properties of the various fly ash-cement mixtures Compaction test is carried out for the five different fly ash-cement mixtures, i.e. pure fly ash, 98 % fly ash + 2 % cement, 95 % fly ash + 5 % cement, 93 % fly ash + 7 % cement, 90 % fly ash + 10 % cement. The optimum moisture content (OMC) and maximum dry density (MDD) for all the five mixtures has been tabulated in Table 2. The data in the table shows that the OMC and MDD for the mixtures increase with the increase in the cement content of the mixtures.

Table 2. OMC and MDD values of fly ash cement mix with different proportion Maximum Dry Density (MDD) kg/m3 1319 1339 1339 1368 1377

Mixing Combination Pure fly ash 98 % fly ash + 2 % cement 95 % fly ash + 5 % cement 93 % fly ash + 7 % cement 90 % fly ash + 10 % cement 4.1.1.1. Hydraulic conductivity

Optimum Moisture Content (OMC), % 17.0 18.2 19.3 19.9 20.4

Hydraulic conductivity is one of the most important criteria for soil to be used as a liner material at the waste disposal site. Most of the regulatory authority in the world has recommended that the material to be used as a liner material must have a minimum value of hydraulic conductivity of 10-6 cm/sec compacted at MDD and OMC. Result of the hydraulic conductivity for all the five mixtures shows that all mixtures satisfy the hydraulic conductivity criteria required for a landfill liner. Result shows that the hydraulic conductivity value for the five mixtures decreased with a decrease in the void ratio. The decreases in the hydraulic conductivity with the decrease in the

33

void ratio was quite steep at the beginning, however, with a further decrease in the void ratio there was a marginal decrease in the hydraulic conductivity.

1.E-05 100% fly ash 98% fly ash + 2% cement

Hydraulic conductivity(cm/sec)

1.E-06

95% fly ash + 5% cement 93% fly ash + 7% cement 90% fly ash + 10% cement

1.E-07

1.E-08 0.44

0.46

0.48

0.5 Void ratio

0.52

0.54

0.56

0.58

Figure 3. Relation between void ratio and hydraulic conductivity for the five mixtures

In a comparison among the five mixtures, it can be seen that with the increase in the cement content the hydraulic conductivity decreases. In other words, at the same void ratio mixture with higher cement content exhibits a lower hydraulic conductivity. When the cement content increases and it comes in contact with the water, it holds the fly ash particles on its surface and gets solidify and in turn blocks the flow path thereby reducing the hydraulic conductivity.

34

4.1.1.2. Compressibility Figure 4 shows the relation between the pressure and void ratio for the five mixtures. The result shows that with an increase in the overburden pressure the void ratio of the mixture decreases. The increase in the overburden pressure on the five mixtures can be correlated with the increase in the pressure on the liner due to the increase in the weight of the overburden weight due to dumping of more and more waste material. The result shows that the decrease in the void ratio with an increase in the pressure is quite marginal in the beginning. However, with an increase in the load the mixtures get compressed significantly. Result shows that the mixture with a higher fly ash content possessed a lower void ratio at any given overburden pressure. This can be attributed to the presence of the higher amount of fine particles in the fly ash. With the increase in the fine content of the mixture the void ratio decreases.

0.58 0.56 0.54 0.52

Void ratio

0.5

0.48 100% fly ash 0.46 0.44 0.42 0.01 98% fly ash + 2% cement 95% fly ash + 5% cement 93% fly ash + 7% cement 90% fly ash + 10% cement

0.1

Pressure (kg/cm )

10

Figure 4. Relation between void ratio and over burden pressure for the five mixtures

35

Compression index (Cc) and expansion index (EI) for all the five mixtures was determined from the Fig. 4 and tabulated in Table 3. The data in Table 3 shows the compression index of the mixture gets affected marginally by the presence of the cement. However, the expansion index gets affected significantly due to cement content. The expansion index decreases with an increase in the cement content. The increase in the cement makes the mixture more cementitious and it gets hardened due to the increase in the over burden pressure. With the removal of the over burden pressure it re-bounced less significantly in comparison to the pure fly ash.

Table 3. Values of compression index and expansion index of fly ash-cement mix SL. Mixing Composition Compression Index Expansion Index (EI) NO. (Cc) 1 Pure fly ash 0.077138 9.4 2 98 % fly ash + 2 % cement 0.077032 6.3 3 95 % fly ash + 5 % cement 0.095965 2.5 4 93 % fly ash + 7 % cement 0.025885 1.9 5 90 % fly ash + 10 % cement 0.081374 1.5

Table 4. Classification of Potential Expansion of Soils Using EI Expansion Index (EI) 0-20 21-50 51-90 91-130 >130 Potential Expansion Very Low Low Medium High Very High

From the values of expansion index we can say that for all five type of mix the potentiality of expansion is very low because all three values are in between 0-20.

36

0.045 0.04 100% fly ash 98% fly ash + 2% cement 95% fly ash + 5% cement 93% fly ash + 7% cement 90% fly ash + 10% cement

Co-efficient of compressibility, mv (cm /kg)

0.035 0.03 0.025 0.02 0.015 0.01 0.005 0 0.01

0.1

pressure (kg/cm )

10

Figure 5. Relation between co-efficient of compressibility and over burden pressure for the five mixtures 4.1.1.3. Linear Shrinkage Liner shrinkage for all the five type of fly ash-cement mixtures was found to be zero. The length and the diameter of all the five mixtures did not reduce after keeping in oven for 24 hours. 4.1.4. Co-efficient of consolidation (cv) The coefficient of consolidation (cv) signifies the rate at which a saturated soil sample undergoes one dimensional consolidation when subjected to an increase in the vertical consolidation pressure. A large value of cv indicates a faster rate of consolidation whereas a low value indicates a slower rate of consolidation. Figure 5 shows the plot between co-efficient of consolidation (cv) against the vertical consolidation pressure for the five mixtures. The result for the five mixtures

37

shows that cv decreases with the increase in the over burden pressure. Result also shows that the value of cv differs significantly initially, however, with the increase in the pressure the difference in the value of cv for the five mixtures decreases significantly.

0.1 100% fly ash 0.09 98% fly ash + 2% cement 95% fly ash + 5% cement 93% fly ash + 7% cement 90% fly ash + 10% cement

Co-efficient of consolidation (cm /sec)

0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0 0.01

0.1 Pressure (kg/cm )

2

10

Figure 6. Relation between coefficient of consolidation and over burden pressure for the five mixtures

38

4.2.1. Compaction properties of the mixtures Compaction test was carried out for the three different fly ash and bentonite mixtures, i.e. pure fly ash, 95 % fly ash + 5 % bentonite, and 90 % fly ash + 10 % bentonite. The optimum moisture content (OMC) and maximum dry density (MDD) for all the three mixtures has been tabulated in Table 5. The data in the table shows that the OMC and MDD for the mixtures increase with the increase in the bentonite content of the mixtures. Table 5. OMC and MDD values of fly ash- bentonite mix with different proportion Mixing Combination Pure Fly ash 95% Fly ash + 5% Bentonite 90% Fly ash + 10% Bentonite Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) 17.0 % 18.0 % 19.8 % Maximum Dry Density (MDD) kg/m3 1319 1398 1412

4.2.2. Hydraulic conductivity In case of fly ash and bentonite mix result of hydraulic conductivity shows that all three mixtures satisfy the hydraulic conductivity criteria require for a liner material. For all the mixtures the value of hydraulic conductivity was found to be less than 10-6 cm/sec, the limiting criteria for the use of a landfill liner material. From Fig. 7 shows that the hydraulic conductivity value for the three mixtures decreased with a decrease in the void ratio. The decrease in the hydraulic conductivity with the decrease in the void ratio was quite steep at the beginning for the pure fly ash and 95 % fly ash + 5 % bentonite mixtures. However, the hydraulic conductivity of the 90 % fly ash + 10 % bentonite decreased uniformly with the decrease in the void ratio.

39

1.E-05

Hydraulic conductivity (cm/sec)

90% Fly ash + 10% Bentonite 95% Fly ash + 5% Bentonite 100 % Fly ash 1.E-06

1.E-07

1.E-08 0.39

0.41

0.43

0.45

0.47

0.49

0.51

0.53

0.55

0.57

Void ratio
Figure 7. Relation between void ratio and hydraulic conductivity for the three mixtures In a comparison among the three mixtures, it can be seen that with the increase in the bentonite content the hydraulic conductivity increases. In other words, at the same void ratio mixture with higher bentonite content exhibits a higher hydraulic conductivity. Generally, the hydraulic conductivity tends to decreases with the increase in the bentonite content (Chapuis, 1990). This opposite trend can be explained in terms of the presence of various salts in the fly ash (Ohtsubo et al., 2004). When fly ash-bentonite mixtures comes in contact with water, the various cations such as Na+, Ca2+ leached out from fly ash and react with the bentonite present in the mixture. Because of these cations the repulsive force of the bentonite decreases and the bentonite becomes flocculated (van Olphen, 1977). As the bentonite gets flocculated, the flow path becomes open and the hydraulic conductivity increases (Benson and Daniel, 1990).

40

4.2.3. Compressibility Figure 8 shows the relation between the pressure and void ratio for the three mixtures. The result shows that with an increase in the overburden pressure the void ratio of the mixture decreases. From the figure we can say that lower bentonite content gives higher void ratio with the increase overburden pressure. The result shows that the decrease in the void ratio with an increase in the pressure is quite marginal in the beginning. However, with an increase in the load the mixtures get compressed significantly.

0.6
90% Fly ash + 10 % Bentonite 95% Fly ash + 5% Bentonite 100% Fly ash

0.55

0.5

Void ratio

0.45

0.4

0.35

0.3 0.1 1 Pressure (kg/cm )

2

10

Figure 8. Relation between void ratio and over burden pressure for the three mixtures

41

0.06 90% Fly ash + 10 % Bentonite 95% Fly ash + 5% Bentonite 100% Fly ash

Co-efficient of compressibility, mv (cm 2/kg)

0.05

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01

0 0.1 1 Pressure (kg/cm 2) 10

Figure 9. Relation between pressure and co-efficient of compressibility

Compression index (Cc) and expansion index (EI) for all the two mixtures was determined from the Fig. 7 and tabulated in table 6. The data in table 6 shows the compression index of the mixture gets affected by the presence of the bentonite. The increase in the bentonite results in increase in compression index (Cc). However, the expansion index gets affected marginally due to bentonite content. From the values of expansion index we can say that for all three type of mix the potentiality of expansion is very low because all three values are in between 0-20. The

42

expansion index increases with an increase in the bentonite content. This behavior of the mixture is due to the excessive swelling potentiality of bentonite and With the removal of the over burden pressure it re-bounced very significantly in comparison to the pure fly ash. The data in table 6 also shows that linear shrinkage of fly ash and bentonite mixture increases with the increase in the bentonite content. This is due to the swelling potentiality of bentonite because after drying swelling of the mixture decreases, eventually to zero. As a result the mixture shrunk. Table 6. Values of compression index, expansion index and linear shrinkage of fly ash and bentonite mix Sl. No. 1 2 3 Mixing Composition Pure Fly Ash 95 % Fly ash + 5 % Bentonite 90 % Fly ash + 10 % Bentonite Compression Index (Cc) 0.077139 0.114449 0.332663 Expansion Index(EI) 9.4 11.4 17.7 Linear Shrinkage % 0 1.6 3.2

4.2.4. Co-efficient of consolidation (cv) In case of fly ash and bentonite mix the values of Co-efficient of consolidation is very large at the beginning. Figure 10 shows the plot between co-efficient of consolidation (cv) against the vertical consolidation pressure for the three mixtures. The result for the three mixtures shows that cv decreases with the increase in the over burden pressure. Result also shows that the value of cv differs significantly initially.

4.3.

Comparisons between cement and bentonite mix with fly ash (5% and 10%)

4.3.1. Optimum moisture content and maximum dry density All the values of optimum moisture content and maximum dry density are tabulated below. From Table 7 it is clear that bentonite mix gives higher value of optimum moisture content and maximum dry density for both the 5 % and 10 % mixtures.

43

0.4 90% Fly ash + 10 % Bentonite 95% Fly ash + 5% Bentonite 0.35
Co-efficient of consolidation, c v (cm 2/sec)

100% Fly ash

0.3

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0 0.1 1 Pressure (kg/cm 2) 10

Figure 10. Relation between coefficient of consolidation and over burden pressure for the fly ash and bentonite mixtures

4.3.2. Hydraulic conductivity It is recommended that the material to be used as a liner material must have a minimum value of hydraulic conductivity of 10-6 cm/sec compacted at MDD and OMC. In Fig.10 a graphical relation between void ratio and hydraulic conductivity for 5 % and 10 % cement and bentonite content has been established. Result shows that hydraulic conductivity value for the four mixtures decreased with a decrease in the void ratio. The figure shows that 95% fly ash and 5% cement mixture gives lower value of hydraulic conductivity.

44

Table 7. values of OMC and MDD 5 % and 10 % cement and bentonite respectively Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 Mixing Combination 95% fly ash + 5% cement 95% fly ash + 5% bentonite 90% fly ash + 10% cement 90% fly ash + 10% bentonite Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) 19.3 % 18.0 % 20.4 % 19.8 % Maximum Dry Density (MDD) kg/m3 1339 1398 1368 1412

1.E-05 95% fly ash + 5% cement 95% fly ash + 5% bentonite 90% fly ash +10% bentonite

Hydraulic Conductivity (cm/sec)

90% fly ash + 10% cement

1.E-06

1.E-07 0.35

0.4

0.45 Void ratio

0.5

0.55

0.6

Figure 10. Relation between void ratio and hydraulic conductivity for 5 % and 10 % cement and bentonite content

45

4.3.3. Compressibility

Figure 11 shows the relation between pressure and void ratio for the four mixtures. The result shows that the both 5 % and 10 % cement content gives higher value than 5 % and 10 % bentonite content. Whereas 90 % fly ash and 10 % bentonite gives lowest value of void ratio. The increase in the overburden pressure on the four mixtures can be correlated with the increase in the pressure on the liner due to the increase in the weight of the overburden pressure because of more waste material. In Fig.12 A relationship between pressure and co-efficient of compressibility for 5 % and 10 % cement and bentonite content has been plotted. From the figure it is clear that the characteristic of both 5 % and 10 % bentonite is parabolic. Whereas in case of cement the values of coefficient of compressibility are higher at the beginning then it decreases with the increase in overburden pressure.

0.6

0.55

Void ratio

0.5

0.45 95% fly ash + 5% bentonite 95% fly ash + 5% cement 0.4 90% fly ash + 10% bentonite 90% fly ash + 10% cement 0.35 0.01

0.1 Pressure (kg/cm )

2

10

Figure 11. Relation between pressure and void ratio for 5% and 10% cement and bentonite content

46

0.06 95% fly ash + 5% bentonite 95% fly ash + 5% cement 0.05 90% fly ash + 10% bentonite 90% fly ash + 10% cement 0.04

Co-efficient of compressibility

0.03

0.02

0.01

0 0.01

0.1

Pressure (kg/cm )

10

Figure12. Relation between pressure and co-efficient of compressibility for 5% and 10% cement and bentonite content

47

4.3.4. Co-efficient of consolidation (cv) Figure13 shows the plot between pressure and co-efficient of consolidation for 5 % and 10 % cement and bentonite content. Result shows that for 5 % and 10 % bentonite content co-efficient of consolidation decreases greatly at the beginning and after 0.5 kg/cm2 pressure it maintains almost a linear stability. In case of 5 % and 10 % cement content compression index of the mixture gets affected marginally by the presence of the cement. Result also shows that the value of cv differs significantly initially, however, with the increase in the pressure the difference in the value of cv for the four mixtures decreases significantly.

0.36 95% fly ash + 5% bentonite 0.31

2 Co-efficient of consolidation (cm /sec)

95% fly ash + 5% cement 90% fly ash + 10% bentonite 90% fly ash + 10% cement

0.26

0.21

0.16

0.11

0.06

0.01 0.01

0.1

Pressure (kg/cm )

10

Figure13. Relation between pressure and co-efficient of consolidation for 5% and 10% cement and bentonite content

48

5. CONCLUSIONS From the series of experimental data it is clear that fly ash has a bigger role in the application of geo-environmental engineering especially in landfill liner design. The data from compaction test shows that both optimum moisture content and maximum dry density increases with increase in the use of bentonite and cement with fly ash. With further laboratory testing likely consolidation test reveals that hydraulic conductivity for both fly ash-cement and fly ash-bentonite is less than 10-6 cm/sec. It also shows that co-efficient of consolidation and co-efficient of compressibility both decreases with the increase in the overburden pressure. But on the other hand from linear shrinkage data it is clear that fly ash-cement mixture is not showing any sign of shrink because of cement hardening. In case of fly ash-bentonite mix it shows considerable amount of shrink which increases with the increase in bentonite content. From the pressure-void ratio curve it can be concluded that with the increase in the fine content of the mixture results in the decrease in the void ratio. So at the end it can be concluded that 95 % fly ash + 5 % cement and 95 % fly ash + 5 % bentonite is suitable to use in landfill liner.

. 6. SCOPE FOR THE FUTURE WORK

Based on the result presented above, further studies can be carried out: I. To determine the shear strength of different proportion of fly ash + cement and fly ash + bentonite mixture. II. Determination of compaction, strength, compressibility and permeability characteristics of alternative material. III. To develop a new setup for locally available soil.

49

IV. V.

To evaluate the suitable fly ash-expansive soil mix that can be used as landfill liner. To propose different combination of parameters as design criteria for fly ash-expansive soil mix.

50

REFERENCES ASTM (2000). Standard Test Methods for Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of Soil Using Standard Effort, D 698. Philadelphia, American Society for Testing and Materials. ASTM (1996). Standard Test Method for One-Dimensional Consolidation Properties of Soils, D 2435. Philadelphia, American Society for Testing and Material. Benson, C.H. and Daniel, D.E. (1990). Influence of clods on hydraulic conductivity of compacted clay, Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 116(8), 1231-1248. British Standards (1990). Methods of test for soils for civil engineering purposes: classification tests 1377-2. Budhu, M. (1991). The permeability of the soils with organic fluids. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 28, 140-147. Casagrande, A. and Fadum, R.E. (1944). Notes on Soil Testing for Engineering Purposes: Soil Mech. Series No.8, Harvard Graduate School of Engineering Chapuis, R.P. (1990). Sand-bentonite liner: predicting permeability from laboratory test, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 27, 47-57. Cowland, J.W. and Leung, B.N. (1990), A field trial of a bentonite landfill liner, Civil Engineering Services Department, 9th Floor Empire Centre, 68 Mody Road, Kowloon, Hong Kong. Dietrich Koch (Applied Clay Science 21 (2002) 1 11)Bentonites as a basic material for technical base linersand site encapsulation cut-off walls IBECO Bentonit-Technologie GmbH, Ruhrorter Strae 72, D-68219 Mannheim, Germany. Felhendler, R., Shainberg I., and Frenkel, H. (1974). Dispersion and hydraulic conductivity of soils in mixed solution. In International Congress of Soil Science, Transaction, 10th (Moscow), 1, 103-112. Hoeks, J., Glas, H., Hofkamp, J. and Ryhiner, A.H. (1997) Bentonite liners for isolation of waste disposal sites, Waste Management & Research, 5, 93-105. Horpibulsuk, S., Bergado, D. T. and Lorenzo, G. A. (2003) Compressibility of cement-admixed clays at high water content, School of Civil Engineering, Suranaree University of Technology, Thailand. Lambe, T.W. (1953). The structure of inorganic soil, Journal of soil mechanics and foundation division, 79, 1-49

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