New Versions of Principal Component Analysis for Image Enhancement and Classification
Qiuming Cheng
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Science, Department of Geography, York University
4700 Keele Street, Toronto, Ont. M3J 1P3, Canada
Abstract – Two new versions of principal component
analysis methods were introduced. The first applies a
spatial weighting factor to the samples on the basis of
location properties of the samples. The second version
involves a new definition of high-order correlation
coefficient. The former can enhance the effect of
important samples and reduce the influence of the less
important samples, whereas the later can enhance the
influence of sample high or low values. The principal of
the methods were introduced with the case study of
identification of Au/Cu associated alteration zones from
Landsat TM images.
I. INTRODUCTION
Principal component analysis (PCA) has become a
standard statistical approach for image processing for
the two basic purposes: to reduce the numbers of
correlated images to form a small number of
independent principal components to represent the most
variability of the data carried by the multiple band
images; and to increase the interpretability of the
components as the combinations of the multiple images.
The foundation of PCA is the correlation matrix
measuring the interrelationships among multiple
variables. When it is used in dealing with spatial data in
GIS and for image processing, a number of properties
can be taken into account to improve the method in
order to increase the effectiveness of the method. In this
paper, two versions of newly modified PCA will be
introduced [1]. The first version involves a modification
of the correlation matrix by weighting the samples
based on the properties of sample locations. The second
version introduces a high-order statistics in construction
of correlation matrix. The former can enhance the
importance of samples with special locations and the
later enhance the samples with high or lower values in
the calculation of principal components. These two
versions of PCA can be useful for identifying special
entities as well as for general image enhancement.
II. SPATIALLY WEIGHTED PCA
As an ordinary statistical method, PCA requires random
samples with multiple attributes. Obviously, to make a
selection to subset samples to represent particular area is
often necessary. For example, if the study is mainly for
characterizing certain rock types, a limitation of pixels
within the rocks might be needed to ensure the main
principal components reflecting the rock patterns. Many
0-7803-7536-X/02/$17.00 (C) 2002 IEEE
other examples involving selection of subset of samples
in conducting PCA can be found in the literature. In
most commercial GIS and image processing packages, it
provides two standard means for selecting pixels for
image processing: one is to set a rectangle window with
an extent so that the processes only apply to the pixels
within the window; and the other sets a polygon mask in
such only the pixels within the mask are included in the
image processing. Constructing a mask in GIS is very
flexible, for example a rock formation or other sort of
patterns can be selected by querying from a map and
then defined as a mask. However these two methods can
be considered as using the binary mask with two values
1 and 0. The former can be treated as the special case of
the later when the mask becomes a regular shape. There
is no doubt that the constraints added by these two
methods to remove the irrelevant samples from the
analysis are essential for some of the applications. In
the current paper this idea will be extended to have a
more general form to affect the contributions of samples
by setting a spatially weighting factor. The brief
introduction of the principal of the method is given
below. Denote A, B, C as images to be processed and
their values at the location (i, j) as Aij, Bij, Cij,
respectively. A weighting factor was defined as an
image W with values from 0 to 1, 0 ≤ Wij ≤ 1 [2]. The
weighted correlation coefficient between images A and
B was defined as [2]
R( A, B) =
∑ Wij ( Aij − A )( Bij − B ) (1)
∑ Wij ( Aij − A ) 2 ∑ Wij ( Bij − B ) 2
where the letters A and B with bar at the top stand for
the mean values of Aij and Bij. The effect of applying
the weight W to the correlation coefficient can be seen
from the following properties:
1. R(A, B) is symmetrical,
2. -1 ≤ R(A, B) ≤ 1,
3. R(A, B) = 1 or –1 iff A and B are in positive or
negative linear relationship from each other.
4. If Wij = constant, R(A, B) reduces to the
ordinary correlation coefficient.
5. If Wij is a binary image with two values 1 and
0, then W is equivalent to the ordinary mask.
The first three properties ensure that the definition (1)
meets the basic properties required as correlation
coefficient. The last two properties demonstrate that the
definition (1) is a generalized form in comparisons with
the ordinary correlation coefficient and the correlation
coefficient with a binary mask applied. The ordinary
mask treatment becomes a special case of the spatial
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weighting approach. Similarly the Eigen values and
Eigen vectors can be calculated and loadings of each
image on all components and the scores of all images on
each component can be calculated and mapped. This
method has been implemented in a newly developed
GeoDAS GIS [2]. Using GeoDAS one can define a
weighting image with values representing relative
importance of pixel locations. The values on the
weighting image can be, for example, the distance from
ore deposits, density of ore deposits, distance from
contacts or faults, and concentration values of trace
elements, etc. The scores of images on a principal
component can be taken as a weighting factor as well.
The spatially weighted PCA can enhance the influence
of those pixels with large weights (weights close 1) and
reduces the effect of pixels with small weights (weights
close to 0). This method has been used to analysis
geochemical anomalies for mineral exploration [2].
III. HIGH-ORDER CORRELATION COEFFICIENT
In general, spatial patterns with self-similarity or self-
affinity can be characterized by means of non-linear
approaches such as multifractal modelling. Non-
linearity of high-order statistical property involved in
changing scales or resolutions are commonly observed
in various types of remotely sensed images. Most
statistics based on means and standard deviations are
lower-order moment statistics. From multifractal point
of view, lower-order moment statistics can only be
capable of characterizing the properties dominated by
values around the mean value. The behaviour of high or
low values along the two tails needs to be characterized
with high-order (both positively and negatively)
moment statistics. The statistical regularities of the
anomalous or extreme values (both directions) often
show non-linearity with respect to changing measuring
scales. The definition of high-order correlation
coefficient was proposed to enhance the influence of the
anomalous and extreme values on the measurement of
correlation [1]. The definition can be expressed as
∑ ( A q ij − A q )( B q ij − B q )
1 1 2 2
R( A q1 , B q2 ) =
∑ ( A q ij − A q ) 2 ∑ ( B q ij − B q
1 1 2 2
)2
where Aq and Bq are the pixel values raised to the power
of q. R(Aq1, Bq2) is the high-order correlation coefficient
which can be calculated with the ordinary correlation
coefficient equation applying to the power-transformed
image values. The order of the power q1 and q2 can be
any values including negative values and non-integer
values. It has been proved that the effect of applying q-
th power-transformation to the image values are either
enhancing the influence of high values if with positive q
(>>1) or the influence of low values with negative q
(<<0). When q1 = q2 = 1 the high-order correlation
coefficient becomes the ordinary correlation coefficient.
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The high-order correlation coefficients with mixing
negative and positive power orders (q1 q2 = - 1) are
similar to taking the “ratios” of images. Applying ratio-
transformation to images is commonly seen in remote
sensing image processing. It can be seen that the
ordinary correlation coefficient and ratio-transformation
are similar to applying the special high-order correlation
coefficient. In other words the high-order correlation
coefficient is a more generalized form of the ordinary
correlation coefficient and the commonly used ratio
transformation. Should the ordinary (low-order) or
high–order statistics be used depend on the objectives of
individual applications. For some applications such as
identification of alteration zones for mineral exploration
or impact zones for environmental assessment from
remotely sensed images, the useful information might
be carried over by weak or strong signals hidden in the
average or background values caused by normal
features acting as noise. Use of high-order statistics can
enhance the contribution of high or low values in the
analysis. The high-order correlation coefficient for
multiple images can be used as the correlation matrix to
conduct PCA. The results will be affected by the
determination of orders of power-transformation. This
method will be demonstrated with a case study of
identification of alteration zones from Landsat TM
images from the Mitchell-Sulphurets mineral district,
northwestern British Columbia.
IV. IDENTIFICATION OF ALTERATION ZONES
FROM LANDSAT TM IMAGES
The data to be used to demonstrate the application of the
PCA with high-order correlation coefficient are the
seven band Landsat TM images, received on 9
September 1985, covering the Mitchell-Sulphurets
mineral district, northwestern British Columbia [3].
These images have been studied for alteration
identifications [1][3] and for non-linear modeling [1].
The dataset consists of seven TM images (bands 1 to 7)
with 30-meter resolution for bands 1 to 5 and 7 (120
meter for band 6) each of which contains 496c × 777r
pixels covering an area of about 350 km2. The PCA will
be applied to bands 1 to 5 and 7 only for maintaining a
uniform resolution. Fig.1 shows the TM band 5 image
and the property of the scaling independence. Self-
similar patterns are shown in Fig. 1 as changing the
resolutions from 30 meter to 480 meter by re-sampling
the image. Fig. 2 shows the power-law relationship
between the high-order correlation coefficients
calculated (R) for bands 2 and 5 and bands5 and 7,
respectively, and the resolution (ε) at which the
correlation coefficients were calculated. Among
various combinations, R with q1=1 and q2 = 1 provides
good correlation between bands 5 and 7, whereas R with
q1= -0.5 and q2 = 0.5 optimizes the best for bands 2 and
5. Considering the optimum correlations among all flexible TM and TM
TM and TM
5 7
q q
1 2
images, the values of q = -2 for bands 1 to 3 and q = 3 mean for
2 5
0 1 1
3 3
for bands 4, 5, 7, were used to calculate the correlation optimizing -0.1
-.5 .5
-.5 .5
coefficient matrix for the 6 images. PCA has been the -1 1

Log R( q 1, q2 , ε )
-0.2
1 1
further applied to the high-order correlation matrix and correlation -0.3

the scores on the first three principal components were s between -0.4
-1 1
mapped and compared with other geological and images. It -0.5

alteration information available in the area for can be -0.6

-0.7
geological interpretation. The patterns shown by the applied to -2 3
-0.8
scores on the first and the second components clearly enhance 1.4 1.65 1.9 2.15 2.4 2.65 2.9
Log ε
represent the alteration zones. The first component the
Figure 2. Plot showing relationship
reflects the entire outcropping altered area and the influence between R and measuring scale (ε). Log-
second component mainly highlights the alteration of the high transform are 10 based.
zones with NNE-SSW orientation probability or low
corresponding to the more intensive potassium values of
alteration zone with gold/copper mineralization. A images in calculation of the principal components. As a
colour composite map of the first three components was more generalized method in comparison with the ratio-
constructed and is shown in Fig. 3. Unlike the ordinary transformation, PCA with high-order correlation matrix
PCA, the new results obtained by the new version of will provide a powerful tool for general image
PCA highlight not only the main alteration zones but enhancement.
also the differences within the alteration zones.

480
240
120

60

TM Band 5

ε = 30m
Figure 1. Landsat TM band 5 from the Mitchell-
Sulphurets mineral district, northwestern British
Columbia received on 9 September 1985 (Rencz et al.,
1994). Images re-sampled to reduce the resolution.
V. CONCLUSIONS
Incorporated the spatial information about the locations
of samples into account in the calculation of the
correlation matrix, the PCA can enhance the effect of
the important samples and reduce the influence of the
less important samples. This is beyond the capability of
the ordinary masking approach provided by some of the
commercial GIS and image processing systems. With
the aid of GIS and the support of diverse data layers, the
spatially weighted PCA will become a standard image
processing technique.
Constructing the high-order correlation coefficient
index introduced in the current paper has provided a
Figure 3. Composite map created
from three principal components.
Purple patterns – alteration zones,
light blue – intensive alteration zones,
pink – wed land and water, and black
– snow and ices.
REFERENCE
1. Q. Cheng, “Multifractality and spatial statistics,”
Computers & Geosciences, v. 25, 1999, p. 949-961.
2. Q. Cheng, “GeoDAS Phase I:User’s guide &
Exercise manual,” unpublished notes, York
University, 2000, 298p.
3. A. Rencz, J. Harris, B.B. Ballantyne, “Landsat TM
imagery for alteration identification,” Current
Research 1994E, Geological Survey of Canada,
1994, p. 277-282.

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