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Principles of chemistry
States of matter

State Arrangement of particles

Solid Regular arrangement (fixed pattern) Closely packed

Liquid Random arrangement (no fixed pattern) Still close together but not as close as in solid Slide past each other Indefinite

Gas Random arrangement

Proximity

Far apart

movement Shape

Vibrate in their positions Definite

Move everywhere rapidly Indefinite

Kinetic particle theory 1- All matter is made of tiny invisible particles (atoms, ions or molecules) 2- Particles move randomly all the time 3- Lighter particles move faster than heavier ones Changing of state

Sublimation

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Melting a solid When a solid is heated, particles gain energy, they vibrate faster and the solid expand, at the melting point the particles vibrate more enough to overcome the forces between them and the solid changes into liquid.

Boiling a liquid When a liquid is heated, particles gain more energy; they move faster, this makes the liquid expand. At the boiling point, the particles get enough energy to overcome the forces between them and escape in the form of gas.

Evaporation: When a liquid is left open to the air, some particles of the liquid escape into the gas state even if the liquid is below the boiling point. And the rate of evaporation increases as The temperature increase. The surface area increase.

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Note Evaporation occurs at any temperature, but boiling occurs at a certain temperature which is the boiling point. Condensing a gas If a gas is cooled, particles eventually move slowly enough that attractions between them hold them as a liquid. The gas condenses Freezing a liquid If a liquid is cooled, liquid particles will move around more and more slowly. Eventually, they are moving slowly enough that the forces of attraction between them will hold them into a solid, the liquid freezes. Changing between solid and gas [Sublimation] Small number of substances changes directly from solid to gas without passing through liquid state. Examples: Ammonium chloride, Carbon dioxide and iodine

Heating ammonium chloride

Dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) subliming

Iodine sublimation

Melting point: It is the temperature at which a solid melts, i.e. changes into a liquid Boiling point: It is the temperature at which a liquid boils, i.e. changes into a gas Freezing point: It is the temperature at which a liquid freezes, i.e. Changes into a solid

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Diffusion It is the random movement of particles so they get mixed up Or : It is the spreading of particles from regions of high concentration to regions of lower concentration. Diffusion in gases a) Diffusion of bromine Bromine is a brown liquid which vaporizes easily at room temperature. The lower gas jar contains bromine vapour; the top one contains air. When the lid between the two jars is removed, bromine vapor spread to mix with air in the upper jar b)Diffusion of ammonia and hydrogen chloride gases to form ammonium chloride A cotton wool soaked in concentrated ammonia solution (as a source of ammonia gas) is placed at one end of a long glass tube. A cotton wool soaked in concentrated hydrochloric acid (as a source of hydrogen chloride gas) is placed at the other end of the tube

When ammonia gas (NH3) is mixed with hydrogen chloride gas (HCl), white fumes of ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) are formed. NH3(g) +HCl(g)
ammonia gas hydrogen chloride gas

NH4Cl(s)
White fumes of ammonium chloride

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The white fumes of ammonium chloride, NH4Cl(s), appear nearby the source of hydrogen chloride gas since this HCl(g) is denser and diffuses slower than ammonia gas NH3(g). Rate of diffusion of gases depends on the molecular mass (Mr), the smaller the molecular mass the faster the rate of diffusion. c) If a purple crystal of potassium manganate (VII) is dropped into a beaker containing water, the purple color will spread throughout the water

Potassium manganate (VII) crystal in water

The crystal sinks The crystal dissolves and becomes smaller Particles of potassium ion and manganate ions move randomly Color spread everywhere

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Laboratory Glassware
Beaker Conical flask Measuring cylinder Pipette Burette Stand Clamp

Test tube

Test tube holder

Mortar and pestle

Tripod

Gauze

Bunsen burner

Tongs

Evaporating dish

Funnel

Crucible and lid

Thermometer

Separating funnel

Spatula

Top pan Balance

Chemistry IGCSE Edexcel 2011 - 2012

Methods of separation and purification Filtration Used to separate an isoluble solid from a solution Example: sand and water Solid particles are left on the filter paper as a residue while the liquid passes through the filter paper as a filterate. Crystallization Used to separate a solid crystals from a solution Example: Magnesium sulphate from magnesium sulphate solution The solution is heated to crystallization point, then left to cool to room temperature, crystals will form and can be filtered out and left to dry in a warm place or dried between two filter papers Simple distillation To separate a solvent from a solution Example: distilled water from sea water When the solution is heated, the solvent changes to vapour, the vapour passes through a condenser where it is converted back to liquid and is collected in a conical flask as the distillate

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Fractional distillation To separate two or more miscible liquids of different boiling points. Example:Ethanol and water

Mixture of miscible liquids is heated, the liquid with lower boiling point reaches the top of the column and distils over and is collected first Fractionating column is a glass colunmn packed with glass beads allows multiple condensations and distillations and produces better separation between liquids

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Paper chromatography Used to separate and identify a mixture of substances present in a concentrated solution Example: 1- Separating dyes in ink 2- Colours and flavors in food A small concentrated spot of the solution containing the mixture is placed on a base line drawn by a pencil at one end of the chromatography paper The paper is dipped in a suitable solvent (e.g. water or ethanol ) taking care that the solvent surface is below the base line and placed in a sealed container The solvent gradually moves up the paper. As the solvent rises through the paper it meets and dissolves the sample mixture, which will then travel up the paper with the solvent. Different components of the mixture travel at different rates and the mixtures are separated into different coloured spots. The pattern you get is called a chromatogram The number of spots represents the number of constituents of the mixture

A single pure substance will produce only one spot If the constituents of the mixture is insoluble in the solvent used, it will remain on the baseline Chromatography can be used also to separate colorless substances, but in this case, the paper must be sprayed by a locating agent, so that the position of the spots can be seen. Each spot could be identified from its Rf ratio. This ratio is calculated from the following formula:Rf =

distance traveled by the dye distance traveled by solvent

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Example: The mixture (m) consist of the dyes d1,d3 & d4 because: They have same color as spots in the mixture They travelled same distance on the paper

The dye d2 has the same color as one of the spots in the mixture, yet it has travelled a different distance and so it must be a different compound

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Atom and molecule Atom: Smallest particle of an element which takes part in a chemical reaction Structure of atoms: 1. Nucleus: Contains positively charged protons and neutral neutrons 2. Electrons are negatively charged and moves around the nucleus in energy levels (energy shells) Atoms are neutral because the number of positively charged protons (p+) are equal to the number of negatively charged electrons (e-) Mass of electron is very small and can be neglected compared to mass of nucleus

Relative charge and mass of particles Particle Proton Neutron Electron Symbol p n eRelative charge +1 0 -1 Relative mass 1 1 1/1836

Atomic number and mass number (nucleon number)

Atomic number = number of protons Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons Number of neutrons = Mass number Atomic number

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Electronic configuration Electrons are arranged in energy levels or shells around the nucleus Each energy level can hold a certain number of electrons Lower energy levels are filled first before you go to higher ones The first energy level holds only 2 electrons, the second 8 electrons, the third appears full with 8 electrons but can expand to a total of 18 Outer shell is called the valence shell and the electrons of the outer shell are called valence electrons

Outermost shell (Valence shell) should not contain more than 8 electrons

Electronic configuration of the first 20 elements in the periodic table

Elements of the periodic table are arranged according to their atomic number Elements of same group of the periodic table contains same number of valence electrons

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Group 1 (Lithium, Sodium, Potassium,) has one valence electron Group 2 (Beryllium, Magnesium, Calcium,) has two valence electrons Group 7 (Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine,) has 7 valence electrons Number of valence electrons gives group number Number of shells filled with electrons gives period number Nobel gases (Inert gases) Group 0 of the periodic table (group 0 ) are very unreactive because their valence level is completely filled by 8 electrons except helium that has 2 electrons only Noble gases are mono-atomic Other elements tends to react to reach the stable electronic configuration of the nearest noble gases

Isotopes Different atoms of same element having same atomic number, but different mass numbers

Isotopes have same number of protons, different number of neutrons Chemical properties of isotopes are similar because isotopes have same number of valence electrons

Isotopes of carbon

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Atomic mass unit (a.m.u) It is 1/12 the mass of carbon-12 isotope Relative atomic mass (Ar) It is the average mass of the isotopes of an element Example: Chlorine consists of two isotopes 17Cl & 17Cl , their relative abandence is 3:1, the relative atomic mass can be calculated as follows: Ar (Cl) =
(3 x 35) + (1 x 37) 3 +1
35 37

(105) + (37) = 35.5 a.m.u. 4

Molecule: group of atoms (similar or different) combined together Examples: H2, N2, O2, HCl, H2O, NH3, H2SO4 Diatomic molecueles of similar atoms

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Element, compound and mixture Element: Pure simple substance which can't be split into simpler forms and consist of same type of atoms Compound: Two or more elements combined chemically in fixed proportions Mixture: two or more elements or compounds uncombined chemicallymixed together in any proportions

Element

Compound

Mixture

Elements can be classified into metals, non-metals and metalloids Property State at room temperature Melting and boiling points Appearance Electric and thermal conductivity Effrect of hammering Metals Solid except mercury (liquid) High except group 1 (alkali metals) Shiny Good Non-metals Solid, gases and only liquid bromine Low except carbon and silicon Dull Poor or dont conduct electricity, except graphite Brittle

Malleable and ductile

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Chemical bonding There are many types of bonding between atoms, two of which are: 1) Covalent bond 2) Ionic bond Ionic bond Formed by transferring one electron or more from a metal atom (Forming a positive ion) to a non-metal atom (forming a negative ion) Ionic bond can be defined as " The electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged ions"

Formation of sodium chloride (table salt)

Sodium atom loses its valence electron to form Na+ ion, the electron is transferred to chlorine atom to form Cl- ion (chloride ion) Electrostatic attraction force takes place between oppositely charged ions The arrangement of valence electrons in sodium chloride can be represented as

Na
(2,8,1) Sodium atom

Cl
(2,8,7)

Na
(2,8) Sodium ion

Cl
(2,8,8)

Chlorine atom

Chloride ion

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Magnesium oxide (MgO) Magnesium atom (12Mg) loses two electrons and changes into a positive magnesium ion (Mg+2). Oxygen atom (8O) gains two electrons and changes into a negative oxide ion (O2-). Opposite charged ions are attracted together by the strong "ionic bonds".

Mg + O
2,8,2 Magnesium atom

2,6

2+

Mg
2,8 Magnesium ion

O
2,8 Oxide ion

2-

Oxygen atom

Same for the formation of calcium oxide

Formation of Calcium Chloride (CaCl2)

Cl
Cl

Ca +

Ca

2+

Cl

Cl

N.B: An ion is an atom or group of atoms carrying positive or negative charges

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Covalent bond A bond formed by sharing a lone pair of electrons or more between two nonmetal atoms A lone pair of electrons is attracted to the nuclei of both shared atoms Single covalent bond One pair of electrons is shared between two non-metal atoms A) Hydrogen molecule (H2) HH Each hydrogen atom share one electron to reach the stable electronic configuration of noble gas helium (2He). B) Chlorine molecule (Cl2) ClCl Each chlorine atom shares one electron to reach the stable electronic configuration of noble gas (18Ar). Each chlorine atom still has three lone pair of electrons C) Water molecule (H2O) HOH Each hydrogen atoms shares one electron to reach the stable electronic configuration of noble gas helium (2He) Oxygen atom shares two electrons to reach the stable electronic configuration of noble gas neon (10Ne) Oxygen atom still has two lone pair of electrons

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D) Ammonia molecule (NH3)

Each hydrogen atoms shares one electron to reach the stable electronic configuration of noble gas helium (2He) Nitrogen atom shares three electrons to reach the stable electronic configuration of noble gas neon (10Ne) Nitrogen atom still has a lone pair of electrons.

E) Methane molecule Caron atom shares four electrons with four hydrogen atoms to reach the stable electronic configuration of nearest noble gas neon (10Ne) Each hydrogen atom shares one electron with the carbon atom to reach the stable electronic configuration of noble gas helium (2He) Double covalent bond Two pairs of electrons are shared between two non-metal atoms A) Oxygen molecule (O2) OO Each oxygen atom shares two electrons to reach the stable electronic configuration of noble gas neon (10Ne)

B) Carbon dioxide (CO2) OCO Each oxygen atom shares two electrons to reach the stable electronic configuration of noble gas neon (10Ne) Carbon atom shares four electrons to reach the stable electronic configuration of noble gas (10Ne)
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C) Ethene (C2H4)

Each carbon atom shares four electrons to reach the stable electronic configuration of noble gas neon (10Ne)

Each hydrogen atom share one electron to reach the stable electronic configuration of noble gas helium (2He). Triple covalent bond Three pairs of electrons are shared between two non-metal atoms A) Nitrogen (N2) NN Each nitrogen atom shares three electrons to reach the stable configuration of noble gas neon (10Ne)

B) Ethyne-Acetylene Each carbon atom shares four electrons to reach the stable electronic configuration of noble gas neon (10Ne) Each hydrogen atom share one electron to reach the stable electronic configuration of noble gas helium (2He).

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Covalent compounds Most are gases and liquids, few are solids with low melting points They dont conduct electricity They are usually less soluble in water They have low melting and boiling points Explain why?

Ionic compounds They are solids with high melting and boiling points solids conduct electricity only when molten or dissolved in water They are usually soluble in water They have high melting and boiling points

Ionic compounds have high melting point and boiling point strong attraction force between oppositely charged ions need alarge amount of energy to overcome Magnesium oxide has higher melting point than sodium chloride Increased charges on magnesium and oxide ions Greater attraction between ions needs a larger amount of energy to overcome Metallic bond Valence electrons of metals like sodium, magnesium, aluminum and iron are so weakly bounded to metal atoms and are free to move throughout the whole metal leaving ions with positive charges

Metallic bond is a lattice of positive metal ions in a sea of delocalized electrons. As number of valence electrons in metal increases, hardness, electric conductivity and melting point of metal also increases.

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Giant structures 1- Giant Ionic structure 2- Giant covalent structure 3- Giant Metallic structure 1) Giant ionic structure Ionic compounds consist of a regular arrangement of +ve and ve ions held together by strong electrostatic attraction force Structure of sodium chloride

2) Giant covalent structure Diamond Diamond is a pure form of carbon Each carbon atom bonds strongly to four other carbon atoms in a tetrahedral arrangement Graphite Graphite is another form of carbon Graphite is a layer structure Within each layer, carbon atom bonds strongly to three other carbon atoms forming hexagonal rings These layers are held together by weak attraction forces

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Buckminsterfullerene (Simple molecular Structure) A new discovered form of carbon A spherical molecule with the formula c60. It resembles a football made of 20 hexagons and 12 pentagons. Each carbon atom in the structure is bonded covalently with 3 others Diamond Colorless transparent crystal which sparkles in light Doesnt conduct electricity A very hard substance Drilling & cutting Jewelery Graphite Dark Grey, shiny solid Conducts electricity A soft material with a slippery feel Lubricant Pencils

Property Appearance Electric conductivity Hardness Use

Structure of silicon (IV) Oxide (Silicon dioxide) Silicon dioxide (SiO2) is a giant covalent compound in which each silicon atom is bonded to four oxygen atom and each oxygen atom is bonded to two silicon atoms in a tetrahedral arrangement Like diamond, silicon dioxide is hard, high melting point and doesnt conduct electricity Explain why? Giant covalent structures have high melting point Many strong covalent bonds Needs a large amount of energy to overcome

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Giant metallic structure A metal structure consists of a regular arrangement (lattice) of positive ions in a sea of electrons The metal is held together by the strong attraction between metal positive ions and the delocalized electrons. Metals are good conductors of electricity because their electrons are free to move throughout the metal structure. Metals are malleable (easily shaped) and ductile (easily pulled into wires) because Layers of metal ions (atoms) can slide over each other

Simple molecular structures Simple covalent molecules like HCl, Cl2, Br2, I2, NH3,CO2 and CH4 have the following properties 1- They are gases, liquids or solids with low melting points Due to the weak attraction force between their molecules Little amount of energy is needed to overcome 2- They are insoluble in water, unless they react with it. 3- They are soluble in organic solvents 4- They dont conduct electricity Bonding Structure Melting point Electrical conductivity Ionic Giant ionic High Conducts electricity when molten or aqueous NaCl, MgO, CaCl2 Covalent Metallic Simple Giant Giant molecular covalent metallic Low Very high Usually high No No Except graphite Yes

Examples

HCl, F2,Cl2, Br2, Diamond, graphite I2, NH3,CO2 and siO2 CH4,H2O,S8,P4, C60,C2H4,C2H5OH

Na, Mg,Ca, Al,Fe,Cu,Zn

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Stoichiometry (Formula, equations and calculations) Chemical formula and naming of compounds A) Ionic compounds Write the positive ion first (Metal ion or ammonium ion) followed by the negative ion (Non-metal ion or polyatomic ion) Positive ions Hydrogen ion Lithium ion Sodium ion Potassium ion Silver ion Ammonium ion Calcium ion Magnesium ion Barium ion Lead (II) ion Copper (II) ion Zinc ion Iron (II) ion Iron (III) ion Aluminum ion Negative ions Hydride ion Fluoride ion Chloride ion Bromide ion Iodide ion Hydroxide ion Nitrite ion Nitrate ion Oxide ion Sulphide ion Sulhpite ion Sulphate ion Thiosulphate ion Carbonate ion Silicate ion Nitride ion Phosphide ion Phosphate ion

H+ Li+ Na+ K+ Ag+ NH4+ Ca2+ Mg2+ Ba2+ Pb2+ Cu2+ Zn2+ Fe2+ Fe3+ Al3+

HFClBrIOHNO2NO3O2S2SO32SO42S2O32CO32SiO32N3P3PO43-

The number of positive charge and negative charges must be balanced to make the total molecule neutral Aluminum oxide Al 3+ O 2Al2O3 MgO Na2CO3

Magnesium oxide Sodium Carbonate

Mg Na

2+ +

22-

CO3

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Examples: Formula Na2CO3 MgSO4 Cu(OH)2 Ca3(PO4)2 NH4Cl Na2S2O3 AgNO3 Name Sodium carbonate Magnesium sulphate Copper(II) hydroxide Calcium phosphate Ammonium chloride Sodium thiosuphate Silver Nitrate Formula KI NaNO3 FeSO4 ZnCO3 BaSO4 Pb(NO3)2 CaSiO3 Name Potassium iodide Sodium nitrate Iron(II) sulphate Zinc carbonate Barium sulphate Lead (II) nitrate Calcium silicate

B) Covalent compound Formula of Compound NH3 H2O CH4 CO CO2 NO NO2 SO2 SO3 HCl Name Ammonia Water Methane Carbon monoxide Carbon dioxide Nitrogen monoxide Nitrogen dioxide Sulphur dioxide Sulphur trioxide Hydrogen chloride

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Chemical equation During a chemical reaction, reactants are converted into products Steps for writing a chemical equation 1- A word equation is written, reactants on the left and products on the right 2- The formulae of reactants and products are written in symbols 3- The equation is balanced 4- State symbol solid (s), liquid (l), gas (g) and aqueous (aq.) is used to indicate the physical state of substance. Example: When hydrogen gas is burnt in air, it forms water vapour. Hydrogen + Oxygen H2 2H2
(g) (g)

Water H2O
(g) (l)

+ O2 + O2

(g) (g)

2H2O

When sodium reacts with chlorine gas, sodium chloride is formed Sodium + Chlorine Na 2Na
(s) (s)

Sodium chloride
(g) (g)

+ Cl2 + Cl2

NaCl

(s) (s)

2NaCl

Magnesium burns in air to form magnesium oxide Magnesium + Oxygen Mg 2Mg

(s) (s)

Magnesium oxide MgO

(s) (s)

+ O2 + O2

(g) (g)

2MgO

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Chemical calculations Calculation of relative formula (Molecular) mass Mr Using the relative atomic mass (Ar) from the periodic table we can calculate the relative formula mass (Mr) Example: Mr of cl2= (2x35.5) = 71 Mr of NaCl = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5 Mr of CaCl2 = 40 + (35.5x2) = 111 Mr of Na2CO3 = (23x2) + 12 + (16x3) = 106 Mr of CO2 = 12 + (16x2) = 44

Mole (unit for measuring amount of a substance) It is the relative atomic mass (Ar) or relative molecular mass (Mr) in grams Example: 1 mole of Na = 23 gm 1 mole of Ca = 40 gm 1 mole of H2O = (1x2) + 16 = 18 gm 1 mole of CaCO3 = 40 + 12 + (3x16) = 100 gm

Examples Calculate the mass of 0.1 mole of water Mass = Number of moles x Mr = 0.1 x 18 = 1.8 gm Chemistry IGCSE Edexcel 2011 - 2012

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Calculate the number of moles of sodium chloride whose mass is 117 gm.

N
Avogadro's number (NA) [6.02 x 1023] It is the number of particles (atoms, molecules, ions and electrons) in one mole of a substance

Example: Calculate the number of atoms in 0.5 mole of sodium Number of atoms = number of moles x NA = 0.5 x 6.02 x1023 = 3.01x1023 atom Calculate the number of moles of calcium carbonate which contains 12.04 x 1023 molecule.

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Example Calculate the number of water molecules in 36 gram

Molar volume of gases 1 mole of any gas occupies a volume of 24 dm3 (24000 cm3 ) at room temperature and pressure (r.t.p)

Example Calculate the volume of 0.5 mole of ammonia Volume = number of moles x 24 = 0.5 x 24 = 12 dm3 Calculate the number of moles of nitrogen in 48 dm3

Determining the formula of simple chemical compounds experimentally Magnesium oxide When a magnesium ribbon is heated strongly in air, it burns very brightly to form white powder magnesium oxide. Magnesium + Oxygen Magnesium oxide

The following data was obtained from experiment Mass of crucible Mass of crucible and magnesium Mass of crucible and magnesium oxide Mass of magnesium used Mass of oxygen which has reacted with magnesium
Chemistry IGCSE Edexcel 2011 - 2012

14.63 g 14.87 g 15.03 g 0.24 g 0.16 g

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Find the formula of magnesium oxide from the experimental data Mass reacting (g) Number of moles Mole ratio Formula Mg 0.24 =0.01 1 O 0.16
=0.01 1

MgO

This is the formula which gives the simplest ratio of atoms present; it is called the Empirical formula Determining the empirical formula of a hydrate Many salts crystallize from their solutions with a number of water molecules bonded to the salt; this is called water of crystallization.

Examples: Hydrated Magnesium sulphate MgSO4.7H2O Hydrated Sodium carbonate Na2CO3.10H2O Finding n in BaCl2.nH2O A sample of hydrated barium chloride is heated in a crucible until no further decrease in mass. The following data was obtained from experiment Mass of crucible 30.00 g Mass of crucible + barium chloride 32.44 g crystals, BaCl2.nH2O Mass of crucible + anhydrous 32.08 g barium chloride, BaCl2 From these experimental data, we can find the value of n Mass of BaCl2 = 32.08 30.00 = 2.08 g Mass of water = 32.44 32.08 = 0.36 g

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Combining mass (g) Number of moles Mole ratio Empirical formula

BaCl2 2.08 =0.01 1 BaCl2.2H2O

H2O 0.36
=0.02 2

Determining Molecular formula from empirical formula If the formula obtained from calculation doesnt exist in nature, then the actual molecular formula will be a multiple of the empirical formula.

To calculate the n: number of empirical formula units

Example An unknown organic compound was found to contain 0.12 g of carbon and 0.02 g of hydrogen and the relative molecular mass (Mr) of the compound is 56. Find the molecular formula of this compound. masses (g) Number of moles Mole ratio Empirical formula C 0.12 =0.01 1 H 0.02
=0.02 2

CH2

Empirical formula mass = 12 + (1 x 2) = 14

Molecular formula of this organic compound is C4H8

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Moles and chemical equations When we write a balanced chemical equation, we are indicating the number of moles of reactants and products involved in the reaction. Example Magnesium + Oxygen 2Mg(s) + O2
2 moles (2 x 24) 48 g 1 mole (2 x 16) 32g

Magnesium oxide 2MgO (s)

2moles 2(24 + 16) 80 g

(g)

We can use the ratio between moles to calculate the mass of products formed and the reactants involved in the reaction. Example Calculate the amount of calcium carbonate produced by thermal decomposition of 50 gm of calcium carbonate. CaCO3
1 mole

CaO + CO2
1 mole 1 mole

Number of moles of calcium oxide = 0.5 mole Mass of CaO formed = number of moles x Mr = 0.5 x 56 = 28 g Percentage yield Many chemical reactions dont produce the same amount of product as that calculated from chemical equations. This is caused because these chemical reactions are reversible.

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The actual yield is the measured mass of product obtained in the experiment. The theoretical yield is the mass calculated from the equation of the reaction. Example: When 1000 g of sulphur dioxide is reacted with excess oxygen, 1225 g of sulphur trioxide is produced. 2SO2 + O2 Calculate the percentage yield. 2SO3

Ratio of SO2:SO3 is 2:2 = 1:1 Number of moles of sulphur trioxide formed = 15.63 mole Theoretical mass of sulphur trioxide produced = 15.63 x 80 = 1250 g

Moles and solutions Concentration of a solution is measured in moles per cubic decimeter (mol dm-3) or grams per cubic decimeter (g dm-3).

Example Calculate the concentration (in mole dm-3 and g dm3) of a solution of sodium hydroxide, NaOH, made by dissolving 10 g of solid sodium hydroxide in water and diluting it to 250 cm3.

250 cm3 = , Concentration = 40 g dm-3

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Example Calculate the mass of potassium hydroxide, KOH, that is needed to prepare 500 cm3 of 2 mol dm-3 solution in water.
Number of = concentration Moles (in mole dm-3) = 1 mole X Volume of solution (in dm3)

Number of moles of KOH = 2 x

Mass of 1 mole of KOH = (1 x 39) + (1 x 16) + (1 x 1) = 56 g

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Electrolysis Electrolysis is the breaking down of a compound using electric current. Electrolysis involves the formation of new substances. Electric current is the flow of electrons or ions. Covalent compounds dont conduct electricity because they dont contain ions. Ionic compounds conduct electricity only when they are molten (melted) or when dissolved in water (aqueous solution). Electrolytes are compounds that conduct electricity when molten or aqueous and breaks down (undergo chemical change) during electrolysis. Non-electrolytes are compounds that dont conduct electricity.

Describe an experiment to distinguish between electrolyte and nonelectrolyte. Setup the following apparatus
Lamp Electric source

Electrodes Active Inert

Electrolyte solution

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| P a g e 36 If the lamp glows, then the solution is electrolyte, if it doesnt glow, then the solution is a non-electrolyte. Electrodes are rods that pass the electric current into and out of the electrolyte. Positive electrode is called the anode, negative electrode is called the cathode. Positive ions (cations) moves to negative ions (anions) moves to anode. cathode,

Explain why ionic compounds conduct electricity only when molten or in solution Because in solid ionic compounds, the ions are not free to move, when they are melted or dissolved in water, ions liberate from crystal and are free to move to conduct electricity. Electrolysis electrodes Pb2+(l) + 2e2Br-(l) PbBr2(l) of molten lead (II) bromide [PbBr2] using inert

Pb(l) (Cathode reaction) Br2(g) + 2e- (Anode reaction) Pb(l) + Br2(g)

Silver/grey Red/Brown

Explain why lead (II) bromide has to be melted for electrolysis to take place Because lead (II) bromide has a giant ionic structure of lead (II) ions and bromide ions packed regularly in a crystal lattice, thus their ions are not free to move. When solid lead (II) bromide melts, ions become free to move, and thus the electrons flow in the external circuit. When a molten ionic compound is electrolyzed, a metal is formed at the negative electrode and a non-metal is formed at the positive electrode

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| P a g e 37 Electrolysis of aqueous solutions 1) Electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride solution (Brine) Water is a weak electrolyte which ionizes according to the following equation H2O H+ + OH-

So in aqueous solution of sodium chloride, we have the ions Na+, H+, Cl-, OH-. For positive ions: Na+ Mg2+ Al3+ H+ Cu2+
More likely to be reduced

For negative ions: SO42- NO3- Cl- Br- I- OHMore likely to be oxidized

At anode, chloride ions lose electrons and are discharged as chlorine gas 2Cl-(aq) Cl2(g) + 2e-

At cathode, hydrogen ions accepts electrons and discharge rather than sodium ion. 2H+
(aq)

+ 2e-

H2(g)

Na+ and OH- remains in the solution, so an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide is formed. Electrolysis of brine (concentrated aqueous solution of sodium chloride) in a diaphragm cell is used to produce chlorine, hydrogen and sodium hydroxide on a large scale. Uses of Chlorine 1) Making bleaches 2) Sterilizing water supplies 3) Making hydrochloric acid Uses of hydrogen 1) fuel 2) Making ammonia Uses of sodium hydroxide 1) Making bleaches 2) Making soap 3) Making Paper

Chemistry IGCSE Edexcel 2011 - 2012

| P a g e 38 Electrolysis of copper (II) sulphate using inert electrodes (graphite or platinum electrodes) The ions present in an aqueous solution of copper (II) sulphate are Cu2+ SO42- (aq), H+(aq) and OH-(aq) ions. At Anode The anode cannot lose electrons because it is inert. Hydroxide ions (OH-) rather than sulphate ions (SO42-) are discharged. 4OH-(aq) At cathode Copper ions (Cu2+) rather than hydrogen ions (H+) are discharged because copper is below hydrogen in reactivity series. Cu2+(aq) + 2eCu(s) O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e(aq),

The electrolyte changes from blue to colorless because copper (II) sulphate solution turned to dilute sulphuric acid. Electrolysis of copper (II) sulphate using copper electrodes At anode Because the anode is not inert, it loses electrons and copper ions go into the solution. Anode gets smaller Cu(s) At cathode Copper ions rather than hydrogen ions are discharged because they are lower in activity series. Cu2+(aq) + 2eCu(s) Cu2+(aq) + 2e-

The electrolyte remains the same blue color. This is because copper ions removed from the cathode are replaced in solution by copper ions formed at the anode.

Chemistry IGCSE Edexcel 2011 - 2012

| P a g e 39 Electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid using carbon electrodes At cathode Only H+ ion (from acid and water) discharge into hydrogen gas 2H+(aq) + 2eAt anode Hydroxide ion OH- (from water) discharge easier than sulphate ion SO42- from sulphuric acid. 4OH-(aq) O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e
-

H2(g)

For every four moles of electrons that flow around the circuit, one mole of oxygen and two moles of hydrogen are produced Electrolysis calculations The quantity of electricity flowing through an electrolysis cell is measured in coulombs (C). If one ampere (A) is passed for one second, the quantity of electricity is said to be 1 coulomb.

(Coulombs)

(Amperes)

(Seconds)

Faraday is the amount of electricity carried by one mole of electrons (6.02 x 1023 electron) and is equal to 96500 coulomb. 1mole of electron = 96500 coulombs Example Na+(l) + eNa(l)

1 mole of sodium, Na, is produced by the flow of 1 mole of electrons (1 Faraday). Cu2+(aq) + 2eCu(s) 1 mole of copper, Cu, is produced by the flow of 2 moles of electrons (2 Faraday). Chemistry IGCSE Edexcel 2011 - 2012

| P a g e 41 2ClCl2(g) + 2e-

(l)

1 mole of chlorine, Cl2, is produced by the flow of 2 moles of electrons (2 Faraday). Example: Calculate the number of moles of electrons required to deposit 10 g of silver on the surface of a fork during an electroplating process.The cathodic reaction is: Ag+(aq) + eAg(s)

1 mole of electrons 1 mole of electrons ?

1mole of Ag 108 g of Ag 10 g of Ag

Example What is the mass of copper deposited on the cathode during the electrolysis of copper (II) sulphate solution if 0.15 amps flow for the 10 minutes? Electrode equation is: Cu2+(aq) + 2e
-

Cu(s)

2 moles of electrons 2 x 96,000 coulomb 192,000 coulombs 90 coulomb 90 coulombs give

1mole of copper 65 g of copper 65 g of copper ?

Chemistry IGCSE Edexcel 2011 - 2012

| P a g e 41 Example During the electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid using platinum electrodes, hydrogen is released at the cathode and oxygen at the anode. Calculate the volumes of hydrogen and oxygen produced (measured at rtp) if 1.0 amp flows for 20 minutes. The electrode equations are 2H+(aq) + 2e4OH
(aq)

H2(g)
-

2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e

2 moles of electrons 2 x 96500 192,000 coulombs 1200 coulomb 1200 Coulomb will give 4 moles of electrons 4 x 96,000 coulombs 384,000 Coulombs 1200 coulombs 1200 coulombs will produce

1 mole of H2 24,000 cm3 at rtp 24,000 cm3 at rtp ?

1 mole of O2 24,000 cm3 of O2 24,000 cm3 of O2 ?

Therefore, 150 cm3 of hydrogen and 75cm3 of oxygen are produced.

Chemistry IGCSE Edexcel 2011 - 2012

| P a g e 42 Example How long would it take to deposit 0.500 g of silver on the cathode during the electrolysis of silver (I) nitrate solution using a current of 0.25 amp? The cathode equation is: Ag+(aq) + e1 mole of electrons 96,000 Coulombs ? 0.500 g of Ag will need 1 mole of Ag 108 g of Ag 0.500 g of Ag Ag(s)

The time needed to deposit 0.500 g of silver is 1780 seconds.

Chemistry IGCSE Edexcel 2011 - 2012