Lecture 3 - Large and small-signal models

Common-base form of simple Ebers-Moll model for forward active operation Several large signal models exist for the BJT. They are essential to developing analytical models for hand calculations (as shown here) and for more sophisticated models for use in circuit simulators such as SPICE. The Ebers-Moll is one of the earliest, hence simplest models in use.
C IC = IB B IB + E 0.7V IE E B IB IDE = IC/ IE C IC = IS (exp(VBE/VT )-1)

Figure 3.1. Basic DC model

Figure 3.2. Forward active Ebers-Moll model

In the Ebers-Moll model the transistor is modelled as a forward biased ideal diode at the base emitter junction and a constant current source between the collector and the base. Although a BJT is formed from two diodes, the collector-base junction is reverse biased. If the collector base diode was by itself, it would not conduct. However, the close proximity of a reverse biased diode to a forward biased diode yields transistor action, current flow and gain. The CCCS of Fig. 3.1 is replaced by a non-linear voltage controlled current source (VCCS) in Fig 3.2. This models the exponential behaviour of the collector current, and by inference, all other currents in the transistor. IB = IC/, as usual. IDE is the "diode:emitter" current and equals IE. It has been isolated here to emphasise its dependence on IC and the exponential dependence on VBE. is the common base current gain as before. Common-emitter form of simple Ebers-Moll model for forward active operation The common-base configuration is a simple but less often-used configuration for a BJT. It is more usual to work with the common-emitter configuration (Fig. 3.3).
B IB = IC / C

IC = IS (exp(VBE /VT )-1)

IE E

Figure 3.3. The common-emitter Ebers-Moll model. D. R. S. Cumming, University of Glasgow Page 1 of 4

This model retains the basic features of the common-base model - the ideal diode and the constant current source. However, the common circuit node is now the emitter, not the base. The exponential dependence of the circuit currents on VBE is not altered. First order small-signal equivalent circuit In the small-signal equivalent circuit, the non-linear components are removed and replaced with linear equivalents (Fig. 3.4).
ib b vbe e rb gmvbe ic c vce e

Figure 3.4. 1st order common-emitter small signal model for a BJT When in forward bias, a diode has an effective resistance that varies as a function of the forward voltage (VBE). In the small-signal model this is replace with a resistor rb. The nonlinear VCCS in the collector is replaced with a linear VCCS, with a transconductance (voltage to current conversion parameter) of gm. HOWEVER - the VCCS could just as easily be a CCCS with current gain such that ic = ib. We will use both models. These parameters can be calculated from the operating point conditions thus: V For large VBE, I C = I S exp BE V T vBE = VBE + vbe iC = IC + ic By definition: gm = i C v and rb = BE v BE i B IC = V T etc, etc. (and IC = ICQ, etc, etc.)

Define (note that upper case and lower case letters have meaning!):

Therefore: V IS exp BE V VT T i.e. ic = gmvbe gm =

At room temperature (300K) VT = 26 mV, hence gm 39IC. i g 1 1 i C = B = = m rb v BE v BE i.e. rb = /gm. The important results is: D. R. S. Cumming, University of Glasgow Page 2 of 4

Both 1st order small signal parameters can be calculated for any given operating point as long as you know IC and . Numerical Example The following is reproduced from L2 notes: Assume = 100 RB = 10k||10k = 5k0.
VCC = 10V R1 10k IB RC 2k7 Vout
RB = 5k0 IB 10V RC 2k7 IC Vout

VBB = 10V*10k/(10k+10k) = 5V IB = (5-0.7)/(5k+(100+1)*4k3) = 9.8A IC = 100*9.8 = 0.98mA VE = 0.98m*4k3*(101/100) = 4.26V VC = 10-0.98*2k7 = 7.35V VCE = VC-VE = 7.35-4.26 = 3.09V

IC

VBEon R2 10k RE 4k3 IE

VBB = 5V

+ -

VBEon RE 4k3 IE

Figure 2.8. Example circuit and its equivalent. The operating point conditions are therefore ICQ = 0.98 mA IBQ = 9.8 A

VCE = 3.09 V (>> VCEsat)

Using this data, the small-signal parameters are therefore: gm = 39*0.98m = 38.2 mA/V = 38.2 mS, and rb = 100/38.2m = 2k618. Second order small-signal circuit parameters and the hybrid- model There are additional parameters that must be added to the small-signal equivalent circuit to make more accurate predictions of circuit performance.
B Al p n n+ buried layer p substrate E Al n+ C Al

Figure 3.5. Cross section through a planar silicon BJT. Second order effects are very sensitive to the device fabrication process. The planar process was introduced in the 1960's and brought with it, the Early effect which is responsible for output conductance.

D. R. S. Cumming, University of Glasgow

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Output conductance Ideally, IC should be independent of VCE, giving horizontal lines in the linear region. However, this is not the case, and there is a slight slope in the IV characteristic (Fig. 3.6) that varies with IB such that any curve in the linear region of the IV characteristic can be traced back to an Early voltage VA. This is the Early effect, and is due to the parasitic resistance of the collector layer in a BJT. The effect is minimised by placing a heavily doped buried layer underneath the collector. This is necessary, since the collector must be lightly doped for the transistor to have high gain.

IC

VA

VCE

Figure 3.6. Non-ideal collector current characteristic and trace lines to The output conductance of the circuit can be calculated as VCE + | VA | | VA | , since VA >> VCE for most practical circuits. The sign of VA is IC IC normally neglected, and the magnitude bars (||) dropped. ro = Base spreading resistance As can be seen in Fig. 3.6, the base is made of a thin layer that extends underneath the emitter. This thin layer has a relatively high resistance that is largely due to its restricted geometry, and the distance of much of the base from the aluminium contact on the surface. This gives rise to the so-called base spreading resistance.

ib b vbe e

rx b v r gm v

ic c ro vce e

Figure 3.7. The hybrid- model of a BJT. Inclusion of base spreading resistance and the Early effect results in the hybrid- small signal model for the BJT (Fig. 3.7). The resistor rb is replaced by an intrinsic diode resistance r and an extrinsic parasitic resistance rx. The VCCS is controlled by v (NOT the external vbe), and the collector current ic flows into the VCCS and the output resistance ro.

D. R. S. Cumming, University of Glasgow

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