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The processes of runoff, wind, or snow melt caused eroded and transported soil particle on the surface of watershed. Eroded and transported the sediment particles through a river system and then deposited in the reservoirs, lakes or sea. The engineers and geologists used many approaches to determination the erosion rate of watershed rely mainly on empirical approach or field survey. During the 1997 19th Congress of the International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD), the Sedimentation Committee (Basson, 2002) passed a resolution encouraging all member countries to 1-Develop methods for the prediction of the surface erosion rate based on rainfall and soil properties. 2-Develop computer models for the simulation and prediction of reservoir sedimentation processes. Yang et al. (1998) outlined the methods that can be used to meet the goals of the ICOLD resolution. This report describes methods for erosion estimation based on unit stream power and minimum unit stream power theories, and methods for estimation of sediment inflow and distribution in the reservoir, based on empirical and computer model simulation.
through the stream system and enter to reservoir. The amount of this sediment on the sediment yield produced by the upstream watershed and this depends on factors as follows (Strand and Pemberton, 1982):
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Rainfall amount and intensity. Soil type and geologic formation. Ground cover. Land use. Topography.
6. Upland erosion rate, drainage network density, slope, shape, size, and
alignment of channels.
7.
Runoff. Sediment characteristics-grain size, mineralogy, etc. Channel hydraulic characteristics. The empirical approaches for predict of erosion rate based on one of the following methods.
8.
9.
1. 2. 3.
Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) or its modified versions. Sediment yield as a function of drainage area. Sediment yield as a function of drainage characteristics. This approaches developed by using data collected and application of these equation should be limited to areas represented the same area which collected data.
Fig.(1) Topographic-effect graph used to determine LS-factor values for different slope steepness slope length combinations (Wischmcicr and Stnith, 1965).
The cropping management factor (C) various with the crop type and with the stage of crop growth. as shown in table (1). The rainstorm distribution for season in different location influences the amount of erosion over the course of year. The amount of erosion may be reduced by conservation practices such as contouring, strip-cropping and terracing, the ratio of soil loss with given practice to soil loss with straight row farming parallel to the slope is called erosion- control (P). Table(2) provides some suggested values of (P) based on recommendations of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service).
Table (1) Relative erodibilities of several crops for different crop sequences and yield levels at various stages of crop growth (Wischmeier and Smith, 1965)
The equation (1) estimated average value of soil loss amount for typical year and this may be more or less than the average rate this different in result due to many factors affect on soil and does not account for sediment detention due to vegetation, flat areas, or low areas. In the estimation of sediment inflow to a reservoir, the effects of rill, gully, and riverbank erosion and other sources, or erosion and deposition between upland and the reservoir, should also be considered.
The kinetic energy of rainfall calculating by empirical relationship, used in calculating (E) is used in (RUSLE). (3) (4)
Where ke - kinetic energy (ft ton acre-1 in-1) i = rainfall intensity (in h-1). However, it is recommended by Renard et al. (1996) in the RUSLE handbook that the equation determined by Brown and Foster (1987). kem = 0.29[1 - 0.72(e-0.05 im)] ....................................................................(5) Where kem= kinetic energy of rainfall (MJ ha-1 mm-1 of rainfall) im = rainfall intensity (mm h-1) Should be used for all calculations (R) factor. The kinetic energy of an entire storm is multiplied by the maximum 30-minute rainfall intensity I30 for that storm to get the El30. An adjustment factor (Rc) is used to account for the protection from raindrops as a result of ponded water:
... (6)
The present of rock fragments in the soil surface may be reduction in erosion because this rocks act as armoring layer also present it in the soil matricx effect on infiltration rates and hydraulic conductivity, all this effect on correction factor (K), therefore, are accounted for with the KR factor. The rate of reduction in saturated hydraulic conductivity resulting from the presence of rock fragments is given by: (7)
Where: Kb - saturated hydraulic conductivity of the soil with rock fragments, Kf = saturated hydraulic conductivity of the fine fraction of soil, and Rw= percentage by weight of rock fragments > 2 mm. The rock fragment decrease the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the soil which is leading to increase of the soil erosion, the seasonal effects such as freezing, soil texture and soil water also effect on (K) factor. The melt of soil freezing increase the soil erodibility (K) factor because the freeze changing many soil properties such as bulk density, soil structure, hydraulic conductivity, soil strength and aggregate stability. The occurrence of many freeze thaw cycles will tend to increase the (K) factor, while the value of the soil erodibility factor will tend to decrease over the length of the growing season in areas that are not prone to freezing periods. An average annual value of (KR) is estimated from: (8) Where:- Eli - El.3o index at any time (calendar days).
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..(9) Where Ki = soil erodibility factor at any time (ti in calendar days), Kmax - maximum soil erodibility factor at time tmax. Kmin- minimum soil erodibility factor at time tmin. t - length of the frost-free period or growing period. The slope length factor L is derived from plot data that indicate the following relation: ..(10) Where - horizontal projection of the slope length. 72.6 - RUSLE plot length in feet. (11) Where - ratio of rill to interrill erosion. The value of () when the soil is moderately susceptible to rill and interrill erosion is given by: .(12)
Where - slope angle. The parameter (m) in the RUSLE is a function of () (Equation 11). The newly defined (L) factor is combined with the original (S) factor to obtain a new (LSR) factor. Values of (m) are in classes of low moderate, and high, and tables are available in the RUSLE handbook for each of these classes to obtain values for (LSR). Table 2.6 gives an example of the new (LSR) factor values for soils with low rill erosion rates.
Table (3) values of the topographic (LSR) factor for slopes with a low ratio of rill to interrill erosion( Renard et. al., 1996)
The all factors affect on soil loss erosion so the (USLE) becomes. .(13) And the all factor (KR,CR,PR) must be calculated using the (RUSL, 1.06b program).
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.................................................................... (14) Where S - Sediment yield for a single event in tons. Q - Total event runoff volume (ft'). pp= event peak discharge (ft3 s-1). . K, LS, C, and P = USLE parameters (Equation 1). The (MUSLE) can estimate soil loss from a single event, neither it nor the (USLE and RUSLE) can estimate detachment, entrainment, transport, deposition, and redistribution of sediment within the watershed and are of limited application.
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This equation is most commonly used for regression analysis, where (C) is the sediment concentration, Q is the rate of stream flow, and (a , b) are regression coefficients. The relationship between stream flow and suspended sediment concentration can change with grain size, from low flows to high flows, from season to season, and from year to year. For obtain a good result enough measurements of suspended sediment concentration and stream flow are necessary to ensure that the regression equation is applicable over a wide range of stream flow conditions, seasons, and years. Strand (1975) developed sediment yield equations as a function of drainage area based on sediment survey data for Arizona, New Mexico, and California. .................................................................................. (16) Where Qs- sediment yield in ac-ft/mi2/yr Ad - drainage area in mi2. This same approach can be used to develop equations for other regions. If the bedload measurements are not available, Strand and Pemberton (1982) presented guide for estimating the ratio of the bedload to suspended load (table 4) show that.
Table (4) bedload ratio to suspended load
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The energy is dissipated by matieral transport and related with the rate of Govers and Rauws (1986) proposed the relation describe the relationship between stream power and many variables related with sediment movement. .. (18) Figure (2) showed relationship between unit stream power and sediment concentration. Yang's (1973) original unit stream power equation was intended for open channel flows. His dimensionless critical unit stream power required at incipient motion may not be directly applicable to sheet and rill flows. For sheet and rill flows with very shallow depth, Moore and Burch found that the critical unit stream power required at incipient motion can be approximated by a constant: (19)
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Fig.-2- Relationship between sheet and rill flow sediment concentration unit stream power Govers and Rauws (1986)
The Yang(1973) unit stream power equation is a rational method based on rainfall-runoff and unit stream power relationship can developed to replace the empirical (USLE), because this theory can be used to determine the rate of sediment transport in small and large rivers and it is possible use to determine the total rate of sediment yield and transported from watershed from compute the amount the sediment entering a reservoirs.
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- Physically based models, such as the Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) (Nearing et al., 1989), Areal Non-point Source Watershed Environmental Response Simulation (ANSWERS) (Beasley et al., 1980), Chemicals, Runoff, and Erosion from Agricultural Management Systems (CREAMS) (Kinsel, 1980), Kinematic runoff and Erosion model (KINEROS) (Woolhiser et al., 1990), European Soil Erosion Model (EUROSEM) (Morgan et al., 1998), and Systkme Hydrologique Europken Sediment model (SHESED) (Wicks and Bathurst, 1996). - Mixed empirical and physically based models, such as Cascade of Planes in Two Dimensions (CASC2D) (Johnson et al., 2000; Ogden and Julien, 2002), Agricultural Non- Point Source Pollution model (AGNPS) (Young et al., 1989), and Gridded Surface Subsurface Hydrological Analysis model (GSSHA) (Downer, 2002). - GIS and Remote Sensing techniques that utilize one of the previously listed erosion models (Jiirgens and Fander, 1993; Sharma and Singh, 1995; Mitasova et al., 2002). Two dimensional models give more accurate result than one dimensional models, but a little difference between them at predicting total sediment yield (Hong and Mostaghimi 1997). Although the physically based models give a good result , but it needs a lot of the parameters and that not advisable to use a model in watershed area that does not have the requisite data. The most important parameters for process-based models are rainfall parameters (e.g., duration, intensity) and infiltration parameters (e.g., hydraulic conductivity).Poor quality input data can lead to large errors in erosion modeling. Additionally, soil erosion models are built upon the framework of hydrologic models that simulate the rainfall-runoff process.
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Any error that exists in the hydrologic model will be propagated with the error from the soil erosion model. However the error introduced from the simulated runoff is generally much less than the error from the simulation of erosion (Wu et al., 1993). Due to the complexity of the surface erosion process, computer models are needed for the simulation of the process and the estimation of the surface erosion rate. These links below can be found many other soil erosion models.
For describe and evaluate the performance of these models can be return to the reference (Erosion and sedimentation manual).
4.1- Generalized Sediment Transport Model for Alluvial River Simulation (GSTARS).
To simulate and predict the dynamic adjustment of channel and profile in semi-three dimensional manner, use (GSTARS 2.1) model (Yang and Simones, 2000). This model based on stream tube theory conjunction with the theory of minimum energy dissipation rate or its simplified theory of minimum of stream power. Fig.(3) show example to simulate and predict geometry profile and compare with measured data. Also (Yang and Simoes, 2002) is an enhanced version of (GSTARS 2.1) to (GSTARS 3.0) for simulate and predict the sedimentation processes in lakes and reservoirs. Fig. (4) show example compare model result with the observed delta formation (Swamee, 1974) in laboratory flume.
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Fig.-3- Comparison of results produced by GSTARS 2.1 and survey data ( Yang and Simoes, 2000).
Fig.-4- Comparison of experiments with results produced by GSTARS 3.0 ( Yang and Simoes, 2000).
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Also fig.(5) show the bed profile measured and predict by (GSTARS 3.0) for Tarabela Reservoir in Pakistan ( Yang and Simoes, 2001), (GSTARS 3.0) and (GSTARS 2.1) enable us to simulate and predict the profile of river system with all the processes that occurs within the system. For all cases considering that the reservoirs, lakes and wetlands in watershed as a sink for sediments.
Fig. -5- Comparison between measured and simulated bed profiles by GSTARS3.0 for the Tarbela Reservoir in Pakistan (Yang and Simoes, 2001).
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sediment (TMPL) of sediment due to change of land use or other human activities. Fig. (7) Show schematic of this.
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5- Reservoir Sedimentation.
All reservoir formed by dams on natural rivers, due to this the velocity become very low so that the reservoir make as a trap for to deposition of sediment in it this sediment is effect on the reservoir life. Then the useful life of the reservoir might become very short. Therefore should be reducing reservoir sedimentation. There are several methods available for reducing it. These methods depend on the condition of the reservoir.
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1- The reservoir storage capacity (at the normal pool elevation) relative to the mean annual volume of river flow. This is used as an index the reservoir sediment trap efficiency. 2- The average and maximum width of the reservoir relative to the average and maximum width of the upstream river channel. 3- The average and maximum depth of the reservoir relative to the average and maximum depth of the upstream river channel. 4- The purposes for which the dam and reservoir are to be constructed and how the reservoir will be operated (e.g., normally full, frequently drawn down, or normally empty). 5- The reservoir storage capacity relative to the mean annual sediment load of the inflowing rivers. 6- The concentration of contaminants and heavy metals being supplied from the upstream watershed. Churchill (1948) developed dimensionless curve shows the relationship between the percent of incoming sediment passing through the reservoir and sediment index. Also in (1952) Brune proposed an empirical relationship for estimating reservoir trap efficiency these shown in fig.(8). provides a good comparison of the Brune and Churchill methods for computing trap efficiencies using techniques developed by Murthy (1980). Burne method use as a general guide line for large storage or normal ponded reservoirs and Churchill curve for settling basin, small reservoirs, flood retarding structures, semi-dry reservoirs. When the expected sediment accumulative greater than (10%) of the reservoir capacity then should be analyzed the trap efficiency for the additional periods of the reservoir life.
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The estimated sediment inflow to reservoirs is very important to expect the reservoir life (Strand and Pemberton, 1982). The mean annual sediment inflow, the trap efficiency of the reservoir, the ultimate density of the deposited sediment, and the distribution of the sediment within the reservoir all must be considered in the design of the dam. To prevent the loss in the reservoir storage capacity should be added the anticipated sediment deposition volume during the life in the design (Strand and Pemberton, 1982). A 100-year period of economic analysis and sediment accumulation was used for those reservoirs. Fig.(9) shows the effect of sediment on storage capacity of reservoirs. However, the total sediment deposition is used for design purposes to set the sediment elevation at the dam, to determine loss of storage due to sediment in any assigned storage space, and to help determine total storage requirements.
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Fig. -9- Schematic diagram of anticipated sediment deposition (Bureau of Reclamation, 1987).
reservoir operation is one of the most important factors because affect directly on the consolidation or drying out that can occur in the clay fraction of sediments deposited. Reservoirs operating with a constant stage yields the same degree of consolidate. 23-
new sediment deposits will change the density of the old sediment deposits.
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Fig. -10-Sediment distribution from reservoir surveys of Lake Mead (Bureau of Reclamation, 1987)
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1- Empirical Area-Reduction method may be used to estimate the sediment distribution, the method develop from data of (30) reservoirs. This method described by Borland and Miller (1960) with revisions by Lara (1962). In this method sediment distribution depends on. The manner of reservoir operation. Sediment size and shape. Shape of the reservoir. The amount of sediment. The shape of reservoir regard the major criterion for development of empirically derive designs curve for use in distributing sediment. Shown in fig.(12). With equal weight applied to reservoir operation and shape. Weight type distribution is select from table (5) in these cases where chose of two
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types are given depend on the factor is more influential. Only for those cases with two possible type distributions should be chose one size distribution but the materials in most river systems is a mixture of clay, silt and sand therefore the effect of size to be least important Lara (1962) provides the detail on distributing sediment in reservoirs. The appropriate design type curve is selected using the weighting procedure shown in table (5). Studies have shown that a reservoir dose change type with sediment depositions. Once a reservoir has been assigned a type by shape this classification will not change. However it possible that a change in reservoir operation could produce a new weighted type as defined in the same table.
2- The are increment method is suitable to the type (II) design curve and based on the assumption that the area of sediment deposition remain constant (Strand and Pemberton 1982) applied this method on Theodore Roosevelt dam, located on the salt river in Arizona this method used to
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predict the amount of sediment deposit in the future estimate the life of reservoir and distribution of sediment.
To predicting the delta within a reservoirs is complex problem because of more variables are affect such as operation of reservoir, size of sediment and hydraulics characteristic of river and reservoir. (Stand and Pemberton 1982) proposed trail and error method empirical procedure. The method based on the size of the sediment deposit in the delta is greater than (0.062mm), trial and error method used the topographic data and volume computations by average end-area method is used to arrived at final delta location. The delta
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formation can also be determined from computer modeling, due to developed computer technique modeling in the recent decades.
5.5- Minimum Unit Stream Power and Minimum Stream Power Method.
Yang (1971) presented the theory of minimum unit stream power. He supposes that the system is closed and energy dissipated under dynamic equilibrium. .(20) Where. Y - Potential energy per unit weight of water. x Distance. V - Average flow velocity. t - Time. VS - Unit stream power. S Slope.
This value (VS) depends on system condition. Yang (1976) applied the theory on fluvial system also Yang (1976) and Yang and Song (1986) derive the theory of minimum energy dissipation rate from basic principle in fluid mechanic and mathematic then called on it minimum energy dissipation rate. These theories have been applied to solve a wide range of fluvial hydraulic problems.
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