Broadcast Media & Popular Culture ~ Level 1 Term 2

Stardom & Iconic Status

Assignment Title: Research Project ~ Barbie

Contents: Project, Bibliography, Appendix of Images

Project Word Count: 6740

Name: Joanne Lamberti

Student Number: st06002041

Contact E-mail: joannelamberti@hotmail.com

Contact Number: 07809439127

1
I declare that the work in the following assignment is entirely my own unless

otherwise referenced or clearly stated.

Joanne Lamberti

2
Introduction

This project is a detailed analysis of the plastic children’s toy, created by Mattel

named Barbie. It will look at the societal status of the doll throughout the years,

regarding its place within society immediately following creation in 1959 and the

reasoning as to why the doll itself and the ever-changing image are considered

culturally iconic. It will include a variety of images of the doll, which will be

assessed using a range of cultural theories and previously conducted studies

looking into areas such as gender, race and class, followed by an analysis of how

media institutions and fans have contributed to the dolls status. It is intended to

provide an insight into the meanings that the doll encapsulates and what it

‘stands for’ which will possibly providing some form of criteria that the doll fulfils

in order to have been given such a grand status within today’s society.

For the purposes of this project I will continue to refer to the doll as if it were a

real person using 3rd person terms (her, she etc…) I have made this decision, as

throughout the entirety of the analysis, as well as analysing the societal status, I

will present the argument that the ideologies that she represents hold greater

value and meaning than one would expect from a mere personified chunk of

moulded plastic. She is of course given the status of a cultural icon along with

numerous others such as Elvis Presley and Marilyn Monroe, therefore raising her

cultural and theoretical value to that of a real human life.

In order to analyse the image that is known as Barbie, it is primarily important to

become familiar with the main areas under debate within cultural theory that are

3
commonly associated with her. What is an icon? For example, is a question

many cease to ask and merely accept however, there are many significant

images that are socially accepted across a variety of cultures as icons. It is a

concept within Popular Culture that has been, and is likely to continue to be

discussed and debated for many years. It is however, possible to abide by a

vague set of conditions that can be applied to icons collectively. Each icon has

clearly had a global impact that is recognisable to a number of generations and

has become a representation of something other than stardom. Francesco

Alberoni argues that there are three basic conditions that are fulfilled by the

phenomenon, simplified by Richard Dyer as ‘a large scale society, economic

development above subsistence and social mobility’1. These are all applicable to

Barbie, as she is known and ‘sold across 140 countries’2 worldwide, she is clearly

linked to economic Capitalist development and there is always an underlying

ideology linked to her that suggests that anyone can achieve the amount of

success she has done. Mary Rogers summarises what she believes an icon to

be with direct reference to Barbie ‘An icon provides a point of recognition widely

shared with other members of one’s society. It means, in effect, never having to

say ‘Who’s Barbie?’ or ‘I’ve never heard of her.’ Instead, icons become such

because of their versatility, this folds of meaning, adaptability to diverse

individuals’ needs or interests, ultimate ambiguity, and open-ended nature…At

one and the same time it evokes commonality and difference’3.

1
Richard Dyer, Stars, 2nd edition, London UK, British Film Institute, 1998, p. 7.
2
Mary F. Rogers, Barbie Culture, 1st edition, London UK, Sage Publications Ltd, 1999, p.
5.
3
Ibid, p. 2-4.

4
Hegemony is also an important area of study linked to Barbie. Introduced by

Gramsci for instance, it is argued by Branston and Stafford to be a structural

concept ‘suggesting that power is achieved by dominant groups through

successful struggles to persuade subordinate groups that the arrangements are

in their interest’4. This accepted social order is often argued to be perpetuated by

Barbie by many feminist theorists who debate that there are presiding patriarchal

rules according to hegemonic values regarding masculinity and femininity that

are signified throughout her image. In order for this critique to be possible, the

unbalanced gender divide must be maintained. ‘While gender relations could

potentially take an infinite number of forms, in actuality there are some widely

repeated features and considerable historic continuity. The signifiers of ‘woman’

and ‘man’ have sufficient and historical and cross cultural continuity, despite

some variations, to warrant such terms’5. Owing to its structural similarity to

Strauss’ theory of binary oppositions however, (e.g. masculine/feminine); it can

be applied in more than one area of debate in accordance with Barbie.

4
Gill Branston & Roy Stafford, The Media Students Handbook, 2nd edition, London UK,
Routledge an imprint of Taylor & Francis Ltd, 1999, p. 440.
5
Dominic Strinati, An Introduction to Theories of Popular Culture, 1st edition, London UK,
Routledge an imprint of Taylor & Francis Ltd, 1995, p. 181.

5
Section 1 ~ Barbie’s Typical Image

By looking at the first ever Barbie (Fig. 1), it is possible to see how the

associational terms linked with Barbie today were being developed from the very

early stages of her career.

The primarily noticeable factor linked to Barbie’s appearance that has become

known as what Dyer has called ‘Tangible Features’ (addressed further within

section 2) is her face. It is the most commonly identifiable feature of the Barbie

image, possessing many meanings through the use of stereotypically feminine

characteristics. Her eyes are wide, highlighted by long eyelashes further

accompanied by bright red lipstick - all culturally coded as feminine features. Her

face is a palette constructed with the use of Strauss’ Binary Oppositions, with the

common spread of make-up yet a youthful glow and innocently wide eyed look of

a child. Her bright blonde hair could be argued to present Barbie as uncannily

similar to Marilyn Monroe who is also considered to be a cultural icon and in

many ways is argued to be representative of a lot of the same ideologies.

Her legs, slim waistline, large breasts and personality are all additional

characteristics that are said to contribute to her overall image, each being

extremely stereotypical representations of the feminine image. This is

perpetuated by the nail varnish painted on her toes (bright red to match the

colour of her lipstick) along with a black and white striped swimsuit, black heeled

6
sandals and matching accessories to complete the outfit. Each of which clearly

highlights feminine values embedded in the Barbie image.

The later created Babysitter Barbie (Fig. 2) further confirms the feminine

stereotypes in the sense that audiences are aware that her role as a babysitter is

stereotypically that of a female by merely reading a title, without viewing her

image. Again with matching lipstick and nail varnish, the only difference in

physical appearance is the bright blue coloured eyes, arguably implemented by

Mattel in a bid to look more Western and coincide with all of her other identifiably

Western features, in particular her blonde hair (a biological attribute that is

unattainable to those of a non-Western origin). The feminine image is again

enforced by Barbie through the use of an entirely co-ordinated outfit and along

with bows and ribbons. There is also noticeable use of the colour pink, ‘pink

packaging, fabrics, fashion, figure’6 which is of course the trademark colour of the

Barbie ‘power brand’7 and a colour that is considered extremely feminine within

Western society as a whole.

The ideologies and values perpetuated by the first two Barbie’s are encapsulated

by Malibu Barbie (Fig. 3), however this is a particularly important stage within the

development of Barbie’s image due to its ability to become one of the most

famous of all Barbie images yet uphold what Barbie has connoted through the

use of certain props from the very beginning.

6
Mary F. Rogers, Barbie Culture, 1st edition, London UK, Sage Publications Ltd, 1999, p.
14.
7
Ibid. p. 5.

7
Looking at all three of the styles as a whole, there are clearly identifiable trends

that are part of her image construction which Barbie has managed to sustain

even within today’s society. Lack of clothing is common, as Barbie’s outfits often

reveal her legs, shoulder area or both. Her physical appearance is constant also,

as her feet are constantly arched even when she isn’t wearing footwear. A clear

identifier of femininity according to patriarchal rules within society, Barbie is

therefore always ready to wear high heeled, restrictive footwear.

Each of the three Barbie’s analysed clearly perpetuates an image that may be

considered typical of the star, as they have similar connotations whether

analysed alone or as a whole. There are however many alternative views linked

to Barbie as with other icons, which suggest that there are other ideologies

embedded within her image that don’t necessarily abide by the dominant

hegemonic rules within the Western patriarchal society that she exists.

Barbie & Gender

Gender is a concept that is often associated with Barbie in many ways. She is

commonly examined as a perpetuation of feminism, however many post-

feminists argue that she is a positive representation of the female. By analysing

the issues raised by both feminists, post-feminists and those that believe Barbie

is an icon of gay subculture, it may be possible to identify if her image is more

highly adapted to suit one argument more than others.

8
By assessing the images of Barbie previously looked at (Fig. 1, 2 &3), there are

clearly elements that feminists would disagree with. Betty Freidan for instance in

her book The Feminine Mystique (1963) insisted that the ‘highest value and only

commitment for women is the fulfilment of their own femininity… a pattern by

which all women must live or deny their femininity’8. Implying that females should

accept their role as being passive both physically (sexually) and mentally and

allow their maternal instincts to take over. This is applicable in particular to

Babysitter Barbie (Fig. 2) whereby Barbie’s maternal instinct is the main focus

therefore subconsciously encouraging young girls who play with her to adopt a

similar role.

Tuchmann argued a similar point which she entitled the ‘Symbolic Annihilation’9

of women within media. The term is based upon the idea that females are

generally condemned or trivialised within the media as a whole, however

feminists would argue that it is one that suits Barbie’s image because as a whole

Mattel has condemned and trivialised her. Police Officer Barbie has been

stripped of the physical power that a law enforcing action man would be

empowered with for instance, as she is left with no handcuffs or gun (practically

helpless in an American, gun infested society). She is equipped with a dress to

wear to the Best Police Officer awards and is ‘pictured on the box “loving to teach

8
Gill Branston, Cinema and Cultural Modernity, 1st edition, Buckingham UK, Open
University Press, 2000, p. 138.
9
Dominic Strinati, An Introduction to Theories of Popular Culture, 1st edition, London UK,
Routledge an imprint of Taylor & Francis Ltd, 1995, p. 181.

9
safety tips to children”’10. Barbie is unable to enter the realm of ordinary life,

because she is fantastic and her femininity goes ‘way beyond what sociologist

R.W. Connell calls ‘emphasised femininity’’11 as she is never denoted as remotely

masculine.

Femininity according to Tuchmann is the epitome of domesticity and sexual

objectification which would therefore directly apply to Barbie, as she is often

argued to encapsulate all that is feminine. In one study Tuchmann surveyed

between the 50’s and 70’s, regarding the representation of females within

Popular Culture (in particular television), she found ‘women are portrayed as

being ineffectual and more generally women do not appear in the same

professions as men’12. The professions she stated that were stereotypically

undertaken by females and had feminine connotations are all roles that have

been carried out by Barbie over the years; secretary, nurse, boutique owner.

Not only does Tuchmann maintain this view about the representation of gender,

but Mulvey’s later work ‘Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema’, states ‘women

are simultaneously looked at and displayed, with their appearance coded for

looked-at-ness…’13 Mulvey initially debated that this was only applicable to males

and created the term ‘Male Gaze’ however with regards to Barbie, she is
10
Mary F. Rogers, Barbie Culture, 1st edition, London UK, Sage Publications Ltd, 1999,
p. 14.
11
Ibid, p. 14.
12
Dominic Strinati, An Introduction to Theories of Popular Culture, 1st edition, London
UK, Routledge an imprint of Taylor & Francis Ltd, 1995, p. 181.
13
Gill Branston, Cinema and Cultural Modernity, 1st edition, Buckingham UK, Open
University Press, 2000, p. 139.

10
subjected to being looked at by both male and female, young and old. Mulvey

would argue that she is a passive character, and even though her eyes are wide

she is unable to take control of the stare and reverse it. Barbie is quite literally

subjected to being looked at and even objectified as she is also unable to move

for herself, enabling those handling her to do as they please. This lack of self

help could be argued to be reminiscent of a time denoted in films by Alfred

Hitchcock, in the way that females were never able to get out of a car or take a

seat without any form of assistance. He once stated ‘the glamorous woman is the

dignified, passive lady in public, but the whore in the bedroom’. Barbie is

someone that many would relate to this statement, and certainly to his

representations of females through cinema – Barbie is always able to rely on Ken

for any such help desired. Rowbotham summarized that ‘If one accepted that the

creation of a new woman of necessity demands the creation of a new

man’3.clearly implying that for a liberated and empowered representation of

femininity to be constructed there was also a need to for a newly constructed

portrayal of masculinity as they had to work in opposition. This was the exact

case when Mattel produced Barbie, and then provided a Ken to extend the

possible scenario’s for Barbie to carry out, thus exemplifying the hegemonic

value that a female is always in need of a male to be complete and carry out

feminine duties.

Even though many feminists seem to take a stance that Barbie is demeaning in

the way that she complies with the dominant hegemonic values that are

prominent throughout society regarding the way females should look, and act

11
when in public, there is also a prevailing debate that suggests Barbie is a

creation that fulfils every mans desire. The way that she is objectified and shown

to be an ultimate depiction of passivity suggests that she is also sexually passive.

In many ways, she is connoted as both the child and temptress at either end of

the Binary Oppositional scale, much as Marilyn Monroe had been. Regan

believes ‘there is a porno-isation of the culture…in popular culture you will see

females scantily clad, implanted, dressed up like hookers, porn stars and so on

and that is acceptable’14. Many feminists adopt this opinion of Barbie, as it is a

well known fact that her image was based upon that of the German Lilli doll (a

pornographic cartoon targeted at males). Barbie is generally scantily clad, with

an acknowledging statement released by Mattel in the Barbie question and

answer handbook, admits that unless she is wearing a short skirt, Barbie is never

issued with underwear.15

Even though it is the case that many feminists disagree with Barbie’s presence

within society (especially with regards to young children), there are many other

social groups that are accepting and even welcoming of the ideologies they

believe to be associated with Barbie and gender. Post feminists for instance

would adopt an almost polar opposite opinion to that of feminists of Barbie’s

image arguing that she is an empowering and enlightening representation of

females and femininity. They would argue that just the fact that Barbie was able

14
Ariel Levy, Female Chauvinist Pigs: Women and the Rise of Raunch Culture, 1st
Edition, New York USA, Free Press a division of Simon & Schuster Inc, 2005, p. 19.

Erica Rand, Barbie’s Queer Accessories, 3rd edition, USA, Duke University Press,
15

1999, p. 23.

12
to take on roles such as that of a Doctor, Marine Corporal or Cop during the

1980’s and 1990’s is an indication that females are more powerful in the 21st

century. Barbie’s sense of liberated sexuality is also identifiable in her books,

Here’s Barbie (1962) and Barbie’s Hawaiian Holiday (1963) where she is shown

to dominate male characters - In one story, she teaches a male friend how to

behave and act accordingly in school. There is also the phase that Barbie went

through entitled the ‘We Girls Can Do Anything’ considered genuinely

empowering because if Barbie can then of course anyone else can!

Barbie is considered a liberated woman with regards to her separation from

family and children. She is denoted throughout stories and films to have brothers,

sisters and cousins but shortly after her rise to worldwide fame, Barbie’s parents

ceased to get a mention as did her and Kens surnames. Mattel would perhaps

maintain that it releases her from any familial restraints however; Erica Rand

argues that this removal of ties is not only to ensure Barbie is connoted as a

powerful independent female, but the idea of universality encourages one to

produce thoughts about and roles for Barbie to act out rather than being fed

forms of characterisation.

The issues looked at have addressed Barbie as being a heterosexual female that

clearly abides by the patriarchal rules generally accepted by members of society.

Whether she is viewed as a passive and objectified female or empowering and

dominant, her sexuality is commonly accepted as that of the hegemonic norm.

13
Barbie has however grown to become associated with gay subcultures over the

years, as have a number of icons including Elvis and Madonna, and is therefore

considered by some as a gay icon as well as an overall cultural icon. In particular

the fact that her image was conceived by that of the Lilli doll has played a major

role in enhancing her image as that of an overtly sexual object however; there

are scenarios that suggest Barbie may harbour feelings of a homosexual nature.

The Barbie and Midge travel pals case (1963) (Fig. 4) as identified by Erica Rand

denotes homosexual connotation as Barbie and Midge embrace, breasts

touching ‘while Midge touches Barbie’s face and the two look out at us with “don’t

tell mom” slyness’16. She states that there ‘are limits of presumption rather than

intention’17 implying that even if Barbie isn’t intended to connote certain ideas the

audience is free to presume. Some may argue for instance that Barbie and her

friends alike could be considered eunuchs in the way that they are both

physically free from the genital restraints of biologically labelled gender, with

Rogers stating that she ‘symbolises how today’s bodies defy boundaries once

deemed to be constants of nature’18. Barbie could therefore be argued to be a

drag queen as it is possible to merely reduce her to a set of feminine props

because she employs the props stereotypically associated with femininity; make-

up, nail varnish, long hair, high heels etc…

Barbie & Race

16
Ibid, p. 43.
17
Ibid, p. 43.
18
Mary F. Rogers, Barbie Culture, 1st edition, London UK, Sage Publications Ltd, 1999,
p. 112.

14
Along with the generally accepted and often overlooked idea that Barbie is

heterosexual, the fact that she is white tends to be overlooked. Barbie, like Elvis

and Monroe are each considered to perpetuate the dominant Western values

that whiteness is pure and original, with Barbie and Monroe having been

compared to religious icon Mary, mother of Christ. As previously mentioned,

having been derived from the ‘ice-blonde, buxom and pixie nosed Aryan ideal’19

known as Lilli, Barbie possessed identifiably Western features from the

beginning.

It wasn’t until 1980 that the first black Barbie doll was released however, even

today there is a poor representation of ethnic Barbie’s in relation to those that are

white when compared to the actual ratios in society. Mary Rogers notes that

collectors can cover an ‘entire range of Barbie’s without ever having to think

about buying an ethnic doll’20. This could be argued to be due to the fact that

ethnic diversity is still widely unaccepted in the West. A survey carried out in

Colorado (Fig. 5) on 30 adults and 30 children as to whether they thought a white

Barbie or black Barbie were prettier (15 of each group saw them in one outfit and

then the other 15 saw them with the outfits swapper over). The study concluded

that the adults preferred the lavender dress regardless of the Barbie’s skin colour

whereas the children judged the dolls by skin colour with only 6 openly admitting

to liking the black Barbie21.

19
http://www.owlnet.rice.edu/~amylm/Recent_Work/Barbie.htm (date accessed 09/02/07)
20
Mary F. Rogers, Barbie Culture, 1st edition, London UK, Sage Publications Ltd, 1999,
p. 48.
21
http://www.freedomforum.org/templates/document.asp?documentID=13139 (date
accessed 15/03/07)

15
Barbie’s friends in her book Hawaiian Holiday (1963) are quite obviously denoted

as people of colour however there are connotations of the ‘Other’ signified

throughout the text. Rand argues that ‘Barbie appropriates white male privilege’

not only by identifying those that she meets in Hawaii (who are given overtly

‘different names; Apaki and Pablo) as “natives” but also by never actually leaving

Ken for any other male considered ‘outside the race’22. Barbie’s friends are also

quite commonly depicted to have been given white features, with African

American Barbie’s given the same soft straight hair as white Barbie as opposed

to an afro or more coarse Asian hair that is biologically/anatomically correct.

Having been made aware of such a lack of ethnic representation, I carried out a

study on Amazon (Fig. 6) and found that out of 100 books shown following a

search for books under the requirement of ‘Barbie’ that there were only 11 books

that denoted a brunette Barbie and only 1 out of the total that denoted a Barbie

that was black (number 86 out of 100).

By analysing the typical image and associations assigned to Barbie and

comparing them to that of other icons and of oppositional arguments put forth by

theorists, there are noticeable identifiers of ideologies that Barbie appears to

‘stand for’. Her ‘Tangible features’ a term created by Dyer are therefore her

blonde hair, blue eyes, large breasts. These along with other contributing

Erica Rand, Barbie’s Queer Accessories, 3rd edition, USA, Duke University Press,
22

1999, p. 47.

16
features are all symbolic of femininity whether it is a positive or negative

interpretation. Each of these factors in turn enable Barbie to be subjected to the

studies of a variety of cultural topics as it is possible to identify commonalities

that suggest she is a feminist, post-feminist and gay icon.

Section 2 ~ The Media’s Role

By referring back to the criteria established in the introduction, it is possible to

define Barbie in terms of an icon, as being a larger than life star, because there

17
are a clear set of characteristics that define her. Richard Dyer argues that the

characteristics noted in section one are advantageous in terms of the industry

perspective as they enable Barbie to be marketed in a certain way. When

analysing Barbie, it is almost impossible to counter debate this point, because

unlike others that are considered icons, she was quite literally constructed. Mattel

created Barbie and have adapted her over many years to fit what is accepted

socially and morally throughout Western culture. She has become a face of

yesterday; today and tomorrow due to the fact that her image is so malleable the

encoder is able to code and re-code the connotations signified through her ever-

changing image. The underlying ideological stance regarding hegemony however

remains prevalent throughout.

By analysing a range of promotional material it becomes apparent that the same

values perpetuated by her typical image re-occur. The issue of race is a

noticeable one, not only is there a lack of ethnic representation within Barbie

literature (Fig. 6) but also in the advertising of endorsed products.

Barbie & Branding: Mac Make-Up

The MAC make-up advert (Fig. 7) reinforces the arguments that Barbie as a

brand has yet to embrace the differing physical attributes of the ‘Other’. On the

outer side of the handout, the images are shown to be split into two with a

Western Barbie and Asian Barbie on the one side and a Western and African

Barbie on the opposite. The dominant colour employed across throughout the

18
entire advertisement is pink clearly a signifier of the Barbie brand as a whole

however, there are other signifiers that have less simple connotation. Each

person’s hair for example is shown to be of the same texture, even though the

African Barbie has slightly curly hair it is still noticeable straight. Their skin

colours are the most unrealistically representative of each race denoted however,

as they are all denoted to be many shades lighter than the real women they

represent. It could be argued that they aren’t intended to represent how women

can look like Barbie but more how they can become exact replicas of her.

Western Barbie is extremely pale, with Asian and African Barbie almost identical

shades of light brown. The personal needs of each are also overlooked (the

opposite side showing one range of colours which are arguably best suited for

white skin), with Western Barbie wearing an entire range of pink shades and the

other two with identical pink and greens (a colour that holds many exotic

connotations) possibly signifying their cultural and social as well as physical

separation. As a whole, White Barbie overpowers the shot by taking up a greater

amount of room and being given greater central focus due to the brightness of

her hair and fair skin. Her general colour is also anchored into the whiteness of

Mac’s brand logo.

The text on the opposite side of the handout implies something rather different

about Barbie however, directly addressing the fact that she is an all round icon.

The advert personifies Barbie yet additionally states ‘colour created for all you

living dolls’ It appears to position its appeal based upon oppositional

19
contradictions just as Barbie’s status as an icon is built upon polar opposite

beliefs together creating a schizophrenic image. There is also a play on words

with the statement ‘get dolled up’ which uses modern colloquialism to refer to

getting dressed up to go out of an evening an also the Barbie doll and an image

of femininity perpetuated by her constant use of make-up that is almost 60 years

old. By re-release and a constant flow of new areas for Barbie to infuse, Barbie is

made identifiable to further generations. Feminist theorist, Wolf sees the beauty

industry as ‘an industry regarding women as unfinished, so that one feels

compelled to nip and tuck and inject silicone to achieve perfectibility and retain

the feminine image’23. Barbie is often accused of encouraging such adaptations

of the female body due to the promotion of such aesthetically pleasing physical

perfection.

Barbie & Capitalism

Barbie is a character that is argued to overtly encourage conformity and stability

of the Capitalist system, through the way Mattel encourages endorsements from

many of America’s largest companies including Coca-cola and McDonalds.

Barbie, along with Elvis is accused of being infused with notions of ‘false needs’

according to many who employ a Marxist approach to her image, as she is

thought to fool her audiences to aspire to Capitalist values. Adorno stated that

‘the total effect of the culture industry is one of anti enlightenment… that is the

progressive technical domination becomes mass deception… it impedes the

23
Imelda Whelehan, Modern Feminist Thought: From Second Wave to Post-Feminism,
1st edition, Edinburgh UK, Edinburgh University Press, 1995, p. 217.

20
development of autonomous individuals who judge and decide consciously for

themselves.’24 This structural argument suggests that the promotional branding of

Barbie and her links to a range of other well known brands has a direct effect on

audiences, directly effecting the needs they feel for a number of commodities –

otherwise known as the Marxist term ‘commodity fetishism’.

Barbie arrived at just the right time to become associated with the idea of

commodity fetishism according to Rogers, who states that the 60’s and 70’s were

a time when ‘teenagers were steered away from non-commercial past-times’25

highlighting the encouragement from industries for younger generations to spend

their disposable income on commercial products such as Barbie. This was the

beginning of industry awareness of younger target audiences, perfect for Mattel

who universally target people of all ages who want to play and even collect

Barbie. It is for this reason that the industry played an extraordinarily large part in

constructing the image that is Barbie which has continued to appeal to the

fetishes of Western society and a range of other cultures infused with Capitalist

values. Many people excuse their obsessive buying of all things Barbie as well as

commodities in general as a way of materially displaying their monetary status

within society, unfortunately many are unaware of the fact that actions as such

are a mere signification of a way of life dominated by Capitalism.

24
Dominic Strinati, An Introduction to Theories of Popular Culture, 1st edition, London
UK, Routledge an imprint of Taylor & Francis Ltd, 1995, p. 54.
25
Mary F. Rogers, Barbie Culture, London UK, Sage Publications Ltd, 1999, p. 70.

21
Francesco Alberoni argues however, that stars are a group of people ‘whose

institutional power is very limited or non-existent, but whose doings and way of

life arouse a considerable and sometimes even maximum degree of interest’26.

His opinion is that the stars and icons often have no part in the perpetuation of

Capitalist values but by simply existing as objects within a Capitalist institution

there is no way of separating the two, therefore indicating that there is almost an

impossibility that icons will ever challenge the hegemonic, Capitalist values that

they are advertising. With an unfortunate lack of publicity and personal input from

Barbie, it is quite safe to say she has absolutely no clue as to what it is she is an

encapsulation of, she is quite literally an airhead!

Barbie & Authenticity

‘When a product-commodity becomes a brand, its use value is supplemented by

a number of further associations…so strong that they elevate to the … pinnacle

of quality in relation to such commodities’27. Barbie is argued to be the original

doll that deviated from those primarily created for cot play and mothering. Mattel

cease to provide an actual age for her by merely stating her brand age within the

Barbie handbook, but the activities she carries out and her physical shape

suggest she is in her late teens. The fact that she is a doll older than many who

play with her signify the reasoning as to why many young girls look up to her and

possibly why she became so popular. Popularity connotes a positive formula

according to Marxists, ‘products which are tailored for the consumption by

26
Richard Dyer, Stars, 2nd edition, London UK, British Film Institute, 1998, p. 1.
27
Marcel Danesi, Brands, 1st edition, New York USA, Taylor & Francis, 2006, p. 3.

22
masses…is manufactured more or less according to plan…similar in structure’28.

Adorno stated that once a successful formula was created, it would be re-used;

reducing its value, this he believed was the formula for the overall construction of

low art - Popular Culture. The construction of Barbie’s British counterpart Cindy

(Fig. 8) however, seemed to elevate Barbie’s worldly status. As with other icons

such as Monroe, when there are examples of an image revisited or identically

copied (e.g. Madonna in Material Girl or even Barbie as Monroe), it increases to

awareness of the original making them more authentic each time. Barbie seems

to attract publicity even when she isn’t directly a part of it as she has even had

songs, poems and books written about her typical image. Some that dislike her

fail to realise that even the negatively published statements are all part of good

publicity.

Section 3 ~ The Audience’s Role

It is not just the media industries that create an icon; it can be argued that the

fans (decoders) play just as big a part in enhancing the fame. For this reason, it

Dominic Strinati, An Introduction to Theories of Popular Culture, 1st edition, London

28

UK, Routledge an imprint of Taylor & Francis Ltd, 1995, p. 63.

23
is found that icons hold a much larger fan base than a celebrity for instance, as

an icon is able to target audiences on a more significant level, sometimes without

even realising it. Media industries for instance can never guarantee that

audiences will read and fully accept the preferred meaning within the text, as

looked at in section one with the differing theoretical perspectives. This section

looks at who Barbie’s fans are why they like/dislike her and the theoretical

perspectives linked to fandom.

Barbie Fans: Who?

It is possible to separate those who admit to being fans of Barbie into two major

categories; those who play with her and those who collect her. For many reasons

these actions may occur, however it is possible to argue that due to the fact that

icons reach such a widespread range of people, some are perhaps unlikely to

admit to the influence an icon has had.

By primarily assessing those who play with Barbie, it is somewhat difficult to

obtain information from them as many are children under the age of ten. They do

however play a major role in the construction of Barbie as Mattel is a company

that takes pride in carrying out consumer surveys. They also openly contact

‘Ernest Dichter, a psychologist often consulted by the toy industry who watches

girls play with Barbie’29 implying that the behaviour of young girls towards Barbie

has a great effect during production. First hand ‘participant observation is guised

Erica Rand, Barbie’s Queer Accessories, 3rd edition, USA, Duke University Press,
29

1999, p. 44.

24
under the premise of ethnographic study’30 there are many problems that occur

as part of this style of study however, as at its weakest, in the form of a

questionnaire, fans are directed by the question and intention of the study,

whereas if a researcher integrates him/herself with the fans in order to become

part of the audience, they often write self consciously as fans.

Not only are the needs and wants of younger fans tended to, but collectors are

too, if not more. Many collectors create personal websites whereby they are able

to meet and contact others in order to show off, buy and sell Barbie’s. There is

also a Barbie Bazaar magazine that has ‘over 20,000 members in 25 countries’31

and the internet based Barbie Fan Club (BFC) where members have privileged

rights to limited edition dolls and clothing. This could be argued to promote a

hierarchy of fandom whereby those that possess more or are members of more

clubs are considered more authentic fans than those that are just beginning to

collect or have little money to join such lavishly expensive fan clubs.

Along with the entire range of other cultural icons, there are both fans that love

and hate them and feel the need to tell the world. A study carried out at Bath

University suggests that not only do young girls like to play with Barbie but, ‘the

icon of girlhood fantasy play, is routinely tortured by children. The methods of

mutilation are varied and creative, ranging from scalping to decapitation, burning,

breaking and even microwaving - revealed as part of an in-depth look by

30
Nick Lacey, Media Institutions and Audiences, 1st edition, Hampshire UK, Palgrave,
2002, p. 174.
31
Mary F. Rogers, Barbie Culture, London UK, Sage Publications Ltd, 1999, p. 5.

25
psychologists and management academics into the role of brands among 7 to

11-year-old schoolchildren. No other toy or brand name provoked such a

negative response’32. This is not the only observation of such Barbie mutilation

however, as there are many websites that imply it is a hobby to some. The

actions carried out by fans, known as ‘fan behaviour’ suggest that whether one

may like or dislike the icon, she is certainly a means for expressing ones

emotions.

Fan Art

Fan art is a common way for people to express their opinion of an icon, often

filled with explicit ideologies they believe the icon ‘stands for’. Anorexic Barbie

(Fig. 9), an image denoting her in a bikini with the usual accessories (heels, bag,

jewellery and sunglasses) denotes a diversely different physical image. Her face

is drawn, with her ribs and knee bones protruding through her skin, clearly

signifying the extreme stage of anorexia, one observer states ‘this is crazy but

somewhat true…but some girls may idolize it’. Another image denoted Ken in a

dress entitled Transgender Barbie a signification of the status they hold within

gay subcultures.

Other forms of fan art hold greater political meaning rather than merely

commenting on how they feel about the icon itself. Artist Simon Tsyzko created

Suicide bomber Barbie (Fig. 10) fully equipped with bomb belt and matching

32
recycling.http://www.zymoglyphic.org/blog/labels/Museum%20objects%20and%20colle
ctions.html (date accessed 05/02/2007)

26
handbag in a bid to make his opinion of the war, a particularly controversial

statement especially following September 11th. Another controversial form of fan

art is that of body modification. Ironically, American, Cindy Jackson decided to

spend thousands of dollars on plastic surgery to become as much like Barbie as

humanly possible. She said "This is the ultimate feminist statement. I refuse to let

nature decide my fate just because I missed out on the genetic lottery." Perhaps

some would argue that she has simply become a victim of everything Barbie has

grown to encapsulate.

Erica Rand openly accepts the role audiences play in the creation and production

of the Barbie image by claiming that we are all accessories to her world. She

states that ‘Barbie has acquired many new adult accessories in recent years’33 in

the form of artists, people who play Barbie, collectors, those who play with her

etc… Her argument appears to signify that each person with any sort of opinion

about Barbie that feels the need to express it is a mere advertising accessory to

Barbie’s world.

Audience Theories

Erica Rand, Barbie’s Queer Accessories, 3rd edition, USA, Duke University Press,
33

1999, p. 149.

27
Mass culture theory tends to see the audience as a passive, supine,

undemanding, vulnerable, manipulable, exploitable and sentimental mass’34 an

opinion associated with that of Marxism, these characteristics were collated as

part of early audience studies, whereby there was a common acceptance that

there was one mass audience. It was held that audiences were fed information

by media industries (known as the hypodermic needle model or effects model)

and were acting as a direct reaction to the information fed to them. A theory that

would perhaps coincide more fittingly within section 2.

Theories have however moved on, yet theorists tend to take pleasure in

categorising audiences into groups as they were in early structural, essential

stages. The Uses and Gratifications Model for instance, which first became

apparent in the USA in around the 40’s just before the rise of Barbie took note of

the audiences needs by addressing the media as ‘functioning in an ‘open’ way’35

and accepting a level of audience participation greater than before. Audiences

became split into groups that addressed them in terms of how they ‘used’ media

texts for example, Barbie acts as a form of diversion for many that play with her

as she offers a psychological removal from everyday life. Fans are also able to

relate to Barbie, with Cindy Jackson using Barbie as an overt example of

personal identification; she was able to create her own image through Barbie’s.

Barbie as a brand also fulfils the needs for personal relationships identified

34
Dominic Strinati, An Introduction to Theories of Popular Culture, 1st edition, London
UK, Routledge an imprint of Taylor & Francis Ltd, 1995, p. 48.
35
Gill Branston & Roy Stafford, The Media Students Handbook, 3rd edition, London UK,
Routledge an imprint of Taylor & Francis Ltd, 1999, p. 408.

28
through the uses and gratifications model as she provides universal for of

communication for many people across the world through her Barbie Bazaar

fanzine and fan websites.

Erica Rand openly accepts the role audiences play in the creation and production

of the Barbie image by claiming that we are all accessories to her world. She

states that ‘Barbie has acquired many new adult accessories in recent years’36 in

the form of artists, people who play Barbie, collectors, those who play with her

etc… This is reminiscent of the words of Baudrillard who claimed that we no

longer live in a world that is real, as it has become so infiltrated with ‘fake’ images

that the images embedded have become the real. He called this construction a

‘hyper reality’ whereby as decoders, the audience is obsessed with surface

values and image not substance. It could therefore be argued in relation to his

claim that Barbie being a product wholly based on surface not substance has

become the zeitgeist of the past fifty years. She is a representation of all that

Western culture has become obsessed with and will perhaps remain so for many

years to come with an expected rise in the celebration of the fake through

cosmetic reconstruction.

Section 4 ~ Conclusion & Legacy

Erica Rand, Barbie’s Queer Accessories, 3rd edition, USA, Duke University Press,
36

1999, p. 149.

29
This is perhaps the most difficult section of the project to conduct. It is easy to

address the way people overlook many concepts that refer to Barbie yet, much

appears to be overlooked in the process. The main conclusion divulged from the

entire project is that yes, Barbie is certainly an icon of worldly recognisable

proportions though it is more difficult to state exactly what she has come to

encapsulate without writing a book.

Barbie is firstly and foremost a signifier of dominant hegemonic values regarding

femininity throughout Western culture however, as the criteria for being an icon

states (in the introduction), she is to stand for much more. Barbie has

successfully attained the status of a cultural icon due to her ability to be the child

and the fully grown woman, the innocent and the whore, the incapable and the

powerful and so on. She has the power to bring people of the world together and

divide them in their opinions of her and she has maintained this through the

ability to constantly resurrect her image. It could be argued to be a blank Post-

modern canvas on which meanings are constructed and re-produced which in

doing so has managed to bridge the gap between Modernity and Post-modernity

- with a constant flux of intertextual referencing to the image that is known as

Barbie.

Barbie has illustrated that the role of icons within Popular Culture is not an easy

one, whether the icon is aware of the entirety of the connotations their image

denotes or not. It is a role that withstands much pressure from both the media

30
institutions and the fans themselves, yet it is a role that many would love to

obtain. She provides an introduction that identity isn’t fixed along with other icons

such as Michael Jackson and Madonna for instance in a ‘celebration of the fake’.

Overall, it is perhaps possible to state that Barbie is a role model, if not for the

right reasons, she teaches much of the world that if a doll can touch the hearts

and exasperate the souls of millions, anything is possible.

Appendix

31
S.1 ~ Barbie’s Typical Image

32
Examples of how styles have changed over time but her features have remained
the same.

Fig. 1 ~ Original Barbie (Barbie No. 1) 1959

http://www.floridamuseum.org/downloads/images.html (date accessed 17/02/07)

Fig. 2 ~ Babysitter Barbie 1960’s

http://stylebubble.typepad.com/style_bubble/2006/07/barbie_is_not_j.html (date
accessed 17/02/07)

33
 Fig. 3 ~ Malibu Barbie 1970
http://www.dmcginley.com/Vintage_Fashion_Dolls.htm (date accessed 17/02/07)

S.1 ~ Barbie & Gender

Fig. 4 ~ Barbie & Midge Travel Pals Case,

1963, Jay York, Erica Rand, Barbie’s Queer Accessories, 3rd edition, USA, Duke
University Press, 1999, p. 43.

34
S.1 ~ Barbie & Race

Fig. 5 ~ Western & Asian Barbie

Used as part of a study into audiences reception based on race.
http://www.freedomforum.org/templates/document.asp?documentID=13139 (date
accessed 20/02/07)

35
 Fig. 6 ~ Spot the Black Barbie
An example of the lack of diverse ethnic representation taken from an Amazon
search. The first five in the search denote only white stereotypical Barbie’s. The
only book denoting a black Barbie was number 86 out of the full 100 in the
search findings. http://www.amazon.com/s/ref=nb_ss_gw/102-0514286-
3056123?url=search-alias%3Dstripbooks&field-keywords=barbie (date accessed
05/03/07)

36
S.2 ~ Barbie & Brands

Fig. 7 ~ Barbie & MAC

Taken from Mac Department, Debenhams as part of a summer 2007 promotion.

37
S.2 ~ Barbie & Authenticity

Fig. 8 ~ British Rival Sindy

‘Sindy during the 1990s looked similar to rival Barbie’
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/5346182.stm (date accessed 2/04/07)

S.3 ~ Barbie & Fan Behaviour

Fig. 9 ~ Anorexic Barbie

http://www.wayodd.com/anorexic-barbie/v/4913/ (date
accessed 19/02/07)

38
 Fig. 10 ~ Suicide Bomber Barbie,
Simon Tsyzko, www.theculture.net (date accessed 19/02/07)

39
Bibliography

Books:

•Branston, G, Cinema and Cultural Modernity, 1st edition, Buckingham UK, Open
University Press, 2000, pp. 138-145.

•Branston, G & Stafford, R, The Media Students Handbook, 2nd edition, London
UK, Routledge an imprint of Taylor & Francis Ltd, 1999, p. 440.

•Danesi, M, Brands, 1st edition, New York USA, Taylor & Francis, 2006, pp. 1-10.

•Dyer, R, Stars, 2nd edition, London UK, British Film Institute, 1998, pp. 1-30.

•Lacey, N, Institutions and Audiences, 1st edition, Hampshire UK, Palgrave, 2002,
pp. 170-174.

•Levy, A, Female Chauvinist Pigs: Women and the Rise of Raunch Culture, 1st
Edition, New York USA, Free Press a division of Simon & Schuster Inc, 2005, pp.
16-19.

•Rand, E, Barbie’s Queer Accessories, 3rd edition, USA, Duke University Press,
1999, pp. 1-120.

•Rogers, M F, Barbie Culture, London UK, Sage Publications Ltd, 1999, pp. 1-
169.

•Strinati, D, An Introduction to Theories of Popular Culture, 1st edition, London

UK, Routledge an imprint of Taylor & Francis Ltd, 1995, pp. 100-190.

•Whelehan, I, Modern Feminist Thought: From Second Wave to Post-Feminism,

1st edition, Edinburgh UK, Edinburgh University Press, 1995, pp. 200-217.

Websites:

•www.theculture.net (date accessed 19/02/07)

•http://www.wayodd.com/anorexic-barbie/v/4913/ (date
accessed 19/02/07)

•http://www.amazon.com/s/ref=nb_ss_gw/102-0514286-3056123?url=search-
alias%3Dstripbooks&field-keywords=barbie (date accessed 05/03/07)

•http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/5346182.stm (date accessed 2/04/07)

40
•http://www.dmcginley.com/Vintage_Fashion_Dolls.htm (date accessed 17/02/07)

•http://stylebubble.typepad.com/style_bubble/2006/07/barbie_is_not_j.html (date
accessed 17/02/07)

•http://www.floridamuseum.org/downloads/images.html (date accessed 17/02/07)

•http://www.freedomforum.org/templates/document.asp?documentID=13139
(date accessed 15/03/07)

•http://www.owlnet.rice.edu/~amylm/Recent_Work/Barbie.htm (date accessed

09/02/07)

41
42