Chapter 17: Respiratory System RESPIRATORY EPITHELIUM

-thereby, slowing and increasing turbulence in airflow LAMINA PROPRIA Swell bodies - large venous plexuses -every 20-30mins, one side becomes engorged with blood = distention of conchal mucosa and concomitant decrease in air flow -during this time, most of the air is directed through nasal fossa= allowing engorged resp. Mucosa to recover from dehydration. Rich vascular System (Mucosa) -large vessels form close meshed latticework next to periosteum Conducting portion -conditions inspired air by cleaning, moistening and warming air before entering lungs Structures involved: Vibrissae Rich vasculature (lamina) Ciliate and mucus-sec. Cells of res. Epithelium Numerous mucous and serous cells (Mucosa) Air-nasal fossamucus mucus+serous secretions = moisten incoming air, protect alveoli from dessication

-ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium With 5 cell types: 1. Ciliated columnar cells -most abundant, 300 cilia on its apical surface 2. Goblet cells -abundant in some areas - with granules of mucin glycoprotein 3. Brush cells - columnar cell type, sparsely scattered, less -with microvilli -express some signal transduction like gustatory cells -have afferent (sensory) nerve ending on basal surface chemosensory receptor 4. Small granule cells - difficult to see -possess dense core granules 100-300um -like BC, 3%total- diffuse neuroendocrine system 5. Basal cells -small rounded cells on basement membrane -noe extending into the luminal surface - stem cells that give rise to other cell types **Immotile cilia syndrome - deficiency in Dynein-protein in cilia for movement

External vestibule -most anterior and dilated portion Internal nasal cavity (fossae) Nares(nostrils) -has sweat glands, sebaceous and vibrissae (hairs) that filter out particulate from inspired air Within vestibule- keratinized str.sq. ep. Before enerting nasal fossae- ciliated pseudo. Col.ep. Nasal septum -two cavernous chambers that separate NC Conchae -shelflike projections Respiratory ep.- middle and inferior Olfactory ep.- superior concha -narrow passages- improves conditioning of inspired air by increasing surface are of moist warm res. Ep.

NASAL CAVITIES

SMELL (OLFACTION)

Olfactory epithelium -speczd. Region of mucus membrane covering sup. Conchae, roof of nasal cavity Area: 10 sq.cm -Pseudostratified columnar epithelium 3 cell types: 1. Basal cells - small, spherical or cone-shaped- basal lamina -stem cells for other two types 2. Supporting cells - columnar, broad, cylindrival apexes and narrower bases - microvilli on free surface, sibmerged in fluid layer - junctional complexes - bind supporting cells to adjacent olfactory cells -express abundant ion channels to maintain microenvironment to conductive to olfactory function and survival

Chapter 17: Respiratory System

3. Olfactory neuron -bipolar neurons -nuclei lies between supporting cells and basal cells -dendrite apical and knoblike swelling with 12 basal bodies -nonmotile cilia with defective axonemes but considerable surface are for membrane chemoreceptors - respond to odoriferous substances by generating action potential along basal axons of these neurons which leave the epithelium and unite in lamina propria as very small nerves cribiform plate of ethmoid brain Olfactory nerve 1 LAMINA PROPRIA of Olfactory epithelium -large serous glands glands of Bowman -produce a flow of fluid surrounding olfactory cila -facilitates access of new odoriferous substance - lingual and laryngeal surface Stratified squamous epithelium **laryngeal at variable pts cilated pseudostratified columnar Lamina propria- mixed mucous and serous glands Mucosa (Below epiglottis) -upper vestibular fold (false) respiratory epithelium + num. Seromucous glands -lower vocal fold (true) stratified squamous and parallel elastic fiber (vocal ligament) Striated vocal muscles -regulate tension of each vocal fold and its ligaments

TRACHEA

SINUSES and NASOPHARYNX

Paranasal sinuses -bilateral cavities in Frontal, maxillary, ethmoid and Sphenoid bone -lined with thinner respiratory epithelium -few goblet cells LAMINA PROPRIA - few small glands and is continous with underlying periosteum Ciliated epithelial cells -move mucus produced in th sinus into the nasal passages Nasopharynx -lined with respiratory epithelium -contains medial pharyngeal tonsils -bilateral opening of auditory tube LARYNX -rigid, small air passage -wall is reinforced with: HYALINE CARTILAGE -thyroid, cricoids and inf. Arytenoids ELASTIC CARTILAGE -epiglottis, corniculate and ant. Arytenoids maintains an open airway movement by skeletal muscles paraticipate in sound production during phonation Epiglottis

Mucosa- respiratory epithelium Submucosa 16-20 Hyaline cartilage (C-shaped) that keeps tracheal lumen open Muscularis externa Trachealis muscle - bundle of smooth muscle that bridges the open ends (posterior) against esophagus Adventitia- surrounds entire trachea Trachealis-relaxes- SWALLOWING -facilitae passage of food allowing esophagus ti bulge into tracheal lumen Trachealis-contracts- COUGH REFLEX -narrows tracheal lumen -provides increased velocity of expelled air and better loosening of material in air passage

BRONCHIAL TREE AND LUNG

Primary bronchi-Secondary bronchiTertiary Bronchi- Bronchioles- Terminal Bronchioles- Respiratory Bronchioles Primary Bronchi -enter lungs at hilum with Arteries, Veins and Lynphatic vessels Secondary Bronchi (Lobar) Left-2; Right-3

Chapter 17: Respiratory System

-secrete SURFACTANT components and defensive roles -DR MAX CLARA, 1937 - secreted surfactant -produce enzymes that help break down mucus P450 enzyme system of smooth ER detoxifies harmful compounds -produces secretory components for transfer of IgA in bronchial lumen -lysozyme and other enzymes against bacteria -cytokines that regulate inflammatory responses Scattered neuroendocrine cells produce SEROTONIN and other peptides for control tone of local smooth muscle Neuroepithelial Bodies - groups of similar cells innervated by Autonomic and Sensory fibers and cells appear ad chemosensory receptors monitors O2 levels Epithelial stem cells (basal cells) also present LAMINA PROPRIA - smooth muscle and elastic fibers VAGUS (9) Nerve and Sympathetic Nervous System - controls musculature of bronchi and bronchioles Vagus- decreases diameter Sympathetic- increases diameter

Tertiary Bronchi (Segmental) + smaller branches = Bronchopulmonary segment -facilitates specific surgical resection of diseased lung tissue without affecting nearby healthy tissue -10-12% of each lung with its own connective tissue capsule and blood supply Pulmonary lobe -pyramid-shaped with apex outward -delineated with thin CT septum *adults- thin CT septa is incomplete = poor delineation of lobe

BRONCHI

- branches repeatedly until D=5um MUCOSA - respiratory epithelium (tracheal mucosa) -except for organization of cartilage rings and smooth muscle Cartilage rings - completely encircle lumen but as its D decreases isolated Hyaline cartilage plates -Abundant mucous and serous glands with ducts opeing into the bronchial lumen LAMINA PROPRIA -layer of crisscrossing bundles of spirally arranged smooth muscles -contraction- folded appearance of mucosa -contains elastic fibers and abundant mucous and serous glands -numerous lymphocytes -Lymphatic nodules (branching points) Elastic fibers+ smooth muscle+ MALT = abundant as bronchi smaller and reduced cartilage and CT

RESPIRATORY BRONCHIOLES

BRONCHIOLES

-less than 5 um, 10th gen, of branching Mucosa -NO CARTILAGE, NO GOBLET CELLS -Ciliated pseudostratified epithelium (large) -Ciliated simple columnar/ cuboidal (small and terminal) -Goblet cells disappears with the transition but In Terminal bronchioles: Clara Cells (exocrine bronchiolar cells) -numerous columnar cells that mitotically divide

-serves as regions of transititon between conducting and respiratory portion Mucosa - identical to terminal bronchiole EXCEPT - walls are interrupted by openings to alveoli -lined with CILITAED CUBOIDAL and CLARA CELLS *at the rim of alveolar openings Bronchiolar epithelium becomes continuous with Type 1 alveolar cells Cilated cuboidal -between alveoli and bronchiolar epithelium, cilia may be absent in distal portions Smooth muscles and Elastic CN- beneath epithelium

Chapter 17: Respiratory System

ALVEOLAR DUCTS Distally to bronchioles. Alveolar openings increase - lined with type 1 alveolar cells Lamina propria surrndg rim of alveoli = thin network of smooth muscle which disappears distally at end of alveolar ducts MATRIC OF ELACTIC AND COLLAGEN FIBERS - Only support of duct and its alveoli Alveolar sacs - alveolar ducts open into 2 or more Elasctic and Reticualr fibers -form network encircling rim of atria ,alveolar sac and alveoli -contribute to CT housing network of capillaries around each alveolus ELASTIC- enable alveoli to expand RETICULAR- supports prevents overdistention and damage to delicate capillaries and thin alveolar septa ALVEOLI -saclike evaginations of respiratory bronchioles (200micrometer in D) -responsible for spongy structure of lungs -resemble small pockets that are open in one side (honeycombs of beehive) SIMPLE SQUAMOUS epithelium for diffusion -alveolar walls Interalveolar septum - wall that lies between 2 alveoli -contain cells and ECM of CT (elastic and reticular fibers-vascularized with richest capillary network in the body Respiratory Membrane or Blood-air-Barrier: -0.1-1.5 um thick 1. Surface lining and cytoplasm of alveolar cells 2. Fused basal lamina of closely apposed alveolar cellas and capillary endothelial 3. Cytoplasm of endothelial cells -macrophages and leukocytes can be seen in interstitial of septum BASAL LAMINA FUSED - capillary endothelial + epithelial (alveolar) cell Pores (10-15um D) -septum and connect neighbouring alveoli opening to bronchioles -equalize air pressure in the alveoli -promote collateral circulation of air when a bronchiole is obstructed Carbonic anhydrase -enzyme that catalyzes liberation of CO2 from H2CO3 in ERYTHROCYTES SURFACE AREA for GAS EXCHANGE- 140 sq.m. Capillary endothelial cells -extremely thin -can be confused with Type 1 alveolar cells -continuous and not fenestrated -clustering of nuclei and organelles allows remaining areas of cell to become extremely thin, increasing efficiency of gas exchange - CYTOPLASM contains PINOCYTIC VESICLES Alveolar cell types: Type 1 (pneumatocye/ squamous alveolar cells) -Provide a barrier of minimal thickness readily permeable to gases - extremely attenuated that line alveolar surfaces -covers 97% and so thin Pinocytotic vesicles -play a role in the turnover of surfactant and removal of small particulate contaminants from outer surface -desmosomes -occluding junctions -prevent leakage of tissue fluid in alveolar air space Type II pneumatocytes -interspersed among type 1 -rounded cells that occur in groups of 3-4 along alveolar surface at pints where alveolar walls unite -rest on basement membrane and part of E -divide by mitosis to replace own population -exhibit vesicular or foamy cytoplasm caused by LAMELLAR BODIES -contain concentric or parallel lamellae limited by unit membrane -contain phospholipids, glycosaminoglycans (GAGS) and proteins synthesized at apical surface -gives rise to PULMONARY SURFACTANT

Chapter 17: Respiratory System

-material that spreads over alveolar surfaces providing an extracellular coating that lowers SURFACE TENSION -contains aqueous hypophase covered by monomolecular phospholipid film -dipalmitoyl phosphatidyl-choline -phosphatidyl-glycerol -without this, alveoli would collapse during expiration *fetal devl- appears in last wks of gestation as lamellar bodies type II cells -not static and constantly turnedover -lipoproteins are gradually removed by pinocytosis MEDICAL APPLICATION Respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) -life-threatening disorder of lungs in newborn -deficiency in surfactants ALVEOLAR MACROPHAGES (dust cells) -alveoli and IA septum -tens of mill of monocytes migrate daily from the microvasculature into the lung tissue to phagocytose RBC lost from damaged capillaries and air-borne particulate matter Hemosiderin -complexed iron from erythrocytes FATE of filled macrophages: 1.most migrate into bronchioles- move up the mucociliary escalator for removal in pharynx 2. others exit the lungs in LYMPHATIC DRAINAGE 3. some remain in IA septa CT for years Bronchoalveolar fluid -bronchial mucus + alveolar lining fluid -aids in removal of particulate of inspired air -lytic enzymes derived from Clara cells, type2, alveolar macrophages (Lysozyme, collagenase, B-glucuronidase) REGENERATION in ALVEOLAR LINING Inhalation of toxic gases- can kill type I and typeII cells lining pulmonary alveoli 1st cell death - increased mitotic avtivity in remaining typeII cells progeny of which become both cell types Normal turnover rate of type II cells -1% per day continuous renewal of both alveolar cells -increase toxic stress, Clara cells divide and give rise to alveolar cells PULMONARY VASCULATURE AND NERVES