Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 10 (2003) 175–179

www.elsevier.com/locate/ultsonch

Sonochemistry and sonoprocessing: the link, the trends

and (probably) the future
Timothy J. Mason *

Sonochemistry Centre, School of Science and the Environment, Coventry University, Priory Street, Coventry CV1 5FB, UK

Received 26 October 2002; accepted 16 January 2003

Abstract

Traditionally the community of scientists involved with ultrasound has been divided broadly into those who use it as a mea-
surement device with no effect on the medium (high frequency low power ultrasound e.g. non-destructive testing) and those who use
it to produce physical or chemical effects in a medium (higher power low frequency ultrasound e.g. sonochemistry). Divisions also
exist within the broad spectrum of those involved with the latter. In the early days of sonochemistry this did not prove to be a major
problem, the subject was new and the field was expanding within the chemistry community. However at a point some years ago
Jean-Louis Luche made the very important observation that sonochemistry applications could be subdivided into reactions which
were the result of ‘‘true’’ and ‘‘false’’ effects [Synthetic Organic Chemistry by J.-L. Luche, 1998, p. 376]. Essentially these terms
referred to real chemical effects induced by cavitation and those effects that could be mainly ascribed to the mechanical impact of
bubble collapse. These mechanical effects have not held the interest of synthetic chemists as much as the so-called true ones but
nevertheless they are certainly important in areas such as processing. In this paper I will attempt to show that there are links that can
be made across many of the ultrasound ‘‘disciplines’’ and that these links can only serve to strengthen research in the general area of
power ultrasound. If research on power ultrasound is strong then research into ‘‘pure’’ sonochemistry will also flourish and ‘‘false’’
sonochemistry will be born again as a significant research area.

2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction cepted and being used in cleaning and plastic welding

Ultrasound has been used for a variety of purposes
that includes areas as diverse as communication with
animals (dog whistles), the detection of flaws in concrete
buildings, the synthesis of fine chemicals and the treat-
ment of disease.
Despite its wide-ranging uses and exciting develop-
ments the study of ultrasound is a young science. The
oldest application, the exploitation of diagnostic ultra-
sound only dates back to the beginning of the 20th
century and ultrasound in processing is even more recent
in origin. Developments in the latter began in the 1930s
in the years preceding the Second World War when it
was being investigated for a range of technologies in-
cluding emulsification and surface cleaning. By the
1960s the industrial uses of power ultrasound were ac-
*
Tel./fax: +44-1203-838173.
E-mail address: t.mason@coventry.ac.uk (T.J. Mason).
which continue to be major applications. Nowadays
there are research groups and industries with expertise in
a much wider range of activities that involve the uses of
ultrasound in electrochemistry, food technology, chem-
ical synthesis, materials extraction, nanotechnology,
phase separation, surface cleaning, therapy and water
and sewage treatment.
Essentially there are three ‘‘strands’’ in ultrasonics
research:
• Sonochemistry with its origins in chemistry and phys-
ics: this includes synthesis, catalysis and fundamental
studies of cavitation involving mainly academia.
• Power ultrasound with its origins in engineering and
processing: this includes cleaning, welding and mate-
rials processing involving mainly industry.
• Diagnostic ultrasound involving non-destructive test-
ing (NDE) and medical scanning: this attracts major
interest in both academia and industry.

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2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S1350-4177(03)00086-5
176 T.J. Mason / Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 10 (2003) 175–179
It is possible to find links between the strands and
from these cross-overs of interests to develop a
strengthening and expansion of research. One such area
is the use of focussed ultrasound in cancer therapy. Here
the development of transducer arrays links with the
physical effect of power ultrasound and the sonochem-
ically improved performance of chemotherapeutic
agents. A second is in the production and design of
nanoparticles linking sonochemistry with ultrasonic
precipitation and the surface effects of cavitation. A
third example might be in chemical engineering where
the design of a sonochemical reactor would not seem to
be connected with a study of sonoluminescence. Yet
sonoluminescence is an excellent method by which to
identify the ‘‘active zones’’ of cavitation and so could
provide an accurate picture of cavitation activity within
such a reactor. There are many more examples.
In this review I will attempt to show that the many
and varied links that can be made across different ul-
trasonic disciplines will strengthen research in the gen-
eral area of sonochemistry. What is required is that all
of those interested in the promotion of the uses of ul-
trasound, particularly power ultrasound, should become
a little more outward looking i.e. looking beyond the
perceived but unreal barriers of their own disciplines. In
this way a cross-fertilisation of ideas will provide for an
unblinkered and freethinking approach to future devel-
opments in sonochemistry and related areas over the
next five years.
This article reflects my personal views on the subject
and should not be taken to represent the views of the
European Society of Sonochemistry.
2. The trends
Sonochemistry has reached a time for change [1]. The
reported uses of ultrasound in chemistry and processing
are increasing and many different conferences (e.g.
Forum Acusticum, ICA, UI, WCU) now include sono-
chemistry as a theme. Those of us who are members of
the European Society of Sonochemistry are beginning to
ask what would be the best role for ESS in the future. It
certainly has a recognisable place in the history of the
development of sonochemistry but with so much hap-
pening across the field of power ultrasound maybe it is
time for it to take a more pro-active role in the planning
for the future of our subject.
The aim should be to expand the horizons of sono-
chemistry while maintaining chemistry as one of the core
interests [2,3]. In past years many processes involving
ultrasound have not been considered to fit under the
umbrella of sonochemistry but nevertheless these pro-
cesses are of interest to the chemical community. At the
same time sonochemistry also encompasses cavitation
theory, sonoluminescence and free radical production.
These are topics that are more easily aligned with
physics and physical chemistry.
In other words our subject is both pure and applied in
nature. Both aspects are needed for it to flourish but it is
difficult to persuade funding authorities to support
‘‘pure’’ research. At the time of writing the European
Union provides a way forward for sonochemistry to
obtain funding in applied fields. It fits nicely into sev-
eral themes that have been identified in Framework 6
(below) and it must be our job to find ways in which
these can also be used to support pure research:
(1) new production processes and devices,
(2) genomics and biotechnology for health,
(3) nanotechnologies and nanosciences,
(4) food quality and safety.
Let us take each of these themes and explore the po-
sition of sonochemistry within them. It is to be hoped
that by doing this sonochemistry can provide a hub
technology for industries of the future. It is my belief
that within Europe we have some of the most innovative
and influential scientists involved in sonochemistry and
related fields. Consequently this is a good route to fol-
low, as long as we can accommodate the basic research
that is so vital to underpin applied science.
2.1. New production processes and devices
Amongst the possible production processes to which
power ultrasound could contribute are Electrochemistry
and Green Chemistry together with water and sewage
treatment.
2.1.1. Electrochemistry [4,5]
The benefits of using ultrasound in electrochemistry,
sonoelectrochemistry, have been reported for a number
of processes including the electrosynthesis of chemical
compounds and conducting polymers, electroanalysis,
bioelectrochemistry, electroplating, the preparation of
nanomaterials, and electrocatalysis. There is particular
interest in the applications of sonoelectrochemistry in
processes of environmental importance including waste
minimization, the replacement of toxic reagents (in-
cluding mercury electrodes and other toxic system
components), pollutant degradation and water remedi-
ation. In addition it has proved possible to improve the
efficiencies of sensors for the detection of various species
in water and in the atmosphere.
2.1.2. Green chemistry [6]
The parallels between the aims of the two areas of
green chemistry and sonochemistry are striking. Some of
the statements that have been used to identify green
chemistry are remarkably similar to those that have
been used to describe sonochemistry:
 T.J. Mason / Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 10 (2003) 175–179
• use of less hazardous chemicals and environmentally
friendly solvents,
• developing reaction conditions to increase the selec-
tivity of the product,
• minimizing energy consumption of chemical transfor-
mations,
• use of alternative or renewable feedstocks e.g. ex-
tracted plant material.
There has been a recent upsurge of interest in plant
derived chemicals such as drugs, pigments, essential oils,
natural polymers. This is perhaps the most obvious def-
inition of green chemistry since plant material provides a
renewable resource. This has increased need for efficient
extraction methods, amongst which ultrasound has been
shown to be of benefit by significantly reducing extrac-
tion times and increasing maximum extraction yields [7].
The cavitation processes act by enhancing mechanical
fragmentation of biomass (that increases surface areas
and the mass transfer rate) and by improving impreg-
nation with solvent via the increasing permeability of
vegetal materials. Examples of recent work include the
extraction of anti-oxidants from the herb rosemary, of
allelopathic materials from Aristolochia clematitis and
of polysaccharides from plants and yeast.
2.1.3. Water (and sewage) treatment [8]
In water treatment, the destruction/transformation of
organic pollutants and the removal of biological con-
tamination (disinfection) are the prime objectives of
fundamental and applied investigations involving ul-
trasound. The degradation of chemical pollutants is
possible through the effects of cavitation created by ul-
trasound. The reaction rate is a function of the physico-
chemical properties of the target compounds. Volatile
and hydrophobic pollutants are degraded by thermal
reactions in the ‘‘hot spot’’ of the cavitation bubble.
Compounds that are more hydrophilic are decomposed
in the bulk liquid by hydroxyl radicals produced in the
cavitation bubble. Depending on the pollutants to be
eliminated, the combination of advanced oxidation
processes such as ozonation with ultrasound or an in-
tegrated ultrasonic/biological treatment can significantly
improve process efficiency and economy.
In sewage sludge treatment, ultrasound is applied as a
pre-treatment to improve anaerobic sludge stabilisation.
The high shear forces created in the advent of cavitation
can be used to improve process efficiency in sludge
dewatering and to achieve sludge disintegration. Due to
the ultrasonic disruption of putrescible biomass in the
sludge, subsequent microbial degradation occurs up to
four times faster than in the conventional treatment.
Improved water and sewage treatment is of great
importance for the general health of the population of
Europe and has relevance to the safety of food and
drink.
177
2.1.4. Devices––the challenge of scale-up [9]
The design of sonochemical reactors and the ratio-
nale for the scale up of successful laboratory ultrasonic
experiments are clearly goals in sonochemistry and
sonoprocessing. The majority of the advantages of the
uses of ultrasound in the processing of liquids can be
directly related to the physical effects of acoustic cavi-
tation. It is for this reason that an understanding of the
phenomenon of acoustic cavitation and its physical and
chemical effects are crucial to developments in ultra-
sound leading to process optimisation. To a large ex-
tent this involves the reduction in energy consumption
through the design of reactors incorporating appro-
priate ultrasonic emitters and this is mainly the domain
of the engineers and physicists. The modelling of
pressure and cavitation bubble fields are not easy es-
pecially in heterogeneous systems since these give very
complex acoustic fields. Such studies must be under-
pinned with fundamental research into cavitation.
Several methods for modelling can be compared, from
very fundamental models of cavitation bubble dynam-
ics, through an understanding of sonochemical activity
in reactors via measurements of parameters such as
chemi- and sonoluminescence, radical formation and
mass transfer.
2.2. Genomics and biotechnology for health
The use of high frequency ultrasound (around 5
MHz) at low powers in medical imaging can now be
regarded as a routine procedure in diagnostic medicine.
It is also possible however to use ultrasound in therapy
but for such applications it is necessary to generate en-
ough energy to cause temporary or permanent changes
in the tissue. There are a number of applications of such
higher power ultrasound currently in use and these in-
clude physiotherapy, dental descaling and the use of
ultrasonic scalpels. One of the most exciting recent de-
velopments is in the field of cancer treatment where
therapeutic ultrasound shows great promise on three
fronts:
• High-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU). This in-
volves the use of an array of transducers that are
located outside of the body that provide a strong,
small, focus inside targeted at the cancerous tissue.
The concentrated energy can then directly kill the tu-
mour. Clinical trials are well advanced in the use of
HIFU for the treatment of patients with liver and
other soft tissue cancers. It is important to develop
an understanding of the mechanisms of interaction
of ultrasound with tissue––thermal effects and cavita-
tion––in order to optimise HIFU treatments and to
expand the range of cancers that can be treated.
• Sonodynamic therapy (SDT). This involves the use of
ultrasound to increase the uptake of drugs in cells.
178 T.J. Mason / Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 10 (2003) 175–179
SDT is potentially important for the enhancement of
chemotherapy.
• Sonoporation. Involves the temporary increase in
membrane permeability during exposure to ultra-
sound. This is seen as an important method for the
improvement of transdermal delivery of drugs. There
is already some use of the technique in physiotherapy
for delivery of pain relieving drugs.
2.3. Nanotechnologies and nanosciences [10]
There are close to 20 different methods for the fabri-
cation of nanomaterials, these are regarded as the
chemical and engineering materials of the future. What
makes the use of power ultrasound effective and differ-
ent from the other methods of synthesis are properties
such as:
• The ability to produce nanomaterials in the amor-
phous state. This is of particular importance in catal-
ysis, magnetism, coatings etc.
• The shorter reaction times involved e.g. mesoporous
materials (MSPM) can be prepared in hours (it nor-
mally takes days by the sol–gel method).
• The insertion of nanoparticles into the pores of
MSPM without blockage of the pores.
• The syntheses of inorganic fullerenes at room temper-
ature. Other methods normally require high tempera-
tures.
Power ultrasound provides one of the most exciting
ways to synthesise pure and supported nanomaterials
for research and industry.
2.4. Food quality and safety [11]
Within food technology we can find almost all of the
examples of processing to which ultrasound can be
applied. The mechanical effects of ultrasound can ini-
tiate and control crystallisation in fats and sugars.
Foams, which cause general difficulties in process con-
trol e.g. in fermentation, can be destroyed. Food de-
hydration, a method of preserving food, is enhanced
without effecting the product quality. Among other
applications are improvements in the extraction of fla-
vourings, filtration, freezing and heat exchange, mixing
and homogenisation and the precipitation of airborne
powders.
2.5. Chemical and biochemical effects
These have been employed for sterilisation (in con-
junction with heat), effluent treatment, alteration of
enzyme activity and the removal of deposits and bio-
films from the surfaces of equipment.
The last of these––surface cleaning––is applicable to a
range of disciplines and applications including sensors,
filters, substrates, reactors, catalysers and heat ex-
changers. Ultrasonic irradiation has been shown to be
particularly effective for in situ cleaning in conjunction
with chemical treatment and offers the following
advantages: (a) reduced chemical consumption, (b) re-
duction of direct worker contact with hazardous cleaning
chemicals/substances, (c) enhanced cleaning speed,
(d) cleaning consistency––the ultrasonic activity is micro
in nature and reaches all areas of complex configurations
for uniform cleaning, (e) automatic operation and
control savings in energy costs, labour and floor
space.
3. The future
It seems quite clear that within Europe at this time
research funding is targeted at applied topics. It is a
general complaint throughout most of the world that
research funding is decreasing and that funding for
fundamental research is decreasing fastest of all. So we,
as scientists, must find ways in which our applied studies
can also support fundamental work. We are fortunate in
sonochemistry that our individual core interest in cavi-
tation can find so many outlets in chemistry and pro-
cessing. There are many overlaps of interests as I have
tried to illustrate below.
Such cross-disciplinary links require a good grasp of
the fundamentals as well as the underlying theory and so
it is my contention that sonochemistry cannot reach its
full potential without input from both theorists and
applied scientists of many different backgrounds.
We have a broad and exciting field of studies that is
certain to lead to substantial advances. We must re-
member however that our own research, whether it be
specialised or broad based is part of a whole that should
form a team. That team is the European Society of
Sonochemistry.
 T.J. Mason / Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 10 (2003) 175–179
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