Electrical Techniques

1D Resistivity Sounding 2D Resisivity Imaging (Subsuface Imaging) Electrokinetic Sounding (EKS) Time Domain Induced Polarisation (TD-IP) Spectral Induced Polarisation Spontaneous (Self) Potential Geomembrane Leak Location

1D Resistivity Sounding
Outline | Detail | Results |

OUTLINE
Resistivity measurements are made by passing an electrical current into the ground using a pair of electrodes and measuring the resulting potential gradient within the subsurface using a second electrode pair (normally located between the current electrodes). Resistivity sounding involves gradually increasing the spacing between the current/potential electrodes (or both) in order to increase the depth of investigation. The data collected in this way are converted to apparent resistivity readings that can then be modelled in order to provide information on the thickness of individual resistivity units within the subsurface.

DETAIL
Resistivity measurements are made by passing an electrical current into the ground using a pair of electrodes and measuring the resulting potential gradient within the subsurface with a second (potential) electrode pair (normally located between the current electrodes). Resistivity soundings involve gradually increasing the spacing between the current/potential electrodes (or both) in order to increase the depth of investigation. The resistance data collected in this way are converted to apparent

resistivity readings that can then be modelled to provide information on the thickness of individual resistivity layers within the subsurface. Measurements are taken manually using a ground resistivity meter that will normally provide a direct readout of resistance. In order to convert the resistance reading to an apparent ground resistivity, a geometric factor is applied to the data, based on the type of electrode configuration being used. The most common electrode array used in sounding work is the Schlumberger array. In this configuration the two potential electrodes are located at the centre of the spread and are closely spaced compared to the two current electrodes that are also located symmetrically about the centre point. In order to increase the depth of investigation the current electrode separation is increased whilst the potential separation remains constant. In this way only two electrodes require moving compared to all four in other configurations such as the Wenner array illustrated above. The most common problem encountered in resistivity sounding work is high contact resistances at the current electrodes. Whilst this does not directly affect the measured value of resistance, high contact resistances (>2kOhms) will reduce the maximum current that can be applied with the output voltage available from the meter (typically 300-400V). In order to overcome high resistances electrodes can be watered with a saturated salt solution or placed in hole filled with bentonite or clay slurry.

RESULTS
1D Resistivity sounding results are presented as combined plots of measured apparent resistivity against half the current electrode spacing (AB/2) and the modelled resistivity versus depth (righthand image). The dotted lines in the right-hand plot indicate equivalent resistivity models that also satisfy the observed data. Equivalence results from the inability to uniquely resolve the thickness and resistivity of a layer from its resistance value (thickness x resistivity). As long as the resistivity and thickness are changed within limits to give the same product there will be no appreciable variation in the apparent resistivity curve.

2D Resistivity Sounding
Outline | Detail | Results |

OUTLINE
2D Resistivity Imaging uses an array of electrodes (typically 64) connected by multicore cable to provide a linear depth profile, or pseudosection, of the variation in resistivity both along the survey line and with depth. Switching of the current and potential electrode pairs is done automatically using a laptop computer and relay box. The computer initially keeps the spacing between the electrodes fixed and moves the pairs along the line until the last electrode is reached. The spacing is then increased and the process repeated in order to provide an increased depth of investigation.

DETAIL
Measurement of ground resistivity involves passing an electrical current into the ground using a pair of steel or copper electrodes and measuring the resulting potential difference within the subsurface using a second pair of electrodes. These are normally placed between the current electrodes. Unlike conventional resistivity sounding and lateral profiling surveys, 2D resistivity imaging is a fully automated technique that uses a linear array of up to 64 electrodes connected by multicore cable. The current and potential electrode pairs are switched automatically using a laptop computer and control module connected to a ground resistivity meter (that provides the output current). In this way a profile of resistivity against depth ('pseudosection') is built up along the survey line. Data is collected by automatically profiling along the line at different electrode separations. The computer initially keeps the spacing between the electrodes fixed and moves the pairs along the line until the last electrode is reached. The spacing is then increased by the minimum electrode separation (the physical distance between electrodes which remains fixed throughout the survey) and the process repeated in order to provide an increased depth of investigation. The maximum depth of investigation is determined by the spacing between the electrodes and the number of electrodes in the array. For a 64 electrode array with an electrode spacing of 2m this depth is approximately 20m. However, as the spacing between the active electrodes is increased, fewer and fewer points are collected at each 'depth level', until on the final level only 1 reading is acquired (see figure). In order to overcome this the array is 'rolled-along' the line of investigation in order to build up a longer pseudosection. The raw data is initially converted to apparent resistivity values using a geometric factor that is determined by the type of electrode configuration used. Many 2D resistivity imaging surveys are

carried out using the Wenner Array. In this configuration the spacing between each electrodes is identical. Once converted the data is modelled using finite element and least squares inversion methods in order to calculate a true resistivity versus depth pseudosection.

RESULTS
The modelled results are displayed as scaled resistivity-depth pseudosections as illustrated below. Blues represent areas of low resistivity whilst reds are relatively higher. The wedge shape of the plot illustrates the gradual reduction in the amount of data acquired as the current and potential electrode spacings are increased. As discussed earlier this is overcome by gradually rolling the electrode array along the survey line. The interpretation of the resistivity-depth pseudosection is normally provided as a separate diagram beneath the data or overlain directly on top. The results are calibrated using any available borehole or trial pit information together with modelled results from 1D resistivity soundings taken on the 2D resistivity imaging line.

Electrokinetic Sounding (EKS)

Outline Detail | Results |

OUTLINE
EKS provides a measure of the variation in the hydraulic conductivity of saturated subsurface layers with depth by measuring the seismically induced time varying electromagnetic response from saturated aquifers. Readings are taken using two pairs of electrodes aligned symmetrically about the seismic source. This normally consists of a mechanical weight drop or simple hammer and plate. In order to relate hydraulic conductivities to depth additional information on the seismic velocity of subsurface layers and their

conductivities is required.

DETAIL
EKS provides a measure of the variation in the hydraulic conductivity of saturated subsurface layers with depth by measuring the seismically induced time varying electromagnetic response from saturated aquifers. Readings can be taken using two pairs of electrodes aligned symmetrically about the seismic source. This normally consists of a mechanical weight drop or simple hammer and plate. The vertical resolution of a particular sounding is a function of the frequency of the seismic energy that can be generated and propagated as well as the permeability contrast between different regions within a saturated aquifer. In most situations a hammer source is sufficient and azimuthal soundings are carried out at each measurement station to monitor anisotropy. In order to relate hydraulic conductivities to depth additional information on the seismic velocity of subsurface layers and their conductivities is required. These properties are independently derived elsewhere, for example by calibration against boreholes, from TDEM soundings and shallow seismic refraction surveys. The EKS method as discussed above is somewhat controversial with some researchers claiming seismically induced Raleigh-wave signal as the main source of so-called EKS signal.

RESULTS
The results of EKS surveys are presented as 1D plots of the measured EK signal in millivolts versus depth for both the left and right channels (the two channels represent the electrical dipoles either side of the source position). The two signals are used to calculate approximate permeabilities (in metres/day) for saturated bedrock aquifers. This

information is normally displayed next to the EK profile. Where a series of EK soundings have been collected along a profile or a series of profiles, 2D sections of permeability versus depth can be constructed by extrapolating the 1D models (see figure below). If the data is extensive then permeability maps can be produced for individual depth slices.

2D profile across limestone aquifer illustrating high permeability zones (reds) within the rock beneath the valley and an impermeable zone (blue)on the adjacent hill.

Time Domain Induced Polarisation (TD-IP)

Outline | Detail | Results |

OUTLINE
Time domain IP surveys involve measurement of the magnitude of the polarisation voltage (Vp) that results from the injection of pulsed current into the ground. Polarisation voltages primarily result from electrochemical action (ionic exchange) within the pores and pore fluids of the material being energised. The current is applied in the form of a square waveform, with the polarisation voltage being measured over a series of time intervals after each current cut-off using non-polarising electrodes. The measured value of Vp is divided by the steady voltage (observed whilst the current is on) to give the apparent chargeability of the ground. This provides qualitative information on the subsurface geology. TD-IP is primarily used in mineral exploration surveys.

DETAIL
Time domain IP surveys involve measurement of the magnitude of the polarisation voltage (Vp) that results from the injection of pulsed current into the ground. Two main mechanisms are known to be responsible for the IP effect although the exact causes are still poorly understood. The main mechanism in rocks containing metallic conductors is electrode polarisation (overvoltage effect). This results from the build up of charge on either side of conductive grains within the rock matrix as they block the flow of current. On removal of this current the ions responsible for the charge slowly diffuse back into the electrolyte (groundwater) and the potential difference across each grain slowly decays to zero. The second mechanism, membrane polarisation, results from a constriction of the flow of ions around narrow pore channels. It may also result from the excessive build up of positive ions around clay particles. This cloud of positive ions similarly blocks the passage of negative ions through pore spaces within the rock. On removal of the applied voltage the concentration of ions slowly returns to its original state resulting in the observed IP response. In TD-IP the current is usually applied in the form of a square waveform, with the polarisation voltage being measured over a series of short time intervals after each current cut-off, following a short delay of approximately 0.5s. These readings are integrated to give the area under the decay curve, which is used to define Vp. The integral voltage is divided by the observed steady voltage (the voltage due to the applied current plus the polarisation voltage) to give the apparent chargeability (Ma) measured in milliseconds. For a given charging period and integration time the measured apparent chargeability provides qualitative information on the subsurface geology. The polarisation voltage is measured using a pair of non-polarising electrodes similar to those used in spontaneous potential measurements and other IP techniques. Although a variety of current/potential

electrode configurations can be used in IP surveys, as in DC resistivity measurements, the most popular configuration is the dipole-dipole array.

RESULTS
The figure, right, illustrates a 2D resistivity-depth profile across part of the survey area. The dark blue low resistivity zone highlighted in yellow provided a coincident high IP chargeability and represented a known orebody.

Spectral Induced Polarisation

Outline | Detail | Results |

OUTLINE
Spectral IP surveys involve measurement of the magnitude and relative phase of the polarisation voltage that results from the injection of an alternating current into the ground. Polarisation voltages primarily result from electrochemical action (ionic exchange) within the pores and pore fluids of the material being energised. Measurements of the relative phase shift between the transmitted current and the measured signal and the magnitude of the polarisation voltage are taken over a range of different frequencies, typically between 0.125 and 1000Hz. This results in a distinct IP response spectrum or 'dispersion' at each measurement position that can be used to determine various parameters of the subsurface materials such as relaxation time and chargeability. Spectral IP is currently being tested in the detection of hydrocarbon contamination.

DETAIL
Spectral IP surveys involve measurement of the magnitude and relative phase of the polarisation voltage that results from the injection of an alternating current into the ground. The polarisation voltage essentially results from the ability of the ground to store charge (i.e. to become polarised) in a similar manner to an electrical capacitor. Two main mechanisms are known to be responsible for the IP effect although the exact causes are still poorly understood. The main mechanism in rocks containing metallic conductors is electrode polarisation. This results from the build up of charge on either side of conductive grains within the rock matrix as they block the flow of current. On removal of this current the ions responsible for the charge slowly diffuse back into the electrolyte (groundwater) and the potential difference across each grain slowly decays to zero. The second mechanism, membrane polarisation, results from a constriction of the flow of ions around narrow pore channels. It may also result from the excessive build up of positive ions around clay particles. This cloud of positive ions similarly blocks the passage of negative ions through pore spaces within the rock. On removal of the applied voltage the concentration of ions slowly returns to its original state resulting in the observed IP response. In spectral IP surveys measurements of the relative phase shift between the transmitted current and the measured signal, and the magnitude of the polarisation voltage, are taken over a range of different frequencies, typically between 0.125 and 9000Hz. This results in a distinct IP response spectrum or 'dispersion' at each measurement position that can be used to determine various parameters of the subsurface materials such as relaxation time and chargeability. Spectral IP was initially used in trying to determine the type and texture of mineralisation in exploration work but is being increasingly applied to the detection of subsurface contamination. GSI (UK)

Ltd. is currently investigating the use of the technique in hydrocarbon mapping in conjunction with a research project into the use of ground penetrating radar with Shell Research.

RESULTS
The results of spectral IP surveys can be presented in a number of different forms. Raw and decoupled phase and apparent resistivity pseudosections are used to present an overview of the data for initial interpretation and quality checking.

Spontaneous (Self) Potential

Outline | Detail | Results |

OUTLINE
The spontaneous potential (SP) method is a passive electrical technique that involves measurement of naturally occurring ground potentials. The two main sources of SP signals important in environmental and engineering studies are streaming potentials, due to movement of water through porous subsurface materials, and diffusion potentials resulting from differing concentrations of electrolytes within the groundwater. SP measurements are made using a pair of nonpolarising electrodes (normally comprising a copper electrode immersed in a saturated copper sulphate solution) connected to a high impedance voltmeter.

DETAIL
The spontaneous potential (SP) method is a passive electrical technique that involves measurement of naturally occurring ground potentials. These can be generated from a number of different sources although all require the presence of groundwater to some degree. The two main sources of interest in environmental and engineering studies are streaming potentials, due to movement of water through porous subsurface materials, and diffusion potentials resulting from differing concentrations of electrolytes within the groundwater. SP measurements are made using a pair of nonpolarising electrodes. These normally comprising a pot containing a copper electrode immersed in a saturated copper sulphate solution. A porous base to the pot enables the electrolyte to percolate out and make contact with the ground. The potential difference between the two pots is measured using a high impedance voltmeter. Common applications for SP measurements include assessing seepage from dams and embankments, fluid migration pathways in landfills, mapping coal mine fires and for the study of drainage structures, shafts, tunnels and sinkholes.

RESULTS
The results of SP surveys are generally presented as colour-coded grids or single profiles depending on the amount of data collected. Areas of fluid ingress appear as low voltage anomalies in SP data whilst zones where fluid is migrating downwards are generally high. This information can be used to map migration pathways as in the example above which illustrates the results of a SP survey over a closed landfill. Areas of low background voltage are identified as blue whilst highs are red. The two circular blue anomalies near the centre of the site where later found to be due to ingress from a freshwater spring at the base of the landfill. Individual profiles can be used to identify potential

leakage zones within features such as embankments and cut-off trenches.

Geomembrane Leak Location

Outline | Detail | Results |

OUTLINE
Geomembrane leak location surveys (GLLS) involve applying an electrical potential either side of synthetic geomembranes in order to identify holes and tears. These are commonly introduced during emplacement of the protective cover but may also result from later weld failures/puncturing during loading with waste or fluid. The GLL method relies on the extremely high electrical resistivity of liner materials (such as HDPE and PVC) which prevents current flow across the geomembrane except through any holes or tears. This results in anomalous high potential gradients in the protective cover material above any holes which can be mapped over the surface of the geomembrane using a pair of roving potential electrodes.

DETAIL
Geomembrane leak location surveys (GLLS) involve applying an electrical potential either side of synthetic geomembranes in order to identify holes and tears. These are commonly introduced during emplacement of the protective cover but may also result from later weld failures/puncturing during loading with waste of fluid. The GLL method relies on the extremely high electrical resistivity of liner materials (such as HDPE and PVC) which prevents current flow across the geomembrane except through any holes or tears. This results in anomalously high potential gradients in the protective cover material above any holes which can be mapped over the surface of the

liner using a pair of roving potential electrodes (see figure). The high contact resistances (resistance to current flow) encountered at holes means that a highvoltage current source is generally required in order to induce current flow through any holes. The method has been used to successfully locate small holes (<5mm) below up to 1m of protective cover. For cells with a single geomembrane, current is passed across the liner using two current electrodes; one outside the cell (sink) and the other within the protective cover material (injector). In the case of double lined landfills the outer (sink) electrode is placed in the sandwich between the two liners. The sensitivity of the survey is primarily dependent on adequate isolation of the material outside the cell from the protective cover material above. Poor isolation, due to tying in of the geomembrane within anchor trenches, results in high levels of noise around the edges of the cell. Isolation is generally not a problem on double lined cells where the sandwich is effectively isolated from the material above. A typical leak location system for use on soil covered landfills comprises a high voltage (+1000V) current regulated power supply and a pair of mobile non-polarising potential electrodes. Voltages are logged automatically to a digital data logger, enabling immediate download and processing of the data in the field for interpretation and quality control. A modified leak location system is available for use on fluid covered and uncovered liners, such as leachate lagoons and ornamental lakes and cell side slopes where there is no soil cover. Due to the low amplitude of the anomalous signals within water the system has a built in amplifier and provides an audible indication of any anomalies.

RESULTS
The results of geomembrane leak location surveys over soil-covered membranes, are presented as scaled colour-coded grids illustrating the variation in electrical potential across the surface of the cover. These may be overlain by a contour plot of the data (as illustrated here) in order to indicate the strength of each anomaly. Voltage anomalies indicative of holes appear as sub-circular highs (the red areas on the image at right). These are often flanked by a weak low. In addition to the dimensions of the hole in the membrane, the size and shape of a particular anomaly will depend on a number of other critical factors including the strength of the applied current, the position of the current injector electrode and the thickness of the protective cover. Results from leak location surveys over lagoons, or uncovered membranes are monitored on-site by the operator who may flag any anomalies during the survey.
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