Support and Movement

The Human Skeleton

11.1 Bone is made of protein and minerals

1. All living organisms are held in shape, or supported, by special structures called
skeletons.
2. The human skeleton is made by bone and cartilage.
3. Most of the human skeleton is made of bones. Bones are made of minerals such as
calcium phosphate and a small amount of magnesium salts.
4. Bone also contains stretchy fibres of a protein called collagen which gives it
elasticity.
5. Bone is alive. It contains living cells which are supplied with food and o2 by blood
vessels.

11.2 Cartilage contains fewer minerals than bone

1. Cartilage is softer then bone. This is because it does not contain as much mineral
salts as bone.
2. But it contains collagen.
3. Cartilage is found on the end of bones, where they meet one another at a joint.
This allows the bones to move easily as cartilage is smooth.
4. There is also cartilage in the ear and the end of the nose.

11.3 Bones are joined in different ways

1. When two bones meet a joint is made.

2. Sometimes two bones are held firmly in place by fibers, e.g. the bones in the
cranium. In adults the bones are held so tightly, that they cannot move at all.
3. Other joints allow movement. There are called Synovial joints.
4. The two bones are held together by ligaments. They are very strong and can
stretch when the bone moves.
5. If bones rub against each other they would easily be damaged.
6. So the end of bones is covered with a smooth slippery layer of cartilage.
7. Between the bones a small amount of thick fluid called the Synovial fluid, it
lubricates the joint so that the bones can move smoothly.
8. The fluid is made and kept in place by the Synovial membrane.
9. There are two types Synovial joints, depending on the kind of movement the
allow.
a. Hinge joints
b. Ball and socket joint.

11.4 Muscles can contract

 1. Muscles are made of a special type of tissue because they contain cells that can
stretch, that is become shorter.
2. This needs a lot of energy which they get by breaking down glucose in
respiration.
3. Muscles can only stretch and relax. They can’t make themselves longer.
4. The only way this happens is if something pulls on it. Eg. In the arm.

11.5 Two muscles move the forearm.

1. The bicep muscle is attached to the radius and the scapula.

2. It is attached to the bone by strong tendons.
3. When if contracts, it pulls the tendons which pull the ulna and radius up to the
scapula.
4. This is called flexing you arm and therefore the biceps are called the flexor
muscles.
5. But muscles can only pull not push, so another muscle, the triceps are need to
straighten the arm.
6. It attached to the scapula and the ulna.
7. When it contracts the arm extends. Therefore, it is called an extensor muscle.
8. When two pairs of muscles are work together to do opposite movements to the
same set of bones it is called a antagonistic muscle.

Support in Plants

11.6 Xylem form wood and supports plants.

1. Plants have xylem in their roots, stems and leaves.

2. Xylem contains lignin which is very strong and help to support the stem.
3. Trees are supported by the wood in their trunks and branches, which is made
almost entirely of xylem.

11.7 Cell turgor supports herbaceous plants.

1. Parts of the plant that don’t have xylem need another form support.
2. When cells have a lot of water, their contents push outward on the cell wall- they
are turgid.
3. They press against each other and hold the plant firm and upright.
4. This is important in herbaceous plants that don’t have woody stems.