AP Evolution

Evolution of Populations

population is a group of interbreeding individuals of the same species in a common geographic area variation exists between different populations variation exists within a population; individuals within the same population exhibit differences
Microevolution the accumulation of small changes in the gene pool of a population over time population genetics o examines the change in the gene pool of a population gene pool o collection of all the alleles present in a population at any given time o do NOT change due to sexual reproduction alone o defined in terms of allele frequency how often a gamete will contain a certain allele 200 mice 400 alleles, 98 homo dominant for brown (BB), 84 are hetero and 18 are homo recessive (bb) what are the allele frequencies of this population? 98*2 + 84 = 280/400 = 0.7 for B, 0.3 for b (always use decimals for allele frequencies) in any population, with only 2 alleles for a single gene: p+q=1 p = frequency of dominant alleles q = frequency of recessive alleles Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium o suggests that evolution is not a continuous process o possible to have populations that are not evolving o if a population is NOT evolving, the gene pool is at equilibrium (constant) allele frequencies do not change no microevolution o in order to maintain populations at equilibrium (not evolving), the following conditions must be met:

1. no mutations - alleles do not change 2. no gene flow - no migration individuals and their alleles)
do not migrate into or out of the population

3. random mating mating based on chance not selection 4. large population size reduces significance of genetic
drift a. genetic drift= fluctuation in the frequency of alleles due to chance 5. no natural selection o the allele frequencies of a population at equilibrium can be determined using the Hardy-Weinberg equation:

Ortiz, 2011-2012

AP Evolution

p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 p2 = % homozygous dominant individuals q2 = % homozygous recessive individuals 2pq = % heterozygous individuals

example = dominant allele = 0.6 p^2 = 36%; q^2 = 16%, 52% 2pq
I. in reality the conditions for Hardy-Weinberg are rarely met allele frequencies in the gene pool of a population do change from one generation to the next = EVOLUTION

Causes of Microevolution caused by mutations, gene flow, nonrandom mating, genetic drift and natural selection 1. mutations a. are the raw material that evolution acts on b. are the source of all genetic diversity i. without mutations there would be no variation amongst individuals c. may not immediately affect the phenotype d. can be harmful, neutral or beneficial depending on the environment 2. gene flow a. gene migration b. movement of alleles between populations by migration of breeding individuals c. occurs between different populations of the same species d. can increase variation by introducing novel alleles produced by mutations in other populations e. continued gene flow can REDUCE the differences between population preventing speciation 3. nonrandom mating a. random mating involves individuals pairing by CHANCE, not based on any selection process b. nonrandom mating involves individuals pairing based on selection i. interbreeding mating between relatives increases the frequency of recessive abnormalities (humans) ii.sexual selection natural selection for mating success females are more selective because they have a reduced number of gametes so they invest time in their offspring individuals of one sex are specific in selecting their mates from the other sex can result in sexual dimorphism presence of two sexes, each with a different phenotype

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AP Evolution

marked differences between the sexes in the secondary sexual characteristics which are not directly associated with reproduction 1. ex. differences in size, color and ornamentation 4. genetic drift a. changes in allele frequencies due to CHANCE i. the change typically does not offer an evolutionary advantage 1. bottleneck effect caused by a severe reduction in population size due to natural disaster, predation or habitat reduction leaving behind only a few survivors and with a reduced gene pool considered genetic drift because CHANCE alone decides the survivors and which alleles are conserved 2. founder effect when only a few individuals colonize a new area and isolate themselves new populations carry only those alleles carried by the original founders alleles carried by the original founders due to CHANCE rare alleles occur at a higher frequency in a population isolated from the general population b. occurs in both large and small populations

typically a larger effect seen in small populations

5. natural selection a. process that results in adaptations of a population to the abiotic and biotic environment b. Darwinian evolution by natural selection requires 1. variation 2. differences/changes are inheritable 3. differential adaptedness a. differences affect how well adapted an organism is to its environment 4. competition between organisms for limited resources 5. differential reproduction a. increased fitness = increased ability to reproduce c. natural selection acts on phenotype i. phenotypes are typically determined by polygenic inheritance 1. more than one different gene controls the trait 2. results in a range of phenotypes

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AP Evolution

d. 3 modes of selection
1. directional selection a. when one of the extreme phenotypes is favored b. occurs when populations are adapting to a changing environment c. Industrial Melanism = nature selected for the darker moth because of all the smog during the industrial revolution for camouflage 2. stabilizing selection a. occurs when the intermediate phenotype is favored

b. ex. human birth weight

3. disruptive selection a. two or more extreme phenotypes are favored b. found in an population that is about to speciate c. ex: species living in ecotones e. regardless of the mode of selection, the basic mechanism remains the same, selection favors certain heritable traits through differential reproductive success

Variation/diversity within populations

o

essential to evolution despite selection, forces that promote variation are always active 1. mutations 2. recombination during gametogenesis and fertilization 3. gene flow 4. heterozygotes in diploid organisms - heterozygotes mask the recessive allele and therefore protect it and displays the dominant

1. Heterozygote Advantage selection based on genotype not phenotype unique type of selection where heterozygotes have greater fitness than the homozygote ex. sickle-cell disease in humans *homozygous recessive individuals = sickle cell disease *homozygous dominant individuals = no sickle cell disease but susceptible to malaria * heterozygous individuals = no sickle-cell disease and have malaria resistance

Ortiz, 2011-2012