What Is Fiber Optic Cable?

Fiber optic cable is a bounded media that generates signals by transmitting photons (light) through very thin optical fibers
A cable may house one or more fibers
For network applications typically at least 2

fibers one for sending data and the other for receiving data

Focus Of These Slides

Fiber optic cable is used in a wide variety of telecommunications and industrial environments
Although this set of slides deals with many of the general properties of fiber, the focus is on its use for network applications in commercial buildings

Fiber Advantages
Fiber optic cable offers several advantages compared to wired-based media (e.g. UTP, STP, ScTP, coax)

Potential for much greater bandwidth than TP Lower attenuation rate than TP allowing for longer cable runs Attenuation rate does not increase when signal frequency increases
With TP, increasing frequency causes increased

attenuation

Immune to EMI and RFI Not a source of EMI and RFI

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Fiber Advantages (Continued)

Up to 50% lighter than standard 4 pair UTP

Easier to handle when installing long cable runs

Smaller cable diameter than comparable UTP cable (about 15% smaller) so it can be installed in smaller areas Improved personal and equipment safety
E.g. Does not transmit electricity if struck by lightening

Improved security difficult and time consuming to tap the line

Generates no electromagnetic field so attacker must

physically tap into the cable to capture signals

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Fiber Disadvantages

Transceivers are relatively expensive

Optical signals must be converted to electrical

signals where the fiber cable connects to network devices (e.g. switches, routers, PCs)

Installation cost are higher than UTP

More technical expertise and precision is needed to

make connections More expensive installation equipment required

More care required when performing routine operations

E.g. Dirt on connection ends seriously reduces

performance so they must be cleaned before insertion

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Optical Fiber Components

Core - Inner light-carrying member Cladding - Middle layer made of a glass material that works like a mirror and serves to confine the light to the core Coating or Buffer - Outer layer which serves as a "shock absorber" to protect the core and cladding from damage

Fiber Bundle Components

Optical cable is often made up of more than one optical fiber but regardless of the number of fibers in the bundle there are two additional components
1. 2.

Strengthening materials Cable jacket

Fiber Bundle Components (Continued)

Strengthening materials Provides crush resistance and minimizes pressure on the fibers when cable is pulled during installation Typically made of strands of Kevlar - aramid is the generic name for this material
Cable jacket Outside layer protecting against abrasion, oil, solvents, etc. Usually defines the cable's duty and flammability rating
Heavy-duty cables have thicker, tougher jackets Jacket material must meet building code flammability

standards

Total Internal Reflection

As photons travel along the optical fiber they reflect off the interface between the core and the cladding

This principle is called total internal reflection Internal reflection since the photons are retained inside the core through reflection Total because if everything works properly, virtually all of the photons will reach the end of the cable
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Importance Of Angles

If the photons strike the core/cladding interface at too sharp of an angle, the photons are absorbed into the cladding (blue path) rather than being retained in the core as they reflected back and forth off of the interface (green path)
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Modes

The angle at which a light ray is injected into the optical cable determines the exact path the light will take to the end of the cable
This path is referred to as the light rays mode An optical fiber can have from one mode to tens of thousands of modes depending upon the cores diameter
The smaller the core, the few potential modes

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Mode Types

Fiber optic cable is classified as being either single mode or multimode

Single Mode Optical Fiber
Core has a relatively small diameter Narrow core diameter ensures all photons travel

along the same path (mode) Typically has a yellow jacket

Multimode Optical Fiber

Core has a relatively large diameter Larger core diameter means photons can take

thousands of different paths (modes) Typically has an orange jacket

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Multimode & Single Mode Fibers: Core Diameters

These are some of the most commonly used multimode and single mode fiber core diameters
m is the symbol for micron 1 millionth of a meter 1 thousandth of a millimeter A human hair has a diameter of about 100 microns

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Single Mode vs Multimode Fiber

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What Difference Does The Mode Type Make?

To send signals the light emitter must be turned on and off

The faster the light can be turned on and off,

the higher the fibers bandwidth

Look at the Multimode Fiber example on the previous slide

Will all 3 photon beams (red, green, purple)

arrive at the end of the cable at the same time if originally sent at the same time? Explain why!

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Impact Of Mode On Bandwidth

Photons in a single mode fiber all follow the same path from signal to signal so there is no chance of photons overtaking each other due to mode differences regardless of cable length
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Impact Of Mode On Bandwidth (Continued)

Photons in a multimode fiber follow different paths

Time between each signals transmission must be long enough to ensure trailing photons from one signal are not overtaken by leading photons from the next signal As cable length increases, time between signals must be increased

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Dispersion

A fibers bandwidth is reduced by dispersion

There are two types of dispersion:
1.

Modal dispersion

Previous slide illustrates modal dispersion

2.

Chromatic dispersion

Light is made up of different colours Each colour has a unique wavelength Different wavelengths travel at different speeds Refining the transmitters wavelength range reduces chromatic dispersion and increases bandwidth potential
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Chromatic Dispersion

Initial light signal is made up of multiple wavelengths

Shorter wavelengths (e.g. blue) travel faster causing dispersion 2nd light signal is sent; dispersion of 1st signal causes signal to spread out

Over distance, shorter wavelengths travel faster and begin to overtake the longer and slower wavelengths of the previously sent signal
Overlapping signals become unreadable
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Dispersion Impact On Mode Types

On multimode fiber, both modal and chromatic dispersion are factors that have to be taken into account
On single mode, only chromatic dispersion must be factored in
Why! . Only one mode

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Addressing Dispersion Concerns

Key factors effecting impact of dispersion are:

Cable length Wavelength range of the light transmitter Fiber core diameter Numerical aperture and Acceptance angle

Various industry standards specify the parameters for fiber networks to ensure appropriate performance is achieved
These standards will be covered later in this

course

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Dispersion Effects: Cable Length

For both modal and chromatic dispersion, the issue is the leading part of a signal catching up to the trailing part of the previously sent signal
The longer the cable run, the greater the chances that trailing signals will overlap signals sent earlier (more time to catch up) For longer cable runs, the time between each transmission signal must be increased
Results in reduced bandwidth
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Dispersion Effects: Wavelength Range

Type of light transmitter being used is a key factor for chromatic dispersion
Effects of chromatic dispersion decrease as the wavelength range of the light transmitter is reduced

Laser sources can provide smaller wavelength ranges than LED light sources which is one reason why laser technology is used in higher bandwidth fiber applications
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Dispersion Effects: Core Diameter

Diameter of the fibers core is a key factor for modal dispersion

As discussed earlier in these slides, multimode fiber offers lower bandwidth than single mode fiber because of the much larger core diameter which creates multiple modes

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Dispersion Effects: Numerical Aperture & Acceptance Angle

Numerical aperture (NA) measures the light gathering ability of the fiber The angle at which light enters the fiber core determines whether or not the light will propagate (i.e. travel) along the fiber or be absorbed into the cladding
Acceptance angle is the term used to identify

the maximum angle at which light entering the core will be propagated

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Photons entering outside the acceptance angle are absorbed into the cladding (e.g. red lines) Photons entering within the acceptance angle are propagated along the fibers core (e.g. blue lines)

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Dispersion Effects: Numerical Aperture & Acceptance Angle

The Numerical Aperture (NA) for a fiber will be a value between 0 and 1
0 means the fiber has no light gathering ability 1 means the fiber accepts and propagates all

light directed toward it Actual NA values will be a decimal number between 0 and 1

NA calculations involve the fibers acceptance angle

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Numerical Aperture Readings

High NA (close to 1)
Easier to inject light into the fiber Lower bandwidth potential since modal

dispersion is increased

Low NA (close to 0)
More difficult to inject light Makes splicing fiber cables more difficult Higher bandwidth potential since modal

dispersion is reduced

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Fiber Index Classifications

In addition to multimode and single mode, fiber cable has two multimode subclassifications based on a property referred to as index
1. 2.

Step index multimode Graded index multimode

The main difference is related to how they are designed to refract (bend) light signals
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Step Index versus Graded Index

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Multimode Graded Index

Index of refraction is lower toward the outside of the core and progressively increases toward the center of the core
As light moves away from the center of the core, it is bent back toward the center which shortens distance traveled thereby reducing modal dispersion and reducing signal absorption into the cladding

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Multimode Step Index

Uniform refractive index throughout the core Signal bounces off the cladding as it moves down the core Modal dispersion is higher so bandwidths are lower plus signal absorption into the cladding is higher making attenuation higher however this type of cable is cheaper to manufacture than graded-index
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Fiber Attenuation

Like all energy forms, light pulses lose energy over distance (i.e. energy attenuates)
Attenuation for fiber is measured in dB/km
High quality glass single mode fiber

attenuation is typically less than 1 dB/km Plastic multimode fiber attenuation can range up to 1,000 dB/km
Note: Signal strength is reduced by

approximately 50% for every 3 dB loss

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Fiber Attenuation Specifications

When purchasing fiber you may see product specifications similar to the following:
Attenuation @850 nm: 3.75 dB/km Attenuation @1310 nm: 1.0 dB/km Attenuation @1550 nm: 0.75 dB/km

These specifications provide the fibers attenuation rating based upon a given wavelength from the light emitter
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Attenuation and Wavelength

Attenuation rates are wavelength specific

Throughout the electromagnetic spectrum there is no

consistent relationship between wavelength and attenuation

No fix rate of increase or decrease in attenuation based on the

rate of wavelength change

Within specific wavelength ranges (called optical

windows) attenuation is less than the surrounding wavelengths

Optical windows refer to specific wavelength ranges at which fiber operates better with regards to the attenuation rate
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Optical Windows

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Common Optical Windows

The 3 main optical windows used by light emitters for standard network applications are: 1. 850 nm 2. 1310 nm 3. 1550 nm

nm is the abbreviation for nanometer 1 billionth of a meter These wavelengths were chosen because they best match the transmission properties of available light sources with the transmission qualities of optical fiber
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Safety Concern

Never look into the end of a fiber which may have a laser emitter coupled to it
Laser light is invisible but can still damage eyes
Direct viewing does not cause pain however

the eyes retina can be seriously damaged Unlike with visible light, the iris of the eye will not close involuntarily when exposed to laser light

If eye exposure to laser light is suspected have an eye examination immediately

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Distance Effects On Bandwidth

For fiber, there is an inverse relationship between bandwidth and distance

If the distance is doubled the bandwidth is halved If the distance is halved the bandwidth is doubled

For example if a 200 meter cable run offered a 800 MHz maximum bandwidth potential then:
Bandwidth potential for a 100 meter cable run would

be 1600 MHz all other things being equal Bandwidth potential for a 400 meter cable run would be 400 MHz all other things being equal

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Reflection and Return Loss

It is possible for a transmitted light signal to be reflected back toward the light source If enough reflected light gets back to the transmitter then it can interfere with the operation of a laser source
LED light sources are not effected by reflection

Similar to wire-based cable, this reflection loss is referred to as return loss

Principles are different than wire not due to

impedance changes

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Reflection and Return Loss

Return loss readings (recorded as dB) measure the strength of the light signal being reflected back to the source compared to the original outgoing light signal
The higher the return loss dB reading, the weaker the reflected light signal therefore the better the performance
For example, a 20 dB return loss means that the

reflected light returned back to the source is 99% weaker than the original transmissions strength (e.g. reflected light getting back to the source is only 1% of the original light)
A 30 dB return loss means reflected light getting back to

the source is 99.9% weaker than the original

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Reflection and Return Loss

Most common source of reflection is poor fiber-to-fiber interconnections

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Minimum Bend Radius

Smallest bend that a fiber can undergo before it will fracture

Typically measured in inches

Determined by cable diameter and the construction materials

The larger the fiber's diameter, the

larger the minimum bend radius Plastic fibers tend to have smaller minimum bend radius than glass
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What If The Bend Radius Is Too Small?

Potential problems:
Broken and cracked fibers Increased attenuation Increased return loss Increased cladding absorption

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Minimum Bend Radius: Not Just A Fiber Concern

Also a concern for wire-based cable but not as critical

Excessive bends in twisted-pair cable can

displace the geometry of the twists resulting in various interference problems (e.g. crosstalk)

Generally, wire-based cable supports a smaller minimum bend radius than fiber
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Minimum Bend Radius Specifications

Variations from manufacturer-to-manufacturer and product-to-product however the widely accepted minimum bend radius specifications are:

Cable Type Minimum BR

Cat 5e UTP Coax (thinnet) Fiber (2 fibers)

Rule of Thumb
4 x diameter 6 x diameter 10 x diameter

1 1.2

Advisable to use the 2 bend radius even for wirebased cables

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Core Material

The 2 materials used for an optical fibers core are:

1.

Silica glass (silicon dioxide)

Sometimes called GOF (Glass Optical Fiber) Dominates the commercial cabling market
2.

Plastic

Sometimes called POF (Plastic Optical Fiber) Minimal use in the commercial cabling market Much larger core (120 to 1000 microns)

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GOF versus POF

Glass Optical Fiber Advantages

Much lower attenuation Much higher bandwidth potential

Plastic Optical Fiber Advantages

Large core makes splicing and connector

alignment easier More tolerant of dust between connections due to the large core Smaller % of core is blocked
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Major Physical Specifications

Fiber cable is identified by three major physical specifications:

1. Core/cladding size 2. Buffer design

3. Number of optical fibers in the cable

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Core/Cladding Size

Core/cladding size refers to the diameter of an individual fibers core and cladding components
For example, 8/125 indicates the core diameter is 8 microns and the surrounding cladding diameter is 125 microns

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Major Core/Cladding Sizes

The major core/cladding sizes used in commercial building cabling are:

8/125
Single mode Used for high speed applications and where longer

cable runs are needed (e.g. backbone cabling, interbuilding links)

50/125
Multimode Better bandwidth and distance potential than

62.5/125

62.5/125
Multimode Been in use longer than 50/125 therefore has a larger

install base

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Major Core/Cladding Sizes

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Buffer Design

Buffer design refers to how optical fibers within a cable are protected from physical stress and weather conditions
The two main designs are:
1.

Tight buffered

Thermoplastic covering directly over each fiber Most often used for indoor applications Cable fiber(s) are inside a tough plastic pipe which is typically filled with a protective water-blocking gel Most often used for long haul, outdoor applications
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2.

Loose tube buffered

Buffer Designs

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Loose Tube Buffered

Designed to withstand the elements (e.g. moisture, sub-zero temperatures) and physical pressure of being buried underground Higher splicing and termination costs
Systems must be used to block the gel from

oozing out the cable ends but still make the fibers accessible for splicing and termination
Termination or splicing to indoor fiber usually

needed near the buildings entrance since the gel filling is often incompatible with indoor fire codes

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Splicing

Splicing refers to a permanent joining of fiber ends without the use of a connector Terminating means a connector is used
Two common splicing techniques are:
1.

Mechanical splicing

Fibers are joined using a mechanical process such as gluing or crimping

2.

Fusion splicing

Fiber ends are butted together then the joint area is heated to soften the glass ends so they are bonded together once they cool
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Tight Buffered Subcategories

Distribution Cable

Breakout Cable

Tight buffered design includes two subcategories: 1. Tight buffered distribution cable
Usually just called distribution cable on vendor websites

2. Tight buffered breakout cable

Usually just called breakout cable on vendor websites Also known as fanout cable
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Distribution Cable

Two or more optical fibers bundled together all sharing the same jacket, strengthening materials & padding materials
Could be one cable like this
Could be multiple jacketed

sub-cables each containing multiple fibers inside one common jacket like this

Typically appropriate for more light duty use since fibers dont have individual strengthening & padded materials

Not recommended if something heavy could be laid on top of the cable

E.g. Dont use if

placed at the bottom of packed cable trays

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Breakout Cable

Multiple sub-cables in a common outer jacket but with each sub-cable containing a single optical fiber and having its own strengthening materials and padding materials

Appropriate for more Due to multiple sub-cable jackets heavy duty use breakout cables are more Designed to handle pressure, strain, expensive and have larger impact, and repetitive diameters than distribution motion better than cables with same # of fibers distribution cable
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Termination: Breakout versus Distribution

Breakout cable termination is easier than it is for distribution cable termination

Breakout optical fibers have individual strengthening

and padding materials so termination using regular connectors (e.g. LC, SC) is possible
Distribution optical fibers lack individual strengthening

and padding materials so termination procedures require more care since you are working with individual tight buffered fibers therefore direct termination with regular connectors is not possible (i.e. often terminated at a fiber patch panel)
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Number Of Fibers/Cable

In fiber cable descriptions 3 terms are used to classify cables based on the number of fibers:
1.
2. 3.

Simplex cables
A single optical fiber inside one jacket

Duplex cables
Two optical fibers inside one jacket

Multifiber cables
From three to hundreds of optical fibers

inside one jacket

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Number Of Fibers/Cable

It is possible to send light signals from both ends of a fiber optic cable at the same time
The light signals do NOT collide but rather pass through

each other without disruption

Given this fact one would assume that a single fiber is all that would be needed for full duplex (i.e. sending and receiving simultaneously) network communications In reality, most standard fiber-based network applications will use a cable containing two fibers one to send signals and one to receive Why? Because it is cheaper and simpler to implement
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Number Of Fibers/Cable Why Cheaper?

One would assume that a cable with one fiber is cheaper than a cable with two fibers
That is correct however it is the complexity of the transmitting/receiving device attached to the cable that has the biggest impact on total cost

It is much simpler and cheaper to build an interface that only sends or only receives a specific light wavelength than it is to build an interface that must coordinate between sending and receiving as well as possibly working with a variety of wavelengths
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Multifiber Cables

Most network fiber applications require duplex cables (send fiber receive fiber) however there will be applications where two fibers are not enough
Bandwidth demands exceed duplex cable

capacity Cable redundancy is needed

See next slide on Dark Fiber

Typically the number of fibers in a multifiber cable is a multiple of two to accommodate the duplex requirements of applications
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Dark Fiber

Dark Fiber is the term used to identify fibers in a multifiber cable that are not being used immediately after the cable has been installed
These extra fibers serve as backups
In the event that a fiber becomes damaged it is

faster, cheaper and more convenient to activate this fiber than it would be to run another fiber cable

These spare fibers are considered to be dark because they are currently not in use so no light signals are passing through them
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Terminating Fiber

Termination is the process of attaching a connector to the cable end Connectors should provide a junction with minimal power loss and minimal signal distortion Core alignment is the biggest challenge, especially when splicing two fibers given that the core diameter can be as small as 8 microns

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Ferrule

The connector component that is key to core alignment is called a ferrule

A ferrule is typically a rigid tube (ceramic, steel or plastic) that has a precision hole for the fiber When connecting two fiber links or connecting a fiber link to a network device, you only have to focus on connecting the relatively large and rigid ferrule couplings rather than being concerned about alignment of the tiny, delicate fiber cores

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Securing The Fiber In The Ferrule

There are two main techniques use to ensure a fiber retains its appropriate position within the ferrule
1.
2.

Epoxy
Basically gluing the fiber into position

Crimping
Using a sophisticated type of pliers (called

a crimper) to squeeze the appropriate part of the connector so that it clamps the fiber into its correct location

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Fiber Connectors

Here are several popular fiber connector choices: 1. SC (Subscriber Connector) 2. ST (Straight Tip) 3. MT-RJ 4. LC Connector
There are several other types from which to choose There is no problem having different connectors at each end of the cable Connector on the device (e.g. switch) to which the cable is being connect determines which connector the cable should use
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SC Subscriber Connector

Also known as Square Connector

Widely used, general purpose connector

Ferrule is partially protected by enclosing it in the connectors body Uses a push-pull mechanism for mating for easy connection/disconnection Male (top) and female (bottom) connectors shown here
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ST Straight Tip

Widely used in the 1980s and 1990s Being replaced by SC

Use a BNC connector like Ethernet coax Thinnet Requires only a quarter turn to engage or disengage Male (top) and female (bottom) connectors shown here

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MT-RJ

Small form factor connector Smaller than SC and ST connectors Small size and housing 2 fibers allows more connectors in a given area (higher port density) Rectangular ferrule rather than round
Male (top) and female (bottom) connectors shown here
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LC Connector

Another small form factor connector that allows higher port densities
Male (top) and female (bottom) connectors shown here

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Fiber Optic Cables Future

In the late 1990s it appeared that twisted-pair was approaching its upper limit and that fiber would begin to dominate however advancements in twisted-pair have kept pace or exceed the needs of most standard network applications
Now wireless networks have begun to make significant inroads in the networking area and you may see articles from time to time suggesting wireless will eventually obsolete both twisted-pair and fiber Regardless of the advancements of both wireless and twisted-pair media, fiber has significant advantages that the other two media will never be able to match

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Fiber Optic Cables Future: Advantages

At the beginning of this module we noted some of fibers major advantages in the areas of attenuation, security and interference But the main advantage that fiber will always have over both wire-based and wireless media is its enormous bandwidth potential As the relative cost and manageability differences between wire-based and fiber-based technologies continue to shrink, fiber will become more of a force in the enterprise network environment

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