Effect of drying Condition on the physicochemical properties of oil extracted from two varieties of tiger nuts from Northern

Nigeria.

ABSTRACT Two varieties of tiger nuts grown in Northern Nigerian were studied to determine the effect of drying temperatures on the physicochemical properties of oil extracted from the nuts; to compare the parameters and evaluate the qualities and quantities of the oil at the drying conditions and also determine varietals and geographical impacts on those parameters. The drying protocol used were sun drying, and oven drying at 600C, 1200C, and 1800C. The following physicochemical parameters were evaluated: Free fatty acid, peroxide value, Iodine value, percentage oil yield, specific gravity and smoke point. Results from this study revealed that the free fatty acid,

peroxide value, Iodine value, percentage oil yield, specific gravity and smoke point of oil from the two varieties ranged from (0.01-0.03%) as oleic, (0.632.83) meq/kg, (124-131) wijs, (8.20-12.77%), (240-263oC) respectively. However, there was general decrease in the free fatty acid, peroxide value, Iodine value and smoke point of oil from the two varieties tiger nut tuber after exposure to different temperature conditions which indicates an increase

in the quality of the oil. There was also a significant difference in the physicochemical properties of the oil from the two varieties of tiger nut tuber which shows that varietal differences and difference in geographical location had a significant effects on the oil. The values from the free fatty acid and peroxide values of the oil from both varieties confirm that the oil is edible and can be consumed directly without further processing. There is also possibility of using the oil from both varieties for deep frying and other industrial applications without further processing of the oil. There were significant difference at (P<0.05) of the percentage oil yield of oil from the two varieties of tiger nut tubers.

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION The demand for vegetable oils has ever been widening in Nigeria as industrialists rely mostly on the popular vegetable oils like palm kernel oil, groundnut oil and soybean oil for the preparation of various products (Akintayo, 2004). The study of the physicochemical properties of food (oil) is fundamental in the analysis and design of the unit operations involved in the food industry and also in determining the suitability of the final product for human consumption and other subsidiary uses (Arubi, 2009). These properties influence the handling and treatment received during processing and they allow for a better control of both product and processing (Ramos and Ibarz, 1998). Operations such as heating, transportation, packaging, extraction and milling can be applied with ease in food system if the data on physicochemical properties such as specific gravity, % oil yield, smoke point, iodine value, free fatty acid and peroxide value are available. Seed oil are known to deteriorate when processed inadequately with the principal decomposition reaction being oxidation. Oxidation of seed oil occurs through a free radical mechanism, initially characterized by the

emergence of unpleasant odour and flavour which becomes progressively worse until it attains a characteristic smell of rancid fat (Gouveia et al; 2004). Heating is one of most commonly used methods of food preparation in the home and industries and prolong use of oil for this purpose causes change in its physicochemical properties ( Morette and Fett, 1998). Under the influence of temperature, fats and oils are susceptible to oxidation primarily leading to formation of hydroperoxides. Due to their high reactivity, these hydroperoixde especially at high temperatures rapidly react with secondary oxidative products e.g aldehydes, ketones, peroxides,

hydrocarbons as well as cyclic compounds that exhibit very different possible toxic or carcinogenic properties (Kowalki, 1995). Tiger nut (Cyperus esculentus) a grass like plant of the family cyperaceae (sedge family), order cyperales or Graminates (Takhatajah, 1992) and genus Carex (Swiff 1989) is widely distributed in many parts of northern

temperature locations (Anon, 1992) within South Europe as its probable origin (Childers, 1992). Like other sedges the plant is most frequently found in wet marshes and edges of streams and pounds where it grows in coarse tufts (Swiff, 1989). In most countries, the plant is grown as a weed of cultivation to serve as sand or soil binder.

Tiger nut produces rhizomes from the base with somewhat spherical tubers. In Egypt, it is used as a source of food, medicine and perfumes (Devries and Feuke, 1999). Tiger nut is commonly known as earth almond, chufa, yellow nut sedge and zulu nuts. In Nigeria where three varieties (black, brown and yellow) are cultivated, it is known as Ayaya in Hausa, Ofio in Yoruba and Akiausa in Igbo (Umerie et al., 1997). Among these three varieties, only two (yellow and brown) are readily available in the market. Tiger nut can be eaten raw, roasted, dried, baked or made into a refreshing beverage called Hochata De Chufa or tiger nut milk (Oladele and Aina, 2007). Also, it can be used as a flavouring agent for ice cream and Biscuit 1997). Tiger nut oil can be used naturally with salads or for deep frying. Tiger nut oil can be used in preparation of therapy for some cardiac and intestinal pathologies, because of its high content of monounsaturated fatty acids (Oleic acid) and vitamin E (natural antioxidant) ( Adejuyitan et al; 2009). It has also been reported that the tubers contain about 25% oil, 50% digestible (Cantetejo,

carbohydrate, 4% protein and 9% crude fibre (Shilenkoo et al; 1979, Emmanuel and Edward 1984).

Tiger nut tuber can be processed for solvent extraction in different ways such as sun drying, oven drying and other drying techniques (such as vacuum drying, solar drying, and continuous or batch atmospheric drying ). It is expected that these drying techniques influences the physicochemical properties which eventually affects the quality of the oil. Several works have been carried out on tiger nut oil but no attempt was made to study the effect of drying conditions on the physicochemical properties of oil from tiger nut tuber. OBJECTIVE The objectives of this work therefore are: i. To determine the effect of drying temperatures on the

physicochemical properties of oil extracted from two different varieties of tiger nuts, ii. To compare free fatty acid, peroxide value, iodine value, specific gravity, percentage oil yield and smoke point of the oil from the two varieties tiger nut tubers and evaluate their qualities and quantities at different temperature conditions. iii. To study drying temperatures of nuts in relation to varietals differences and geographical location.

CHATER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 TIGERNUT (ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION) Tiger nut, also called nut sedge (Cyperus esculentus ) is a perennial grass-like tropical plant that has a rhizomious growth habit. It produces nuts, which are attached to its fibrous root endings under the ground. About 90 general of the family cyperaceae are known. Two varieties of tiger nuts are available in Nigeria and they either grow wild or are domesticated. (Arubi, 2009). wikipedia (2000), reported that this tuber ranks among the oldest cultivated plants in Ancient Egypt although nothing that Chufa was no doubt an important food element in ancient Egypt during dynastic times, its cultivation in ancient times, seems to have remained (totally or almost totally) an Egyptian specialty. They were used to make cakes in ancient Egypt. Presently, they are cultivated mainly, at least for extended and common commercial purposes, in Spain, where they were introduced by Arabs, almost

exclusively in the Valencia region. They are found extensively in California and were grown by the paiute in Owens valley. ( wikipedia, 2000). Egypt through North Africa, before reaching the Iberian peninsula and sicily with the influx of Islamic culture during the middle Ages (13th century). Islamic culture was also responsible for the expansion of the cultivation of tiger nut in the Mediterranean areas of the Valencia region, as well as the introduction of revolutionary techniques that were, at the time far ahead of those employed in the agricultural sector. Thus its growth in most savannah region of Africa like Ghana, Burkina Faso and Mali. No wonder why its growth in Nigeria mostly concentrated in the middle belt and Northern parts which have the highest percentage of Islamic believers.

2.0.1 kingdom:

SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION OF TIGERNUT Planatae Angiosperms Monocots Commelinids

(Unranked): (Unranked): (Unranked):

Oder: Family: Genus: Species: Binomial name:

Poales Cyperaceae Cyperus Esculentus Cyperus Esculentus

Also, in Nigeria tiger nut nut has a specific name given to it by a particular tribe as shown below: Housa: Yoruba: Igbo: Ayaya Ofio Akiausa

2.0.2

TIGERNUT Tiger nut (Cyperus esculenturs) unlike a great variety of nuts, which

are fruits or seeds that have a hard and dry shell, which encloses a kernel (Mac Daniels, 1987), the nuts of Cyperus esculentus are rhizomes, which are enlarged storage organs at the fibrous root endings of the plant. The tubers are edible, with a slightly sweet, nutty flavour, compared to the more bitter

tasting tuber of the related cyperus rotundus (purple Nutsedge). They are quite hard and are generally soaked in water before they can be eaten, thus making them softer and giving them a better texture. (http://online. Wsj.com/article/sb1250180464983695.html). The kinds of oil produced by plants are non-volatile oils and the essential volatile oil. The first kinds of oils are food reserve and are by far the most important in commerce. The second kinds of oils are aromatic and are commercially important in scents and perfumes. Millions of tones of nonvolatile vegetable oils are consumed as food or used in industry each year. They are used either as fluid or converted into edible fats source as margarine. (Onwueme and Sinha, 1991). Edible oils are converted into fats by a process of catalyzed hydrogenation in which relatively unsaturated oils become saturated by combining them with hydrogen. Large quantities of vegetable oils are used to make soap and detergent. Vegetable oils are also used as lubricants and the least saturated of them are used in paints and varnishes and to make linoleum. Currently, a lot of efforts have been made on the production of biodiesels from vegetable oils. Tiger nut oils also contain minerals, the composition of which are shown below.

Table 2.1: MINERAL CONSTITUENTS/COMPOSITION OF TIGERNUT FLOUR (MG/100G FLOUR). MINERAL ELEMENT VARIETY Calcium Sodium Potassium Magnesium Manganese Phosphorus Iron Zinc Copper Source: 155 245 216 51.2 33.2 121 0.65 0.01 0.02 Oladele and Anina (2007) 140 235 255 56.3 38.41 121 0.80 0.01 0.01 YELLOW VARIETY BROWN

2.1

IMPORTANCE OF TIGERNUTS

2.1.1 AGRICULTURAL IMPORTANCE

Tiger nut as a grass-like plant serves as a good forages for support of livestock pastures and range grazing lands and also for hay and silage crops. (Robert, 2001). Oladele and co-workers, (2009) reported that raw tigernut contains 4.27% crude protein, 13.5% crude fibre, 2.32% ash and 47.9% carbohydrate, thus making the tiger nut cake an excellent source of basal feeds for livestock specifically monogastric animals. Tiger nut is equally used as a fishing bait. For instance, the boiled nuts are used in Uk as a bait for carp and have high reputation for success. It has also been reported by Bamgbose (2003) that tiger nut meal (TaN) could serve as a replacement for maize in the diets of cockerel starters especially at 33.33% level.

2.1.2 SUBSIDIARY USES TIGERNUT Apart from the used of tiger nut meal in animal feed as pig feed in parts of the Southern USA, it has other application or uses in industries. Tiger nut is used in the following ways:

i.

As a confectionary: tiger nuts are sometimes used in certain types of confectionary, often as a substitute for almonds.

ii.

As a coffee and cocoa adulterant: the ground tubers are sometimes used as a substitute or adulterant of coffee and cocoa.

iii.

As a source starch: tiger nut tubers are potentially a rich source of starch which may be extracted after the oil has been removed from the tubers. This serves as a major raw material for textile industries.

iv.

Flour: the tubers can be ground to produce nutritious flour, which can be mixed with wheat flour in baking. It has the following composition: protein 3.4%, fat 27%, starch 38%, ash 2.4 (Bailey, 2006).

v.

Alcohol: tiger nut tuber can be used for the production of alcohol by fermentation in silily, a cultivars with a very high sucrose content is grown and used commercially for this purpose.

vi.

Leaves: it has been suggested that the leaves of the tiger nut could be utilized for paper making, simple digestion with soda Lye will give a yield of 35-40% of a deep-yellow coloured pulp.

2.1.3 MEDICINAL VALUE AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF TIGER NUT Tiger nuts have long been recognized for their health benefits as they are high in fibre, proteins and natural sugars. They have a high content of soluble glucose and oleic acid. Along with a high energy content (starch, fat, sugar and proteins), they are rich in minerals such as phosphorus and potassium and in vitamins E and C. It is believed that they help to prevent heart attacks, thrombosis and caners especially of the colon. They are thought to be beneficial to diabetics and those seeking to reduce cholesterol or lose weight. The high fibre content combined with a delicious taste, make them ideal for healthy eating. Tiger nut milk can be used in conjunction with other foods, to fight cardiovascular diseases (Djomdi and Ndjouenken, 2006). The tiger nut has 20-30% oil which helps in the nourishment of the epidermis, nullifies hard-knots in the stomach and acts as a coolant to hot flushes associated with premature menopause. The high fibre content of the tiger nut also makes it a wonderful colon evacuator and cleanser. Other medicinal benefits of the tiger nuts are:

1.
2.

It prevent constipation It contains necessary essential minerals; calcium, magnesium and iron necessary for bones, tissues repairs, muscles and the blood stream.

3.
4.

It contains enough protein and carbohydrate Tiger nut contains a good quality of vitamin B, which assists in balancing the central nervous system and helps to encourage the body to adapt to stress.

5.

It supplies the body with enough quantity of vitamin E, very essential for fertility in both men and women.

6.

It is excellent for colitis and assists proper digestion in China, tiger nut juice is used as a liver tonic heart stimulant, drank to heal serious stomach pain, to promote normal menstruation, to heal mouth and gum ulcers, use in Ayurvedic medicines, and is a powerful aphrodistiac (sexual stimulant).

7.

The black specie of the tiger nut is an excellent medicine for breast lumps and cancer (any type of internal concretion and

inflammations). It can be used as eye compress and to bandage wounds.

8.

Tiger nuts give a heating and drying action to the digestive system in general and this gives it the potency to alleviate flatulence.

9.

Tiger nut promotes the production of urine, this is why it is a preventive measure for cyst, prostrate hernia, rectum deformation and prolapsed (anal feature-small painful flesh and the tip of the anus) and to prevent endometriosis of fibrosis as well as blockage of the tip of the fallopian tube. Martinez, (2003) reported that tiger nut have high content of oleic with

positive effect on cholesterol level due to the high content of vitamin E. thus, the nut was found to be ideal for children, older persons and sportsmen. 2.1.4 NUTRITIVE VALUE OF TIGERNUT Tiger nut is one of the nutritionally underutilized tubers especially here in Nigeria. Since such factors like non-availability of nutritional information and presence of antinutritional factors in the nut, its use in food formulating is yet to gain popularity (Oladele et al, 2009).

However, it has been reported that processing techniques such as soaking, roasting and germination improve the nutritional value and reduces the antinational factors in the nut (Oladele and co-workers, 2009). The federal institute of Research Oshodi has reported their success in the development of a technology for the production of ice cream from tiger nut milk. According to the consejo regulator de Chufa Valencia (Regulating council for Valencias Tiger nut), the nutritional composition/100ml of a classical horchata de Chufas, or orxata de xufes in Valencia language, contains energy content around 66kcal, proteins around 0.5g, carbohydrates over 10g with starch at least 1.9g, fat at least 2g. Even though too low in proteins and in fats and tool high in carbohydrate, to be considered equal to milk, Horchata de Chufa (Tiger nut milk) can be useful in replacing milk in the diet of people intolerant to lactose to a certain extent. Tiger nuts have excellent nutritional qualities. Arubi, (2009) reported that the nut has a percentage fat of 19.6%, thus a good source of energy. It has also been reported that tiger nut has fat composition similar to olives. The oil of the tuber was found to contain 18% saturated (palmitic acid and stearic acid) and 82% unsaturated (Oleic acid and linoleic acid) fatty acids.

(http://online.wsj.com/article/sb125051804649836445.html). Oladele and Aina (2007) also reported that tiger nut is very rich in minerals especially sodium and potassium. These minerals (sodium and potassium) play vital roles in normal cell function including neurotransmission, muscle contraction and maintenance of acid based balance of the body (Okaka, 2005). Table 2.2 shows the nutritive values of two different varieties of tigernut. Nutrient Variety of tiger nut Creamy yellow Crude protein (%) Fat (%) Moisture (%) Fibre (%) Ash (%) Carbohydrate (%) 2.62 + 0.13 19:71+ 0.08 23.26 + 0.04 15.46 + 0.17 2.80 + 0.14 36.15 + 0.06 Dark brown 2.54 + 0.08 19.5 + 0.06 23.46 + 0.02 17.63 + 0.05 3.82 + 0.15 33.05 + 0.07 18.63 + 0.34 16.22 + 0.09 317.86 + 0.05

Reducing sugars (mg/100g) 25.00 + 0.25 Sucrose (mg/100g) Energy value (Kcal/100g) 21.18 + 0.16 332.47 + 47 0.13

Ascorbic acid (mg/100g) Source Arubi (2009)

1.60 + 0.12

1.54 + 0.06

Footnote values are means + SD. Standard Deviation.

2.1.5

VEGETABLE OILS Oil is classified as lipid. Lipids are hertogeneous collection of

biochemical substances which are soluble in organic polar solvent such as ethanol, hexane and diethyl ether. Chemically, oils are mixtures of fatty acid esters of the trihydroxy alcohol, glycerol (Morris, 1999). The fatty acid composition of common vegetable oils and their physicochemical characteristics are given in table 2.3 and 2.4 respectively. Oil is very important in our daily life activities. It is used as raw material for the manufacture of margarine, mayonnaise shortening and cosmetics. One important role of oil in our diet is their supply of essential fatty acids and they are good sources of energy. Examples of the essential fatty acids are linoleic, linolenic and arachidonic. These fatty acids play key roles in the maintenance of tissue integrity and in spermatogenesis. (Okaka et al, 2006).

Vegetable oils are derived from the seeds, and fruits of plants, which growths in many different parts of the world. Several hundred varieties of plants are known to have oil bearing seeds but in fact only about a dozen are significant commercially (Table 2.3) are soybeans, palm kernel, cottonseeds, groundnut, sunflower, coconut, linseeds, olive, sesame, rapeseed, fung and castor. (Elaine and Moore, 1973).

2.1.6 IMPORTANCE OF VEGETABLE OILS The chief importance of vegetable oil lies in their food value. Oil and fat are recognized as essential nutrients in both human and animal diets. Nutritionally, they are good sources of energy (9cal/gram), they provide essential fatty acids which are the building blocks for the hormones needed to regulate bodily systems, and they are carries for fat soluble vitamins A, D, E and K. They enhance the foods we eat by providing texture and mouth feel, imparting flavour, and contributing to the feeling of satiety after eating. (Okogeri, 2009). In resent years, vegetable sources of oil and fat have accounted for about three-fifths of the worlds consumption; the rest comes from animal and marine oil.

These edible oils, are the mixed triglycerides of fatty acids, so treated as to be wholesome foods (Morris, 1999), are consumed in various ways in their natural liquid state, they are used in warmer climates for cooking. In the West world they are eaten chiefly in spread able form, and the main demand for them comes from margarine industry. Other food industries, which need vegetable oils, use it in the manufacture of cooking fats and oils, salad dressings and ice-cream. In addition, oils are equally important functionally in the preparation of many food products such as bread, cakes, biscuits where they acts as tenderizing agents and shortener, facilitating aeration, carry flavours and colours, and provide a heating media for food preparations. In addition to their value as a source of oil, the seeds of several of these plants as well as their nuts have a huge protein content, in particular groundnut and soybean. For this reason, the residue after the oil has been extracted in many cases serve as animal feed. Outside the realm of food manufacture, vegetable oils feature in a wide variety of industries, ranging from soap manufacture, (by far the most important) to the production of paints, varnishes, lubricants and plastics (Elaine and Moore, 1973).

All oils used in industry must be refined, and the degree of refining depends on the intended use of the oil. No vegetable oil is equally suitable for all purposes, since each oil has unique characteristics. Nevertheless, it is possible to divide them into tree broad groups, firstly, those which are used mainly for edible purposes examples include soybeans, groundnut, cotton seeds, sunflowers, rapeseed, sesame and olive. Secondly, those suitable for both edible and other industrial purposes, examples palm kernel oil, palm oil, tiger nut and coconut oils. Thirdly, those suitable only for other industrials purposes, examples linseed, fung and castor seed oils. Vegetable oils can be obtained commercially from oil seeds by one of the three basic methods, which can be modified or combined to suite specific conditions. These are batch hydraulic pressing, expelling method and solvent extraction (Wesis, 1983).

2.1.7

METHOD OF OIL EXTRACTION FROM TIGERNUT Solvent extraction in the oil seed processing plant is principally the

same as extraction processes used in the chemistry laboratory. A material to be extracted is placed into a container with solvent, agitated for a time, and

then the solvent with dissolved oil is removed by filtration or centrifugation. The residue may be repeatedly extracted with fresh solvent to increase the yield. Alternatively, the material may be placed in a percolating column and solvent poured in through it. This method results in more complete removal of oil with a lower usage of solvent and is the basis for most commercial solvent extraction plant today. This method has been described by Thieme (1968) as the most efficient method of oil extraction. This is because while mechanical pressed oil cakes still contains about 4-5% of oil, the solvent method has about 1% or as low as 0.5% in the residue. The theory of solid-liquid extraction involves the removal of a desired component (the solute) from a food using a liquid (i.e suitable solvent like Hexane, ethanol, petroleum ether, methanol etc), which is able to dissolve the solute. This involves mixing the food (i.e after drying, crushing and flaking of the raw material) and solvent together, either in a single stage or in multiple stages, holding for a pre-determined time and then separating the solvent. During the holding period there is mass transfer of solutes from the food material to the solvent, which occurs in three stages:

1. 2.

The solute dissolves in the solvent. The solution moves through the particle of food to its surface. The solution becomes dispersed in the bulk of the solvent. During

extraction, the holding time should therefore be sufficient for the solvent to dissolve sufficient solute and for the changes in composition to approach equilibrium. The time require depends on the solubility of a given solute in the solvent selected and also on the following factor such as temperature of extraction, the surface area of solid exposed to the solvent, the viscosity of the solvent and finally the flow rate of the solvent. (Fellows, 2009). Oil produced by this method is of high quality because very little treatment is required. (Thieme, 1968).

Table 2.3 Typical percentage composition of fatty acid of vegetable fats and oils Fatty acid Carbon Cocoa Coconut SafCorn Cotton Soy seed Sun kernel Olive Palm Palm

Peanut Atoms flower Cprylic Capric Lauric Mytistic Palmitic 8 Palmitolic Stearic 2 Oleic 18 13 16 16 14

Rapeseed butter

Secame

bean flower 8 10 12 24 11 10 18 3 39 40 5 7 29 24 35 6 2 18 21 4 5 75 38 13 61 19 3 2 4 2 5 18 13 12 24 8 1 1 13 48 8 6 4 44 6 1 17 6 51 4 3 -

Linoleic 75 Linolenic 1

18 43 18 2

54 54

53 66 -

22

14

Arachidonic 20 Gadoleic Behenic Frulic 22 Lignoleric Iodine value 104 146 24 22 20 -

13

40

37 114

127 109 134

84

51

16

101

134

Source: Norman and Hotchkiss (2007).

TABLE 2.4:

CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CONTESTANTS OF

VEGETABLE OILS AND FAT Oil Specific 130C Refractive Specification Iodine Hehner 250C index Acid value

Unsaponitiable value

Reichert value

Gravity 150C at Almond matter 0.914-0.921

mess value value 183-207 0.75 253-262 6-10 6.6-8.4 192-202 187-193 1.5-2.8 194-195 185-196 0.4-10 196-204 49-59 79-90 89-103 96 0.3-1.0 0.6-15 10 94-97 85-100 0.5 0.8 95-96 95 1.460333-42 0.3-1 111-128 183-207 0.5 2.5-10 82.3-905 1.1-1.9 94-95 1.4-2.0 4.3 93-95 93-103 96.0 1.4477-

1.4593-1.4646a Coconut 1.4495a Cocoa butter 0.926 0.2

0.950-0.974

1.4537-1.4580a Corn 0.921-0.928 1.4733-1:477 Cotton seed0.918-0.923 Olive 0.915-0.920 1.4657-1.4667 Palm 1.4639a Peanut 0.923-0.924 0.917-0.926

0.9-1.9 186-194

1.4620-1.4653a

0.5-0.9

Poppy seed 0.924-0.926 1.4743 Rape 0.4 0.913-0.917 1.4649-11.4659a 1.5 Sesame

190-195 0.6 168-179

128-141 95-96 94-105 1.1

2.5

1.4739-

0.4-1.0 95

0.921-0.925

188-193

103-117

9.8 93-95

1.4723-1.4756 Soya 0.924-0.927 1.4723-1.4756 Sun flower 0.924-0.926 1.4721a Tea seed 0.3 0.911-0.927 White mustard 1.4649

1.3-1.5 189-194 1.3-1.5 188-194 0.5 188-196 171-174 88-90 94-98 120-136 95 122-134

0.5-28 0.3-1.8 0.5-28 11.2

93-95 1.4659-

1.4707

0.912-0.916 -

5.4 96-97

Morris (1999). At 400C

2.1.8

COMPONENTS OF CRUDE OILS According to Thieme (1968) crude oil produced by rendering

expression or solvent extraction contains reliable amount of non-glyceride components which add up to 5%, and include: 1. 2. 3.
4.

Free fatty acids resulting from partial hydrolysis of oil Sterols Carotenoid pigments Phosphatides Carbohydrate and its derivatives Tocopherols Protein fragment and Various resinous and mucilaginous materials some of these compound are desirable while others are undesirable and are removed during various stages of processing. i. Sterol-colourless, heat stable and for all practical purposes inert. They are not noticed except when they are present in large amount.

5.
6.

7.
8.

ii.

Tocopherols-protects the oil from oxidation by stabilizing hydroperoxy and other tree radical whose presence in oil gives it off-flavour. (i.e Tocols acts as a natural antioxidant).

All other non-triglyceride components undesirable since they cause some changes in the oil, which includes:a. b. c. d. Acceleration of deteriorative process (rancidity) Promotion of undesirable colour of the oil (i.g dark coloured) Promotion of foaming or smoking of the oil Promotion of precipitation in the course of processing especially when the oil is heated.

2.1.9

OIL REFINING The aim of refining oil is to remove all unwanted substances that may

have harmful effects on the consumers and to improve oil quality (Ojeh, 1981). The crude fats and oils obtained from oilseeds and animal tissues can vary from pleasant-smelling to quite offensive-smelling, only a few of the crude fats and oils are suitable for edible purposes without undergoing

processing in some manner. Processing techniques allow us to refine fat and oils, make them melt more slowly or rapidly, change their crystal habit, rearrange their molecular structure, and literally take them apart and put them back together again to suit our requirement of the moment. (Okogeri, 2009). The process of refining is done by four major processes which include degumming, Alkali Refining, leaching and deodorization (Ojeh, 1981).

2.1.10

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

A number of physical and chemical constant have been established for the purposes of assessing quality and purity as well as for identification of fats and oils. Although many of them are empirical, others are quite specific in measurements of the fats (see table 2.4). The most commonly used to establish identities are: Saponification value, iodine value, refractive index and reichert-polenskkissecher values. Other data are determined on the oil and fat in order to assess quality. They include free fatty acid, peroxide value and unsaponitiable residue.

2.7.1

SPECIFIC GRAVITY This is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a

reference substance. For solids and liquids, specific gravity is numerically equal to its density since the reference substance for solids and liquid is usually 1g/cm3, it can be used to exclude certain compounds from the list of possibilities. It varies with the composition as well as the structure of the compound positioning of the double bond nearer the middle of the molecules and also presence of functional groups cause an increase in the specific gravity. Generally, compounds containing several functional groups especially those groups that promote association have a specific gravity more than 1.0 (Hawley, 1981). If a compound contains no halogen and has a specific gravity less than 1.0 it probably does not contain more than a single functional group in addition to the hydrocarbon or other portions. And if heavier than water, it is probably polyfunctional.

2.1.12

SMOKE POINT

When oils are heated to increasingly high temperature, they reach a point at which they begin to smoke. This is a factor in choosing oils for deep-

frying application. Thus, oil smoke as a result of the decomposition of volatile compounds from the oil followed by the production of a blue haze or smoke and a characteristic burnt odour usually at a temperature above 2000C. In general, vegetable oils have a higher smoke point than animal fats (Gaman and Sherrington, 1977). Decomposition of the triglyceride produces small quantities of glycerol and fatty acids. The glycerol decomposes further producing a compound called acrolein. This decomposition is irreversible and when using a fat or oil for deep frying, the frying temperature should be kept below the smoke-point. Repeated heating will also produce oxidative and hydrolytic changes in the fat and result in the accumulation of substance giving undesirable flavours to the food fried in the fat. In the analytical test the sample is heated while being held in a chamber. A strong beam of light is shined horizontally above the surface of the sample, and the analyst looks through this beam at a white background. Detection of the first wisps of smoke is the end point and depends on the visual acuity and experience of the person running the test. Nevertheless, it is a useful characterizing test.

2.1.13

IODINE VALUE

Is a measure of the properties of unsaturated acid present. The degree of unsaturation of the fatty acids in a fat or oil can be qualitatively expressed by the iodine value (Norman and Hotchikiss, 2007). The unsaturated glycerides of an oil or fat have the ability to absorb a definite amount of iodine especially when aided by a carrier such as iodine chloride or iodine bromide, and thus form saturated compounds. The quantity of iodine absorbed is a measure of the unsturation of an oil or fat. The iodine value is generally expressed as the number of grams of iodine absorbed by 100g of the oil, (Morris, 1999). Since the iodine reacts at the sites of unsturation, much as would hydrogen in hydrogenation, the higher the iodine value the greater the degree of unsaturation in the fat (Norman and Hotchikiss, 2007). The two methods usually employed for the estimation of the iodine value are the Hanus method using iodine bromide as the carrier and the Wijs method using chloride as the carrier. The preparation of iodine bromide solution is easier than the Wijs reagent, thus Hanus method is often used. However, there is some difference in the iodine values obtained by these two

methods, but the difference is not greater than the variation in the iodine values of the oil or fat themselves.

2.1.14

ACID VALUE OR FREE FATTY ACIDS

This is the measure of the amount of free fatty acid present in a fat. Oil and fats contain more fatty acids according to the conditions of manufacture, age and storage. The glycerides are hydrolyzed to a small degree by enzymes, air, and possibly bacteria. The increase in free fatty acids is generally accompanied by a rancid odour, although the odour itself is not due to the rancidy. The acid value is the number of milligram of potassium hydroxide required to neutralize the fatty acids in 1g of the oil or fat (Morris, 1999). According to Norman and Hotchikiss, (2007), fats also are degraded by the process of hydrolysis, which in the presence of moisture splits triglycerides into their basic components of glycerol and free fatty acids. The free fatty acids, especially if they are of short-chain length, cause off odour and rancid flavour in fat and oils. This type of deterioration, referred to as hydrolytic rancidity does not require oxygen to occur but is favoured by the

presence of moisture, high temperatures and natural lipolytic enzymes. The term acid value refers to a measure of free fatty acids present in a fat.

2.1.15

PEROXID VALUE

This measure is usually used as an indicator of deterioration of fats and oils. According to Norman and Hotchikiss (2007), the degree of oxidation that has taken place in a fat or oil can be expressed in terms of peroxide value. When the double bonds of unsaturated fats become oxidized peroxides are among the oxidation products formed. Under standard conditions. These peroxide can liberate iodine from potassium iodine added to the system. The amount of iodine liberated is then a measure of peroxide content, which correlates with the degree of oxidation already experienced by the fat and probable tendency of the fat to subsequent oxidative rancidity. Oxidative rancidity results from the liberation of odourous products during breakdown of unsaturated fatty acids. These commonly include such compounds as aldehydes, ketones and shorter-chain fatty acids. This is the type of fat deterioration that can often be prevented or minimized by the addition of chemical antioxidants such as butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated

hydroxytoluene (BHA). This peroxide value can be used therefore to estimate oxidation levels (De Bussy, 1975, ihekoronye and Ngoddy, 1985). Hence, peroxide value is an index of quality and stability of an oil.

2.1.16

DETERIORATION OF FATS AND OILS

Deterioration of fats and oils is produced by the auto-oxidation of the unsaturated components. The reaction proceeds with the addition of molecular oxygen to the double bonds of the unsaturated acids with the production of labile peroxides which then further isomerize or decompose spontaneously into, series of products including aldehydes, ketones, and acids of lower molecular weight (Morris, 1999). After processing, oxidation is the main problem affecting fats and oils, leading to formation of peroxides which in turn decomposes to products (aldhydes, ketones alcohols and others) which impart objectionable flavours and odoures. Generally, the rate of oxidation depends on the degree of unsaturation of the oil, its temperature and the presence of antioxidants. Oxidation occurs at varying rates throughout the life of the oil: during storage

and distribution of the oil, and during food preparation and storage of the final food product, (Okogeri, 2009).

2.1.17

AUTOXIDATION

Autoxidation is the direct reaction of atmospheric oxygen with the unsaturated fatty acids attached to triglyerides, under mild conditions. (Okogeri, 2009). Fats and oils absorb oxygen at a very slow rate, but depending on atmospheric condition (temperature, humidity, light), presence or absence of an antioxidant, and degree of unsaturation, the rate of oxygen absorption can increase significantly, leading to rapid formation and decomposition of hydroperoxides. Autoxidation reaction proceeds by a free radical chain mechanism, which can be described in terms of initiation, propagation and termination stages.

Initiation RH Propagation R. + H.

R. + 02 ROO. + R1H

ROO . ROOH+R1

Termination ROO. RO. + R11. R1OO. ROOR1 + O2 ROR11

2.1.18

PHOTOXIDATION The oxidation of unsaturated fats is accelerated by exposure to light.

Direct photoxidation is due to free radical produced by ultraviolet light irradiation, which catalyses the decomposition of hydroperoxide (ROOH) and other compound such as peroxides (RCOR), or other oxygen complexes of unsaturated lipids. This type of oxidation proceeds by normal free radical chain reactions and can be inhibited by chain-breaking antioxidants, or by ultraviolet deactivators (e.g o-hydroxybenzophenone) that absorb irradiation without formation of free radicals.

2.1.19

PHOTOSENSITIZED OXIDATION

Photoxidation provide an important way to produce hydroperoxides from unsatureated fatty acids in the presence of oxygen, light energy and a photosensitizer. Pigments in foods (e.g. chlorophyll) can serve as a photosensitizer by absorbing visible or near-UV light to become electronically excited. Sensitizers have two excited states: by absorption of light, the singlet (1sens) is converted to the triplet state (3sens), which has a longer life-time and initiates photosensitized oxidation. Pigments initiating photosensitized oxidation in foods include chlorophyll, heme protein and riboflavin (Okogeri, 2009).

CHAPTER THREE MATERIALS AND METHOD 3.0 SOURCE OF RAW MATERIALS The two varieties of tiger nut tuber (Cyperus esculentus) yellow and Brown varieties used for this work were purchased from Mafara market and Wuruko market in Gusou Zafara state and Markudi Benue state

respectively. 3.1 PREPARATION OF SAMPLES

Fresh yellow and brown varieties of tiger nut tuber were used. The two varieties were pre-processed by sorting and washing, after which each

variety was divided into four samples of the same quantity, making a total of eight samples for the two varieties (four from each variety). The samples from the yellow variety were coded YDS, YD60, YD120, YD180, while samples from the Brown variety were coded BDs and BD60, BD120, and BD180.

Samples YDs and BDs were sun dried; samples YD60 and BD60 were oven dried at 600C; samples YD120 and BD120 were oven dried at 1200C; and samples YD180 and BD180 were oven dried at 1800C which took 1month, 12hrs, 6hrs ,4hrs respectively to dry to a constant weights, after which the samples were milled into flour using harmer mill.

Extraction of oil from nuts was carried out according to AOAC method (1980). Precisely, 100g of milled sample was weighed into a labeled separate plastic containers with lid. The sample was mixed with 400ml of n-hexane and then covered and sealed with a masking tape. The mixture was allowed to stand under environmental conditions for 48 hours with periodic shaking; then filtered through a sieve cloth and further through a 12.5mm filter paper to remove the fine particles from the solvent mixture. The filtrates subjected to distillation to recover the solvent (n-hexane) . The oil obtained was heated in a water bath set at 70oC to remove residual hexane. The

percentage oil content was calculated using the formular : % oil content = B-A x 100 W Where 1 Oil Content (%) =
B A 100 W

A = weight of container in grams B = weight of container and extracted oil samples in grams W = weight of samples in grams

3.2

ANALYSIS OF THE SAMPLES

The oil samples extracted from each variety of tiger nut tuber were evaluated for : Free fatty acid (FFA), Peroxide value, Iodine value, specific gravity and smoke point.

3.2.1 DETERMINATION OF FREE FATTY ACID (FFA) The method described by Onwuka (2005) was used for the determination. precisely 25ml of diethyl ether, 25ml of alcohol, and 1ml of phenolphthalein solution (1%) were mixed together and carefully neutralized with 0.1M NaOH by titration. .Precisely 1g of oil from each sample was weighed in a conical flask and the neutralized solvent was added to the sample and then titrated with aqueous 0.1M NaOH shaking constantly until a pink colour which persisted for 15 second was obtained. This was repeated for the rest of the samples and % FFA, expressed as oleic acid was

calculated as follows: FFA (as % Oleic acid) = Titration (ml) X 0.0282 Weight of sample used FFA (%) = Where:
V 0.0282 W

V = volume of NaOH used during titration (ml) W = weight of sample (g) 3.2.2 DETERMINATION OF PEROXIDE VALUE The method described by Onwuka (2005) was adopted for the determination.Precisely 1g of oil was weighed into a dry conical flask and 1g of powdered potassium iodide and 20ml of solvent mixture ( acetic acid/chloroform, 2:1 (v/v)) were added to the sample). the flask was placed in a water bath set at 100oC for 30 minutes. In continuation, the contents mixture was transferred to a titrating flask containing 20ml of potassium iodide solution (5%) and the flask was washed twice with 25ml water and added into the titrating flask. The mixture was then titrated with 0.002M Sodium thiosulphate solution using starch as indicator. The blank was also performed at the same time. Calculation: Peroxide value = 2 V Meg/kg Where V = volume of Na2S2O3 used during titration (ml)

3.2.3 DETERMINATION OF IODINE VALUE

The method described by Morris (1999) was used for the determination.Precisely 0.5g of the oil sample was weighed into a glass stopper bottle of about 250ml and 15ml of chloroform was added to it and then 25ml of Wijs iodine solution, with the aid of a safety pipette, which was allowed to drain for a definite time. The stopper bottle was placed in a dark place and was allowed to stand for 30 minutes. At the end of the period, 20ml of 15 percent potassium iodide solution was stopped and shaked thoroughly. The sides of the bottle and the stopper was washed down with 100ml of distilled water. The mixture was titrated with standard 0.1 N sodium thiosulphate solution of which the reagent was added with constant shaking until the yellow colour of the iodine almost disappeared. About 2ml of 1 percent starch solution was added and the titration was continued until the blue black coloration disappeared. Blank determination on an equal portion of the wijs reagent was also carried out of which the pipette was also allowed to drain for the same length of time. Calculation: Iodine value = (b-a) x 1.269 Iodine Value =
(b a) 1.269 W

Weight of sample in grams

Where a = volume of the standard sodium thiosulphate used for the sample (ml). b = volume of the standard sodium thiosulphate used for the blank (ml). W= weight of sample (g). 3.2.4 DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY The specific gravities of the oil samples were determined using the method described by Onwuka (2005). A 50ml pyconometer bottle was thoroughly washed with detergent and water and then dried and weighed. The bottle was filled with water and weighed after which the bottle was dried and filled again with oil sample and then weighed again. This was repeated for the rest of the oil samples. Calculation: Specific gravity = weight of Xml of oil Weight of Xml of water

3.2.5 DETERMINATION OF SMOKE POINT The method described by Onwuka (2005) was adopted. About 20g of the oil was poured inside an evaporating dish with a thermometer suspended

at the centre of the dish ensuring that the bulb just dipped inside the oil without touching the bottom of the dish. The dish was placed on a stove and gradually, the temperature of the oil was raised. The temperature at which the oil samples gave off a thin bluish smoke continuously was noted as the smoke point in 0C.

CHAPTER FOUR 4.0 RESULT AND DISCUSSION The effect of drying temperatures conditions on the physicochemical properties of oil extracted from yellow and brown varieties of tiger nut tuber obtained from Zafara and Benue state were studied; as well as the relationship between drying conditions and varietal difference of these tiger nuts. Table1: Effect of drying on physicochemical parameters. Sample FFA (%) Yds YD60 YD120 YD180 BDs BD60 BD120 0.034a 0.019 b 0.015 c 0.012 c 0.013d 0.0010
d

PV

IV

oil yield

Specific gravity at

Smoke point (oC) 263.000

a

(Meq/kg) (Wijs) 2.833 a 2.267 b 1.867 c 1.807 cd 1.873 c 1.473e 0.793f 129.861 b 129.523
cd

(%) 300c 10.900 b 0.863 c 9.267 e 0.857 cd

247.333
c

128.930
de

10.767 c 0.853 df 0.863 c 0.860 cd 0.877 ab 0.883 a

241.667
ef

124.024 h 9.433 d 131.299 a 14.767a 129.607

bc

240.000
fg

252.667
b

8.200 h

244.000
d

0.009e

128.846 ef 8.833f

241.333

ef

BD180

0.007 e

0.633 g

125.716 g 8.333 g

0.877 ab

240.333
fg

The values are means of triplicate determinations. Means in the same column with different superscripts are significantly different at (P<0.05).

Where :

YDs = Yellow variety tiger nut tuber sun dried YD60 = yellow variety tiger nut tuber oven dried at 600C YD120 = yellow variety tiger nut tuber oven dried at 1200C YD180 = yellow variety tiger nut tuber oven dried at 1800C BDs = Brown variety tiger nut tuber sun dried BD60 = Brown variety tiger nut tuber oven dried at 600c BD120 = Brown variety tiger nut tuber oven dried at 1200c BD180 = Brown variety tiger nut tuber oven dried at 1800c

4.1.1 FREE FATTY ACID Free fatty acid is one of the products of odour and rancid flavour in fat and oil especially when they are more of short-chain length ( Norman and Hotchkiss, 2007 , Ogundele et al; 2006). Thus, it is a measure of hydrolytic rancidity of an oil (Arawande, 2008, Ihekoronye & Ngoddy, 1985 ). The free

fatty acid of oil extracted from the yellow and brown variety of tiger nut tuber subjected to sun drying and oven drying at 60, 120, and 180 respectively are shown in table 1 above. Results from this table reveal that the free fatty acid values were in the range of 0.70 3.4 % with oil from the sun dried yellow variety tiger nut tuber having the highest FFA value among all the samples. However the FFA values decreased when the tubers from both variety were dried at 60. and maintained a liner trend of decrease in the FFA of the oil extracted from the two variety as the drying temperatures was increased. The stability could be attributed to the high content of

4.1.2 PEROXIDE VALUE According to Norman and Hotchikiss (2007) the degree of oxidation that has taken place in a fat or oil can be expressed in terms of peroxide value. The results in table 1 show that the peroxide values of the oil samples ranged between 1.807 2.833 Meq/kg of oil. The peroxide values of all four samples decreased with increase in drying temperature however, the oil extracted from sun dried tiger nut tuber recorded the highest value. This can be probably attributed to prolonged sun drying of the tiger nut tuber which

may have promoted enzymatic hydrolysis, and therefore increase in FFA . The peroxide value of 10 meq/kg of oil has been recommended by SON (2000), as standard for fresh vegetable oil . All the oil samples conformed to this standard. This shows that all the oil samples would have stable shelf life as rancid taste often begins to be noticeable when peroxide value is between 20 and 40 meq/kg (Pearson, 1976, Oderinde and Ajayi 1998). . Under the influence of temperature, fat and oils are susceptible to oxidation primarily leading to the formation of hydroperoxides. Due to their high reactivity, these hydroperoxides especially at high temperature rapidly react with secondary oxidative products e.g. aldehydes, ketones, peroxides, hydrocarbons as well as cyclic compounds that may exhibit possible toxic or carcinogenic

properties (Kowalki, 1995). The values were equally lower than codex standard values of (10Meq/kg and 20Meq/kg) allowed for refined and unrefined olive oil respectively (FAO/WHO, 1993). However, the recorded PV values are higher than the value of 0.3 meq/kg reported by Shaker and coworkers (2009) for tiger nut oil.The different could be do the fact that PV values of oils depends on a number of factors such as the state of

oxidation( quantity of oxygen consume), the method of oil extraction used and the type of fatty acid present in the oil (Oluba and co-worker, 2008).

Statistically, the peroxide value of sample YDs and YD60 differed significantly at (P<0.05) however, there was no significant difference between sample YD120 and YD180 at (P>0.05). Also from table 1, the peroxide value of the oil samples from brown variety tiger nut tuber ranges from 0.633 1.873 meq/kg of oil. The results reveal that the peroxide values of all the samples decreased as the temperature was increased however, sample YDs recorded the highest value which suggest hydrolytic deterioration which must have probably taken place during the long period of sun drying of the tiger nut tuber. According to Kowalki (1995), fat and oils under the influence of temperature are susceptible to oxidation primarily leading to the formation of hydroperoxide which further reacts with secondary oxidative products like Ketones, aldehydes etc that is responsible for rancid and off flavour found in a rancid oil. However, the result in table 1 did not agree with this report and is probably attributed to the high content of monounsaturated fatty acid (Oleic acid) and tocopherol (gamma tocopherol) present in tiger nut oil (Tiger nut Traders, 2008). Reported from Tiger nut Traders (2008) equally shows that tiger nut oil does not show any important change in its structure when subjected to high temperature which could also be the reason why the peroxide value decreased as the oven temperature was increased. Thus, tiger

nut oil can be used in prevention and therapy of some cardiac and intestinal pathologies (www.tigernut.com). Statistically, all the oil samples differed significantly at (P<0.05) at the end of the drying process.

4.1.3 IODINE VALUE The degree of unsaturation of fatty acids in a fat or oil can be quantitatively expressed by the iodine value (Norman and Hotchikiss, 2007). From table 1, it shows that the iodine value of the oil samples extracted from tiger nut tuber subjected to different temperatures ranges from 124.024 129.861 wijs. It was discovered from the results that the iodine values of all the samples decreased with an increase in temperature.
The decrease in iodine values of the oil samples as the temperature was increased suggest the loss of unsaturation in the fatty acids of the triacylglycerols (Nzikou et al; 2010). The quantity of iodine absorbed is a measure of the degree of unsaturation of an oil or fat. Hence, the iodine value is generally expressed as the number of grams of iodine absorbed by 100g of the oil

(Morris, 1999). Since the iodine reacts at the sites of unsaturation, much as would hydrogen in hydrogenation, the higher the iodine value the greater the degree of unsaturation in the fat and oil (Norman and Hotchikiss 2007). The iodine values of all the oil samples were very close to the value (131 wijs) reported by Alasela (2006). However, the values were higher than values reported by Shaker et al; (2009) and Ezebor et al; (2005). The high values obtained suggest the presence of unsaturated fatty acid and this places the oil in the drying groups (Nzikou et al;

2010). Also, the values were above the range of codex standard values (80 106 Wijs) for groundnut oil however, the values were within the codex standard

values (124 139 wijs) for crude soybean oil (FAO\WHO, 1993). Statistically, all the samples were significantly different at (P<0.05) at the end of the drying. Table 1 also reveal that t he iodine values of oil samples from brown variety tiger nut tuber varied from 125.716 131.299 wijs. The result shows that the iodine value decreased as the temperature was increased, however, sample BDs had the highest iodine value of 131.299 wijs. This suggest that temperature of the sun has little if any effect at all on the iodine value of Brown variety tiger nut oil. Also, sample oven dried at 600c,1200c, and 1800c had the same trend of decrease in iodine value as the temperature was increased which was in agreement with the report from Nzikou and co-worker; (2010) which suggest loss of unsaturation in the fatty acids of the triacylglycerols. However, the values were higher than the value (104.2 wijs) reported by Ezebor et al; (2005) but were in agreement with the value (131 wijs) reported by Alasela (2006). The values equally conformed to the codex standard value (124- 139 wijs) for crude soybean oil (FAO/WHO, 1993). The high iodine values obtained in the oil samples suggest the presence of unsaturated fatty acid and this places the oil in the drying groups (Nzikou et al; 2010). Statistically, all the oil samples from the brown variety tiger nut tuber differed significantly at (P<0.05) at the end of the drying.

4.1.4 PERCENTAGE OIL YIELD This can be seen as the quantity of extractable oil present in a given quantity of an oil seed expressed in percentage. From table 1, the percentage oil yield ranges from 9.267 10.900%. The values did not follow a particular

linear trend which could be traced to method

of oil extraction (cold

extraction method) adopted. According to fellows (2009), solid-liquid extraction involves the removal of a desired component (the solute)from a food sample (oil seed) using a liquid (i.e. suitable solvent like Hexane, ethanol, petroleum ether, methanol etc.) which is able to dissolve the solute. Further studies by fellow (2009) indicates that extraction rate (% oil yield) is dependent on the temperature of extraction, the surface area of solid exposed to the solvent, the viscosity of the solvent and finally the flow rate of the solvent. Report by Ezebor et al; (2005) shows that yellow variety tiger nut tuber had a percentage oil yield of 22.3% after the solvent extraction. Which was higher than the values in table 1. This suggests that soxhlet extraction method is more efficient than cold extraction method since there were a significant difference between the percentage oil yields from both methods. Also, the values were not in agreement with the specification of codex Alimentarius commission of 20% oil content for edible oil (Pearson 1976). Since the percentage oil yield from the cold extraction method is low, it may limit the utilization of the method in vegetable oil industries. Statistically, all the samples were significantly different at (P<0.05) at the end of drying. Table 1 also reveal that the percentage oil yield from the brown variety tiger

nut tuber ranges form 8.333-14. 767%. The decrease in percentage oil yield from the tiger nut tuber did not follow a particular linear trend also which could be attributed to the inefficiency of the cold extraction method adopted. However, sample BDs recorded the highest percentage oil yield of 14.767%. This suggests that sun drying increases the percentage oil yield than over drying in the brown variety tiger nut tuber. The percentage oil yield from the entire sample fell below the codex alimentarius commission specification of 20% oil content for edible vegetable oil (Pearson, 1976). The yields were also below the value (20.4%0 reported for brown variety tiger nut tuber by Arubi (2009). This implies that cold extraction method is not a reliable means of oil extraction to be adopted by commercial oil processors. Fellow (2009) reported that percentage oil yield depends on the temperature of extraction, the surface area of the solid exposed to the solvent, the viscosity of the solvent as well as the flow rate of the solvent statistically, the result obtained from the percentage oil yield of the brown variety tiger nut tuber shows that all the samples differed significantly at (P < 0.05) at the end of the drying process.

4.1.5 SPECIFIC GRAVITY This is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a reference substance otherwise know as relative density. Table 1 shows that the relative density of the oil samples varied from 0.863 0.853. The values decreased as the temperature of the oven was increased however, when the tuber was subjected to a temperature of 1800c, there was an increase in the specific gravity of the oil. This suggests that there was no direct relationship between the temperature and specific gravity of oil extracted from yellow variety of tiger nut tuber. The values also suggests that the oil is less dense than water. According to Codex Alimentarius Commission, specific gravity of 0.919 0.925 at 200c have been recommended for soybean oil (FAO/WHO, 1993). However, the values were lower than the above specification but is within the range 0.86g/ml reported for water melon seed oil by Taiwo and co-workers(2008). This shows that the oil contains lower molecular weight of fatty acid (Mowla et al; 1990, Ching Kilang cho 2000). According to Hawley (1981), compounds containing several functional groups especially those groups that promote association have a specific gravity more than 1.0. Since all the oil samples had specific gravity less than 1.0 it implies that the samples were made up of fewer functional groups

within the triglyceride structures. Statistically, there was no significant difference at (P>0.05) among the samples at the end of drying. Table 1 equally shows that the relative density of the oil samples from the brown variety tiger nut tuber varies from 0.860- 0.883. The result revealed that there was no particular pattern or trend followed by the oil sample as the temperature was increased. This suggest that temperature has little or no direct relationship with the specific gravity of oil samples extracted from brown variety of tiger nut tuber. However, there was an increase in specific gravity as the temperature was increase to 600C, 1200C but later deceased when the tiger nut tuber was dried at 1800C. t The results from table 1 were

equally below the codex alimentarius commission specification (0.919-0.925 at 200C) for soybean oil (FAO/WHO, 1993). This suggest that the brown variety tiger nut oil contains low molecular weight of fatty acids (Mowla et al; 1990, ching Kuang Cho 2000). This also indicates the possible use of the oil in soap manufacture (Arubi 2009). Statistically, sample BDs and BD60 differed significantly at (P < 0.05) while sample BD120 and BD180 did not differ significantly at (P > 0.05) at the end drying processes.

4.1.6 SMOKE POINT

When a fat or oil is heated to a certain temperature, it starts to decompose producing a blue haze or smoke and a characteristics acrid smell. The temperature at which this occurs is known as smoke point (Gaman & Sherrington, 2001). The smoke points of different oil samples in table 1 ranges from 240.000 263.0000c. The smoke point of all the samples decreases with increase in the oven temperature. According to Onwuka (2005), the smoke point is used in determining the thermal stability of the oil. A good quality palm oil will have a smoke point at least 215 333 0c when fresh but this can be lowered by the free fatty acid present. The values of the smoke points of the oil samples were in agreement with this report. Studies from Ezigbo (2009), indicates that smoke point vary with the chain length of free fatty acid. Hence sample YDs and YD60 with smoke points (263.0000c and 247.0000c) respectively had higher free fatty acid values which is in agreement with the report. However, the degree of unsaturation of oil has little, if any effect on its smoke point (Hui, 1996). Sample YDs and YD60 were significantly different at (P<0.05) while there was no significant difference at (P>0.05) between sample YD120 and YD180. Table 1 also shows that the smoke point of oil of oil

Samples extracted from brown variety tiger nut tuber ranges form 240.333252.6670C. The result also reveal that the smoke points of the oil samples Decreased as the temperature was increased. However, sample BDs had the highest smoke point of 252.6670C. According to report from Ezigbo (2009), smoke point vary with the chain length of the free fatty acid which was in agreement with the result in table 1. The values were equally within the range (215-3330C) reported by Onwuka (2005) for a good quality palm oil. Statistically, sample BDs and BD60 differed significantly at (P <0.05) while there was not significant difference between sample BD120 and BD180 at (P> 0.05).

Table 2. Relationship between drying condition and variety

SA MP LE Ds D60 D120 D180

FFA as % oleic

PV meq/g

IV Wijs

% oil yield

Specific gravity

Smoke point
0

Y B Y B Y B Y B Y B Y B 0.034 0.013 2.833 1.873 129.86 131.29 10.90 14.76 0.863 0.860 263.00 252.66
a d a c

1b

9a

0b

7a

cd

0a

7b

0.019 0.001 2.267 1.473 129.52 129.60 9.267 8.200 0.857 0.877 247.33 244.00
b

0d

3cd

7bc

cd

ab

3c

0d

0.015 0.009 1.867 0.793 128.93 128.84 10.76 8.833 0.853 0.883 241.66 241.33
c e c f

0de

6ef

7c

df

7ef

3ef

0.012 0.007 1.807 0.633 124.02 125.71 9.433 8.333 0.863 0.877 240.00 240.33
c e cd g

4h

6g

ab

0fg

3fg

The values are mean of triplicate determination. Means in the same column with different superscript are significant difference at (P < 0.05) Where y = yellow variety tiger nut tuber B = Brown variety tiger nut tuber Ds = Sun dried D60 = Oven dried at 600C D120 = Oven dried at 1200C D180 = Oven dried at 1800C

4.3.1 FREE Fatty Acid Free fatty acid is one of the products of odour and rancid flavour in fat and oils especially when they are more of short-chain length

(Norman and Hatchikiss, 2007, Ogundele et al; 2006). Thus, it is a measure of hydrolytic randicty of an oil (Arawande 2008, Ihekoronye & Ngoddy 1985). Table 2 shows the relationship between drying conditions and variety on the physicochemical properties of tiger nut oil from two varieties of tiger nut tuber. The data obtained for free fatty acid of the two varieties indicate that the free fatty acid varies form 0.007-0.034%. The results indicate that oil

from sun dried tiger nut tuber had highest free fatty acid content among the samples but the FFA of the oil from sun dried yellow variety tuber (0.034% oleic) was higher than the oil form sun dried brown variety tuber (0.013% oleic). Generally, the rest of other oil samples maintained a linear trend of decrease as the temperature was increased. This suggest that oils form brown variety tiger nut tuber are more hydrolytically stable than the yellow variety and thus will have a higher shelf life (Oyedeji et al; 2006). The difference in the results between the oil from the two varieties could be probably traced from the difference in their fatty acid composition, tocopherol content, soil type as well as agronomic practices. The data obtained were below the values (0.3 and 0.4% oleic) reported by Arubi (2009) for oil from yellow and brown variety tiger nut tuber respectively. This is probably attributed to difference in conditions of manufacture, age and storage (Morris 1999). Statistically, oil samples YDs and YD60 differed significantly at (P < 0.05) while oil samples (YD120 and YD180, BDs and BD60, BD120 and BD180) did not differ significantly at (P > 0.05) respectively. 4.3.2 PEROXIDE VALUE Is the measure of primary product of lipid oxidation (oxidative rancidity) (Rossel, 1994). Seed oil or nuts are known to deteriorate when

processed inadequately with the principal decomposition reaction being oxidation which occur by free radical mechanism, initially characterized by the emergence of a sweetish and unpleasant odour which becomes progressively worse until it attains a characteristic smell of rancid fat

(Grouveia et al; 2004). Data obtained in table 2 reveal that peroxide value of oil form the yellow and brown variety tiger nut tuber varied from 0.63-2.83 meg/kg. The result also indicates that the oil from the yellow variety tiger nut tuber had higher peroxide values (1.81-2.83 meq/kg) than the oil from brown variety tiger nut tuber which had peroxide values (0.63-1.87Meq/kg). Generally, all the oil samples from the two varieties recorded a linear trend of decrease in peroxide value as the temperature was increased but was more pronounced in the oil from sun dried tubers which had peroxide values (2.833 and1.873meq/g) respectively. This suggest that tiger nut oil is more prone to hydrolytic rancidity than oxidative rancidity since there was a decrease in the peroxide values of oil from other samples as the temperature was increased. The high peroxide values recorded in the oil from the sun dried tubers samples could be attributed to prolong period of sun drying which must have promoted hydrolytic rancidity in the tiger nut tuber. It was also discovered from the result in table 2 that the oil form the brown variety tiger nut tuber

were thermally and hydrolytically more stable than the oil from the yellow variety tiger nut tuber since all the oil samples from the yellow variety tiger nut tuber had a peroxide values higher than the oil from the brown variety tiger nut tuber. The low peroxide value recorded in oil samples from brown variety tiger nut tubers as the temperature was increased also indicates slow oxidation of the oil samples according to Damain (1990). It also suggests that the oil will have a high induction period than the yellow variety. The probably attributed to their differences in fatty acid

variance could be

composition, vitamin E content (Tocopherol), soil type as well as agronomic practices. Nevertheless, all the oil samples from the two variety tiger nut tubers had peroxide values below the codex standard (10meq/kg) for freshly refined vegetable oil. This suggests the edibility and freshness of tiger nut oil even without refining (Tiger nut Traders, 2008). The result of the statistical analysis revealed that there was no significant difference among the oil samples (YD120, YD180 and BDs) at (P >0.05) while oil samples (YDS, YD60, BD120 and BD180) differed significantly at (P < 0.05) 4.3.3 IODINE VALUE

This is the measure of the degree of unsaturation in oil and it is an identity characteristic of native oil which is an indicatives of the degree of unsaturation in the fatty acid of triacylglycerol which can be used to quantify the amount of double bonds present in an oil and evaluate the susceptibility of oil to oxidation (Nzikou et al; 2010 ). Result from table 2, indicates that the iodine values of oil form the two varieties tiger nut tuber varies from 124.024-131.299 wijs. The result from the two varieties were comparable however, the oil from the brown variety tiger nut tuber recorded higher iodine values than the oil from the yellow variety tiger nut tuber. Also, there was a linear trend of decrease in the iodine value as the temperature was increased. This suggests the loss of degree of unsaturation in the fatty acids of the triacylglycerols (Nzikou 2010). According to Arawande and Ademulegun (2009) report, the increase in Iodine value is always accompanied with decrease in peroxide value owing to more C = C unsaturated double bond that are present in the oil that is left to be oxidized therefore leaving more C =C unsaturated double bond in the oil for iodination reaction during Iodine value determination. The results in table 2, is not in agreement with this report probably because oil from tiger nut tuber is hydrolytically and thermally stable. The difference in the results of Iodine

values of tiger nut oil from the two varieties could be attributed to varietals differences as well as difference in agronomic practices. From statistical analysis, sample (YDs, BDs, YD180 and BD180) different significantly at (p < 0.05) while sample (YD60, YD120, BD60, and BD120) were significantly the same at (P > 0.05). 4.3.4 PERCENTAGE OIL YIELD Apart from the use of hydraulic pressing machine, use of solvent extraction method which involves the process of leaching out soluble

constituent (non-polar) present as a solid or liquid from a solid or from a liquid by means of a solvent (Richardson 1993). According to Mcclement (2003), solvent extraction technique is one of the most commonly used methods of isolating lipids from food samples and of determining the total lipids content (percentage oil yield). Table 2 shows that the percentage oil yield of oil from two varieties of tiger nut tuber ranges from 8.333-14.767%. The sun dried samples from both variety (YDs and BDs) had the highest % oil yield of (10.9000 and 14.767 %) respectively while oven dried samples recorded a low % oil yield when the tubers were dried at 600C. However, when the tubers were dried at 1200C, there was an increase in % oil yield which later decreased again when the tubers were dried at 1800C. This

indicates that there was no linear trend in the percentage oil yield as the temperature was increased. However, the result from the two varieties followed the same pattern of rising and falling as the temperature was increased. All the data generated from the two varieties tiger nut oil fell below the codex alimentarius commission standard of 20% oil content (percentage oil yield) for edible vegetable oil (Pearson 1976). The results also fell below the values reported by Ezebor and co-worker (2005), Arubi (2009). This could be attributed to the difference in methods of oil extraction used. The results also indicate that cold extraction method is not a reliable method of extracting oil from tiger nut tubers. Sample BDs was closer to the value (15% oil content) reported by Tiger nut Traders (2008) for mechanically pressed tiger nut oil. From statistical analysis, all the oil samples from the two varieties were significantly different at (P < 0.05). 4.3.5 SPECIFC GRAVITY Is one of the physical analyses used in predicting the quality of oil extracted from an oil seed or nut. It has a linear relationship with the saponification value of oil and can be used in predicting the suitability of an oil for soap and shampoo manufacture (Karim 2009). Data obtained in table 2 revealed that the specific gravity of oil samples extracted from the two

varieties of tiger nut tubers varied from 0.853-0.883. the result of the specific gravity of oil from the two varieties were comparable however there was no specific pattern of increase or decreases as the temperature was increased among the samples. Nevertheless, when the tiger nut tuber from the brown variety was oven dried at 600C and 1200c, there was an increase in specific gravity of the oil while sample from the yellow variety decrease when subjected to the same temperatures. But when the temperature was increased to 1800C sample from the brown variety decreased while sample from the yellow variety increase in the specific gravity of their oil. Also, all the specific gravities of all the oil samples from the two varieties did not fall within the codex specification (0.919-9.25) for soybean (FAO/WHO, 1993) . the differences could be attributed to temperature difference, geographical location, as well as differences in agronomic practices. However, the values were similar to the values (0.86) reported by Taiwo and co-workers (2008) for water melon seed oil. Sample (YDs, YD60, YD120, YD180 and BDs) and sample (BD60, BD120 and BD180) were significantly the same at (P > 0.05). 4.3.6 SMOKE POINT

This is one of the factors used in the selection of oil for deep-frying application. Oil smoke as a result of the decomposition of volatile compounds from the oil followed by the production of a blue haze or smoke and a characteristic burnt odour usually at a temperature above 2000C (Gaman and sherrington, 1977). Table 2 shows the comparison of the smoke points of oil extracted from the two varieties of tiger nut tubers subjected to different drying temperatures. The result revealed that the smoke point of the oil samples from the two varieties were within the ranges 240.000-263.0000C. The values from the two varieties were comparable. The data from the two varieties for smoke point also showed a linear trend of decrease in their smoke points as the temperature was increased which is in agreement with the report by Ezigbo (2009). This implies that the smoke point of the oil samples from the two varieties tiger nut tubers varies with their chain length of free fatty acid. The results were equally within the range (215-3330C) reported by Onwuka (2005) for a good quality palm oil. This suggests that the oil samples from the two varieties were thermally stable and could be used for deep frying operations (Gaman and Sherrington 1977). The difference among the smoke points of the oil from the two varieties could be attributed to their differences in fatty acid composition,

Varietal differences, geographical difference, differences in soil types as well as agronomic differences. Oil samples from (YDs, BDs, YD60 and BD60) were significantly different at (P < 0.05) however, there was no significant difference among sample (YD120, BD120, YD180 and BD180 at (P > 0.05).

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION This study showed that oven drying tiger nut tubers especially at 1800C is the best temperature for drying tiger nut tubers for oil extraction since the results revealed that at this temperature, oil samples from the two variety had the lowest value of peroxide value and free fatty acid which are

important variable in considering the quality of an oil because the lower the values ( PV and FFA) the better the quality of the oil. The varietal differences as well as differences in geographical locations had the least significant effect on the quality of the oil samples from the two varieties at that temperature also. The oil samples from the brown variety tiger nut tuber are preferred because of its low PV and FFA values. This implies generally, that the tiger nut oil from both varieties can be rated as one of the best oil suitable for deep-trying, long term storage, soap

making and other industrial applications since they are hydrolytically and thermally stable.

RECOMMENDATION Based on findings from this work, the use of oven drying instead of sun drying should be encouraged as a preparatory step in processing of tiger nut tubers for oil extraction. Further studies should be carried out to determine the effect of drying temperatures and time on the induction time, chemical kinetics, fatty acid composition and vitamin E content of tiger nut oil from tiger nut tubers so as to evaluate the overall stability and behaviours of the oil at different temperatures and times.

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APPENDIX 1 Table 4: STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF FREE FATTY ACID Replica YDs t 1 2 3 Total Mean 0.03 4 0.03 4 0.03 4 0.10 2 0.03 0.02 0 0.01 7 0.02 0 0.05 7 0.01 0.014 0.014 0.01 1 0.014 0.011 0.01 4 0.017 0.011 0.01 4 0.045 0.036 0.03 9 0.015 0.012 0.01 0.00 8 0.01 1 0.01 1 0.03 0 0.01 YD60 YD120 YD180 BDs BD60 BD12
0

BD18
0

Sum of Sample

s 0.008 0.006 0.115 0.011 0.006 0.118 0.008 0.008 0.123 0.027 0.020 0.356 0.009 0.007

SD + -

4 0.00 0

9 0.00 2

3 0.002 0.002 0.00 2

0 0.00 2

0.002 0.001

Correction factor (CF) = Grand total of sum of Samples rt where r = number of replication = 3 t = number of treatment/samples = 8 CF = 0.3562 = 0.127 3X8 24

= 0.0052917 Sum of squares sample (SSS) = 0.1022 + 0.0572 + 0.0452+ 0.0202 CF 3 = 0.0205240 0.0052917 3 = 0.0068413 0.0052917 = 0.0015496 Sum of Square Total (SST) = 0.0342 x 3 + 0.0202 x 2 +0.0172 x 2 + 0.0142 x 5 + 0.0062 x 2 CF

= 0.0068800 0.0052917 = 0.0015883 Sum of Square Error (SSE) = SST SSS = 0.0015883 0.0015496 = 0.0000387 Total Degree of Freedom (TDF) = Total number of samples (n) Mean degree of freedom (1) = n-1 = 24 1 = 23 Total degree of samples (TDS) = Number of samples Mean Degree of freedom = 8-1 =7 Error Degree of freedom (EDF) = TDF TDS = 23 7 = 16 Treatment Mean Square (TMS) = SSS TDS

= 0.0000387 16 = 0.000024 Variance Ratio of the F-statistics F-cal of sample i.e F-treatment = TMS = 0.0002214 EMS = 92.25 Variance Ratio table at 5% level distribution F- tab for sample = Error degree of freedom under total degree of sample = 16 under 7 = 2.59 Table 5: ANOVA TABLE Sources of variance Sample Error 7 16 0.001549 6 0.000038 7 0.000221 4 0.000002 4 92.25D 2.59 DF SS MS F-cal F-tab 0.0000024

Total

23

0.001588 3

Since F_cal > F-tab, there is significant difference among the sample at 5% level of significance. Hence, mean separation. Least significant Difference, LSD = Error d.f X Sd Error d.f from t-table, t05/2, 16 = 2.120 Sd = Standard Error =
2S2 r

Where S2 = M. S for Error = 0.0000024 r = number of replications = 3 2 = constant for equal replication Sd =
2 x 0.000024 3

0.0000016

= 0.0012649 LSD = Error d.f X Sd = 2.120 x 0.0012649 = 0.0027 Any 2 sample differing by 0.0027 or more is significantly different at 5% level of probability.

Arranging the means in the order of magnitude YDs 0.034 BD60 0.010 YD60 0.019 BD120 0.009 YD120 0.015 BD180 0.007 BDs 0.013 YD180 0.012

0.034 0.034 0.034 0.034 0.034 0.034 0.034

Mean 0.007 0.009 0.010 0.012 0.013 0.015 0.19

Difference 0.027 0.025 0.024 0.022 0.021 0.019 0.015

LSD 0.0027 D 0.0027 D 0.0027 D 0.0027 D 0.0027 D 0.0027 D 0.0027 D

0.019

0.007 0.009 0.010 0.012 0.013 0.015 Mean 0.007 0.009 0.010 0.012 0.013 0.007 0.009 0.010 0.012

0.012 0.010 0.009 0.007 0.006 0.004 Difference 0.008 0.006 0.005 0.003 0.002 0.006 0.004 0.003 0.001

0.0027 D 0.0027 D 0.0027 D 0.0027 D 0.0027 D 0.0027 D LSD 0.0027 D 0.0027 D 0.0027 D 0.0027 D 0.0027 N.S 0.0027 D 0.0027 D 0.0027 D 0.0027 N.S

0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.013

0.012

0.007 0.009 0.010 0.007 0.009 0.007

0.005 0.003 0.002 0.003 0.001 0.002

0.0027 D 0.0027 D 0.0027 N.S 0.0027 D 0.0027 N.S 0.0027 N.S

0.010

0.009

YDs 0.034a BD60 0.010d

YD60 0.019b BD120 0.009e

YD120 0.015c BD180 0.007e

BDs 0.013d

YD180 0.012c

YDs = Difference YD60 = Difference

BDs and YD180 = same BD120 and BD180 = same

Statically, the free fatty Acid of the samples (YDs and YD60) differed significantly at 5% level of significant. However, sample (YD120 and BD180) were significantly the same.

Appendix 2 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF PEROXIDE VALUES Table 6: ANOVA TABLE Source of DF variance (SOV) Sample Error Total 7 16 23 11.056800 0.0421333 11.0989333 1.579542 9 0.002633 599.83D 2.59 SS MS Fcal Ftab

YDs 2.833a BD60 1.473e YDs = diff YD60 = diff YD120= same

YD60 2.267b BD120 0.793f BD60 = diff BD12 = diff YD180 = same

BDs 1.873e BD180 0.633g BD180 diff BDs same = =

YD120 1.867c

YD180 1.807cd

APPENDIX 3 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF IODINE VALUE Table 7: ANOVA TABLE Source of DF variance (SOV) Sample Error Total 7 16 23 120.153 4.4243060 124.577306 17.164714 3 0.2765191 62.07D 2.59 SS MS Fcal Ftab

BDs 131.299a BD120 128.846ef BDs = diff

YDs 129.861b BD180 125.716g

BD60 129.607bc YD180 124.024h

YD60 129.523cd

YD120 128.930de

YDs, BD60 and YD60 = same YD120 and BD120= same BD180 = diffenernce APPENDIX 4 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF PERCENTAGE OF OIL YIELD TABLE 8: ANOVA TABLE Source of DF variance (SOV) Sample Error Total 7 16 23 96.9762500 13.853750 0.0400000 97.0162500 0 0.002500 5541.50D 2.59 SS MS Fcal Ftab

BDs 14.767a BD120 8.833f BDs =diff YD60 =diff

YDs 10.900b BD 8.333g YDs = diff BD120=diff

YD120 10.767c BD60 8.200h YD120 =diff BD180=diff

YD180 9.433d

YD60 9.267e

YD180 = diff BD60=diff

APPENDIX 5 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY Table 9: ANOVA TABLE Sources of DF variance (SOV) Sample Error Total 7 16 23 0.002466 6 0.000666 7 0.003133 3 BD120 0.883a BDs 0.860cd BD60 0.877ab YD60 0.857cd BD180 0.877ab YD120 0.853df YDs 0.863c YD180 0.863c 0.000352 4 0.000041 7 8.46D 2.59 SS MS F-cal F-tab

BD120, BD60 and BD180 = same YDs, YD180 and BDs = same YD60 and YD120 = same

APPENDIX 6 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF SMOKE POINT Table 10: ANOVA TABLE source variance (SOV) Sample Error Total 7 16 23 1341.62466 7 17.3333330 1358.95800 0 YDs 263.000a BD120 241.333ef BDs 252.667b BD180 240.333fg YDs 247.333c YD180 240.000fg BD60 244.000d YD120 241.667ef 191.660666 7 1.0833333 176.92D 2.59 of DF SS MS F-cal F-cal

YDs = diff YD60 = diff BDs = diff BD60 = diff

YD120 and BD120 = same BD60 and YD180 = same