Army Construction Manual FM5 430 Vol1 Entire

Field Manual
No. 5-430-00-1
Air Force Joint Pamphlet
No. 32-8013. Vol I
FM 5-430-00-1
AFJPAM 32-8013. Vol I
Headquarters
Department of the ..
Department of the Air Force
WashIngton. DC. 26 August 1994
..... A .......... " A ........... ... "" ....... "" A .... "" A ................. "" A .... _ _ ..... __ ... ""
r'L"'I'tI'tIl'tU "'1'tU vr "'NU nCLIt'Un I
IN THE THEATER OF OPERATIONS-ROAD DESIGN
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Volume I
Page
PREFACE .................................................................... v
CHAPTER 1. GENERAL INFORMATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1-1
General Information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1-1
Basic Planning Considerations In the Theater of Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1-1
Airfield Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1-2
Road Construction ....................................................... , 1-2
Engineering Study ........................................................ 1-3
CHAPTER 2. SITE SELECTION AND RECONNAISSANCE ............................ 2-1
Location Factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1
Reconnaissa.'t')ce ..... , ..................................................... 2-5
Route and Road Reconnaissance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-11
Engineer Reconnaissance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14
Airfield Reconnaissance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14
CHAPTER 3. SURVEYS AND EARTHWORK OPERATIONS ........................... 3-1
Construction Surveys ...................................................... 3-1
Construction Stakes ....................................................... 3-3
The Mass Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-19
DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release; distribution Is unlimited.
"'This pubiication together with FM 5-430-00-2iAFJpAM 32-8013, Voi Il, 29 September
1994 supersedes FM 5-165/AFR 86-13,29 August 1975, FM 5-335,2 December 1985 and TM
5-330/AFM 83-6, Voll, 8 September 1968.
/
FM 5-430-00-lIAFJPAM 32-8013, Vol I
CHAPTER 4. CLEARING. GRUBBING. AND STRIPPING ............................. 4-1
Forest Types and Environmental Conditions ................................... 4-1
Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2
Clearing Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4
Performance Techniques ................................................... 4-6
CHAPTER 5. SUBGRADES AND BASE COURSES ................................. 5-1
Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5- 1
Subgrades ............................................................... 5-4
Select Materials and Subbase Courses ........................................ 5-8
Base Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5-10
CHAPTER 6. DRAINAGE ...................................................... 6-1
SECTION I. Construction Drainage .......................................... 6-1
Preliminary Measures ...................................................... 6-1
Drainage Hydrology ....................................................... 6-4
The Hydrograph .......................................................... 6-9
Drainage-System Design .................................................. 6-11
Design Proced ures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6- 11
Estimating Runoff Using the Rational Method ................................. 6-22
SECTION Il. Open-Channel Design ......................................... 6-38
Design Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-38
Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-45
Design Techniques ....................................................... 6-46
SECTION Ill. Culverts .................................................... 6-59
Culvert Types and Designs ................................................ 6-59
Ponding Areas ........................................................... 6-84
Drop Inlets and Gratings .................................................. 6-89
Subsurface Drainage ..................................................... 6-92
SECTION IV. Surface Drainage Design in Arctic and Subarctic Regions ........... 6-102
Fords. Dips. Causeways. and Bridges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-107
Erosion Control ........................................................ 6-114
Nonuse Areas and Open Channels ......................................... 6-115
Culvert Outlets ......................................................... 6-124
CHAPTER 7. SOILS TRAFFICABILITY ........................................... 7-1
Basic Trafficability Factors ................................................. 7-2
Critical Layer ............................................................ 7-3
Instruments and Tests for Trafficability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3
Measuring Trafficabil1ty .................................................... 7-5
Application of Trafficability Procedures in Fine-Grained
Soils and Remoldable Sands .............................................. 7-11
FM 5-430-00-1/AFJPAM 32-8013, Vol I
Self-Propelled. Tracked Vehicles and AIl-Wheel-Drive
Vehicles Negotiating Slopes ............................................... 7-11
Operation In Coarse-Grained Soils ..........................................
Trafflcab1l1ty Data ........................................................ I
Traffic ab ili ty Classification ............................................. 7
CHAPTER 8. MAINTENANCE. REPAIR. AND REHABILITATION OF
ROADS. AIRFIELDS. AND HELIPORTS ........................................ 8-1
Maintenance and Repair Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1
Maintenance and Repair Operations ............................. , ........ , , , . 8-2
Road Maintenance ........................................................ 8-9
Airfield and Heliport Maintenance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17
CHAPTER 9. ROAD DESIGN. " .............. " ., ............................. 9-1
Geometric Design ......................................................... 9-1
Vertical Alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Structurai Design ........................................................
Spray Applications and Expedient-Surfaced Roads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-30
Use of Polymer Cells (Sand Grid) to Build
Roads in Sandy Soils .................................................. .
Surface Treatments .................................................... .
Construction Methods .................................................. .
General Road Structural Design .......................................... .
Volume 11
9-36
9-41

9-58
10. ........................ t 10-1
Mission Assignment ...................................................... 10-1
Classification ............................................................ 10-5
Construction ............................................................ 10-8
CHAPTER 11. AIRCRAFT CHARACTERISTICS AND AIRFIELD DESIGN ................ 11-1
Aircraft Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11-1
Correlation of Army and Air Force Terminology .............................. " 11-1
Airfield Design ........................................................ " 11-6
Aids to Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11-31
Special Airfields ........................................................ 11-50
CHAPTER 12. AIRFIELD PAVEMENT DESIGN .................................... 12-1
Airfield Structure 1'ype .................................................... 12-1
Expedient-Surfaced Airfields ....................... , , , , , , .... , . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12-8
Aggregate-Surfaced Airfields .............................................. 12-22
Flexible-Pavement Airfields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12-35
Special Design Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-43
Evaluation of Airfield Pavements ........................................... 12-50
Pavement and Airfield Classification Numbers ................................ 12-61
III
FM 5-430-00-1/AFJPAM 32-8013, Vol I
CHAPTER 13. DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF HELIPORTS A .... l\lD HEL!pft.nS ......... 13-1
'fypes of Helicopters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13-1
Heliport Types, DesIgn Criteria, and Layout. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13-1
DesIgn of Heliport and Helipad Surfaces .................................... 13-15
Design of Unsurfaced Heliports ............................................ 13-15
Mat- and Membrane-Surfaced HeUports and Helipads .......................... 13-21
Thickness Design Procedure ............................................. , 13-23
Special Design Considerations ............................................. 13-27
Marking and Lighting of Heliports and Hel1pads .............................. 13-27
Hellpads in Heaviiy Forested Areas ......................................... 13-32
CHAPTER 14. FORTIFICATIONS FOR PARKED ARMY AIRCRAFT .................... 14-1
Aircraft FortifIcations ..................................................... 14-1
Maintenance, Repairs, and Improvements .................................. , 14-48
APPENDIX A. r-.. 1ETPJC COl\TVERSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. A-I
APPENDIX B. GEOTEXTILE FORMULAS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. B-1
APPENDIX C. HYDROLOGIC AND HYDRAULIC TABLES AND CURVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. C-l
APPENDIX D. CONE INDEX REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. D-l
APPENDIX E. SOIL-TRAFFICABILITY TEST SET. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. E-l
APPENDIX F. CURVE TABLES ..... , .............. " . ... ... . ...... .. .. .. . ..... F-l
APPENDIX G. FROST DESIGN FOR ROADS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. G-l
APPENDIX H. GEOTEXTILE DESIGN .... , ...................................... H-l
APPENDIX 1. AIRFIELD CONE PENETROMETER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. I-I
APPENDIX J. DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATION OF DUAL-MASS DYNAMIC CONE
PENETROMETER ......................................................... J-l
APPENDIX K. FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT EVALUATION CURVES .................... " ... K-l
APPENDIX L. MAT REQUIREMENT TABLES FOR AIRFIELDS ........................ L-l
APPENDIX M. MAT REQUIREMENT TABLES FOR HELIPADS AND HELIPORTS ........ M-I
APPENDIX N. MEMBRANES AND MATS ......................................... N-I
APPENDIX O. PAVEMENT CLASSIFICATION NUMBER GRAPHS ...................... 0-1
APPENDIX P. BALLISTIC DATA ................................................ P-l
GLOSSARY ........................................................... Glossary-I
REFERENCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. References-l
Iv
PREFACE
Field Man u al (FM) 5-430 is in t en ded for u s e
a s a t r a in in g gu ide a n d r efer en ce t ext for en -
gin eer per s on n el r es pon s ible for plan n in g,
des ign in g, an d con s t r u ct in g r oads , air fields ,
a n d h elipor t s in t h e t h ea t er of oper a t ion s
(TO).
FM 5-430 is divided in t o t wo s epar at e vol-
u mes t o ma ke it mor e us er-friend ly . FM 5-
430-00-1/ AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1, Road De-
s ign , en compas s es Ch apt er s 1 t h r ou gh 9
an d Appen dices A t h r ou gh H. FM 5-430-00-
2/ AFJ PAM 32-8013, Vol II, Airfield and Heli-
port Des ign, en compas s es Ch apt er s 10
t h r ou gh 14 an d Appen dices I t h r ou gh P.
FM 5-430-00-l/ AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1 is a
s tand-alone volu me for t h e des ign of TO
r oads . Th is volu me als o s er ves as a de-
t a iled des cr ipt ion of in for ma t ion common t o
bot h r oads an d air fields , s u ch as s it e s elec-
t ion , s u r vey a n d ea r t h wor k, clea r in g a n d
gr u bbin g, bas e an d s u bbas e cou r s es , an d
dr a in a ge.
FM 5-430-00-2 / AFJ PAM 32-8013, Vol II
s er ves as t h e bas is for air field an d h elipor t
des ign . It dis cu s s es t h e complet e pr oces s
of a ir field a n d h elipor t con s t r u ct ion fr om
t h e pr elimin a r y in ves t iga t ion s , t h r ou gh de-
s ign cr it er ia , t o t h e fin a l pr oject la you t a n d
con s t r u ct ion t ech n iqu es . It is n ot a s t a n d -
alone volu me. FM 5-430-00-1/ AFPAM 32-
8013, Vol 1 con t a in s mu ch of t h e in for ma -
t ion r equ ir ed t o des ign t h e s u bs t r u ct u r e of
a n a ir field or a h elipor t .
Th e ma t er ia l in t h is ma n u a l a pplies t o a ll
levels of en gin eer in volvemen t in t h e TO.
Th e man u al is in t en ded t o be u s ed by
Un it ed St a t es (US) Ar my Cor ps of En gin eer s
per s on n el.
Th e pr ovis ion s of t h is pu blicat ion ar e t h e
s u bject of t h e followin g in t er n a t ion a l a gr ee-
men t s :
Qu a dr ipa r t it e St a n da r diza t ion Agr ee-
men t [QSTAG) 306, Amer ica n -Br it is h -
Ca n a dia n -Au s t r a lia n Ar mies St a n -
FM 5-430-00-1/AFJPAM 32-8013, Vol I
da r diza t ion Pr ogr a m, Fort if ica t ion f or
Park ed Aircraft.
Nor t h At la n t ic Tr ea t y Or ga n iza t ion
(NATO) St a n da r diza t ion Agr eemen t
(STANAG) 3158 Air field Mar kin g an d
Ligh t in g (AML) (Edit ion 4), Day Mark ing
of Airfield Runw ay s and Taxiw ay s .
STANAG 2929, Airfield Damage Repair.
STANAG 3346 AML (Edit ion 4), Mark ing
and Lighting of Airfield Obs tructions .
STANAG 3601 Air Tr an s por t (TN) (Edi-
t ion 3), Criteria for Selection and Mark -
ing of Landing Zones for Fixed Wing
Trans port Aircraft.
STANAG 3619 AML (Edit ion 2) (Amen d-
men t 2), Helipad Mark ing.
STANAG 3652 AML (Amen dmen t 3), Heli-
pad Lighting, Vis ual Meteorological Con-
ditions (VMC).
STANAG 3685 AML, Airfield Portable
Mark ing.
Th is pu blica t ion a pplies t o t h e Air Na t ion a l
Gu ar d (ANG) wh en pu blis h ed in t h e Na-
t ion a l Gu a r d Regu la t ion (NGR) (AF) 0-2.
Th is pu blicat ion , t oget h er wit h FM 5-430-00-
2/ AFJ PAM 32-8013, Vol H: Air field an d Heli-
por t Des ign (t o be pu blis h ed), will s u per -
s ede TM 5-330/ AFM 86-3, Volu me II, 8 Sep-
t ember 1968 an d FM 5-165/ AFP 86-13, 29
Au gu s t 1975.
Th e pr opon en t for t h is pu blica t ion is t h e
US Ar my En gin eer Sch ool (USAES). Sen d
commen t s a n d r ecommen da t ion s on Depa r t -
men t of t h e Ar my (DA) For m 2028 (Recom-
men ded Ch an ges t o Pu blicat ion s an d Blan k
For ms ) dir ect ly t o
Comma n da n t
US Ar my En gin eer Sch ool
ATSE-TDM
For t Leon ar d Wood, MO 65473-5000.
Un les s t h is pu blica t ion s t a t es ot h er wis e,
ma s cu lin e n ou n s a n d pr on ou n s do n ot r efer
exclu s ively t o men .
v
1
General Information
Basic Planning Considerations in the Theater of Operations
Airfield Construction
Road Construction
Engineering Study
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
GENERAL INFORMATION
Army e n gin e e rs pla n , d e s ign , a n d con s t ru ct a irf ie ld s , h e liport s ,
a n d roa d s in t h e TO. To e n s u re t h e s e f a cilit ie s me e t propos e d
re qu ire me n t s , t h e re s pon s ible e n gin e e r of f ice r mu s t coord in a t e
clos e ly w it h a ll a ppropria t e grou n d a n d a ir comma n d e rs . Th e
e n gin e e r d e pe n d s on t h e a ppropria t e comma n d e rs f or in f orma -
tion on the w eight and traffic frequency of us ing aircraft, facility
lif e , ge ogra p h ic b ou n d a rie s gov e rn in g s it e s e le ct ion , a n d t h e
time available for cons truction as d ictated by the operation plan.
De t a ile d p la n n in g, re con n a is s a n ce , a n d s it e in v e s t iga t ion s a re
often limited by lack of time and by the tactical s ituation. How -
even w hen time and s ecurity permit, the engineer s hould cond uct
n orm a l grou n d re con n a i s s a n ce a n d on -s i t e i n v e s t i ga t i on s . If
t h is is n ot pos s ible , t h e e n gin e e r s h ou ld obt a in ph ot ogra ph s of
t h e a rea .
BASIC PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS IN THE THEATER OF
OPERATIONS
Ar my en gin eer s s h ou ld u s e t h e followin g
gu ides in t h e TO:
Keep des ign s s imple. Simple des ign s r e-
qu ir e min imu m s killed labor an d s pe-
cia lized ma t er ia ls .
Us e local mat er ials wh en ever pos s ible.
Th is h elps elimin at e con s t r u ct ion delays
a s s ocia t ed wit h a lon g commu n ica t ion s
an d logis t ics lin e.
Us e exis t in g facilit ies wh en ever pos -
s ible. Th is h elps avoid u n n eces s ar y con -
s t r u ct ion .
Remember t h a t s a fet y fa ct or s in des ign
ar e dr as t ically r edu ced in t h e TO be-
ca u s e of t ime con s t r a in t s a n d t h e in -
h er en t r is ks of wa r .
Bu ild on e of t wo t ypes of s t r u ct u r es in
t h e TO: in it ia l or t empor a r y. In it ia l
des ign life is u p t o s ix mon t h s ; t em-
por ar y des ign life is u p t o t wo year s .
Wh en ever pos s ible, ph as e con s t r u ct ion
t o per mit t h e ea r ly u s c of t h e fa cilit y
wh ile fu r t h er con s t r u ct ion a n d impr ove-
men t s con t in u e.
Gen er ally avoid s it es wit h den s e br u s h ,
t imber la n d, a n d r ollin g t er r a in t h a t r e-
qu ir e h ea vy clea r in g or gr a din g.
Ta ke ca r e t o pr even t des t r u ct ion of
n a t u r a l dr a in a ge ch a n n els , cu lver t s ,
a n d r oa ds . Repa ir s r equ ir e t ime a n d
la bor fa r exceedin g t h a t n eeded t o
pr even t da ma ge.
General Information 7-1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
AIRFIELD CONSTRUCTION
Th e pla n n in g a n d con s t r u ct ion of Air For ce
ba s es in t h e TO is a join t r es pon s ibilit y of
Ar my a n d Air For ce per s on n el a s ou t lin ed in
Ar m y Re gu l a t i o n (AR) 4 1 5 - 3 0 / Ai r F o r c e
Regu la t ion (AFR) 93-10. A s u mma r y of ea ch
s er vices r es pon s ibilit ies follows :
AIR FORCE RESPONSIBILITIES
Th e Air For ce pr ovides t h e followin g s u ppor t :
Emer gen cy r epa ir of wa r -da ma ged a ir
b a s es .
For ce bed down of Air For ce u n it s an d
weapon s ys t ems , exclu din g Ar my bas e-
developmen t r es pon s ibilit ies .
Con s t r u ct ion ma n a gemen t of emer gen cy
r epair of war damage an d for ce bed-
down .
Oper a t ion a n d ma in t en a n ce of Air For ce
fa cilit ies a n d in s t a lla t ion s .
Cr as h r es cu e an d fir e s u ppr es s ion .
Su pply of ma t er ia l a n d equ ipmen t t o
per for m Air For ce en gin eer in g mis s ion s .
ARMY RESPONSIBILITIES
Th e Ar my will pr ovide t h e followin g t r oop
con s t r u ct ion s u ppor t t o t h e Air For ce:
Developmen t of en gin eer in g des ign s ,
s t a n da r d pla n s , a n d ma t er ia l t o meet
Air For ce r equ ir emen t s .
Recon n ais s an ce, s u r vey, des ign , con -
s t r u ct ion , or impr ovemen t of a ir fields ,
r oa ds , u t ilit ies , a n d s t r u ct u r es .
Reh a bilit a t ion of Air For ce ba s es a n d fa -
cilit ies beyon d t h e immediat e emer -
gen cy r ecover y r equ ir emen t s of t h e Air
For ce.
Su pply of ma t er ia ls a n d equ ipmen t t o
per for m Ar my en gin eer in g mis s ion s .
Con s t r u ct ion of t empor a r y s t a n da r d a ir
bas e facilit ies .
Repa ir ma n a gemen t of wa r da ma ge a n d
bas e developmen t , in clu din g s u per vi-
s ion of Ar my per s on n el. Th e Air For ce
ba s e comma n der will s et t h e wor k pr ior i-
t ies .
Roa d a n d a ir field con s t r u ct ion .
ROAD CONSTRUCTION
En gi n e e r c on s t r u c t i on u n i t s , u n d e r t h e
Con s t r u ct a n d in s t a ll s ign s a n d ot h er
a ppr opr ia t e Ar my comma n d, h a ve t h e followin g
r ou t e-ma r kin g ma t er ia ls .
r es pon s ibilit ies :
Regu la t e t r a ffic a t loca t ion s wh er e en gi-
Recon n oit er r oa ds a n d br idges .
n eer wor k is bein g per for med.
As s is t veh icles t o keep t r affic movin g on
Recommen d t r a ffic-con t r ol pr ocedu r es .
main s u pply r ou t es r egar dles s of
wea t h er , en emy a ct ivit y, or ot h er diffi-
cu lt ies .
1-2 General Information
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
ENGINEERING STUDY
Aft er t h e s pecific r equ ir emen t s for r oa ds , u s in g cer t ain air fields an d r oads . To obt a in
air fields . an d h elipor t s h ave been t h es e fa cilit ies qu ickly, a n a dequ a t e
det er min ed en gin eer s s h ou ld pr epar e t h e in ves t iga t ion of ea ch s it e a n d a ca r efu l
facilit ies for u s e as s oon as pos s ible. In s t u dy of t h e des ign det ails ar e es s en t ial.
mos t cas es , t h e h e n eed is cr it ical becau s e t h e Th is is explain ed in gr eat er det ail in
accomplis h men t of a mis s ion depen ds on Ch a pt er 2 of t h is ma n u a l.
General Information 1-3
2
CHAPTER
Site Selection and Reconnaissance
Location Factors
Reconnaissance
Route and Road Reconnaissance
Engineer Reconnaissance
Airfield Reconnaissance
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
SITE SELECTION AND
RECONNAISSANCE
This chapter outlines the location, lay out, and d es ign of military
roa d s a n d a irf ie ld s . Th e f irs t s t e ps in con s t ru ct in g a roa d or
a irf ie ld a re d e t e rm in in g t h e b e s t loca t ion f or t h e f a cilit y a n d
f orm u l a t i n g t h e e s s e n t i a l a re a s a n d con s t ru ct i on f e a t u re s .
Th rou gh ou t t h e pre con s t ru ct ion ph a s e , proble ms ca n be a v oid e d
by a w e ll-pla n n e d s it e s e le ct ion .
LOCATION
Con s t r u ct ion of a r oa d or a ir field in it ia lly
con s is t s of pr ovidin g a pr epar ed s u bgr ade
an d bas e cou r s e accor din g t o des ign
cr it er ia . Air field r u n wa ys r equ ir e mor e
t r a n s ver s e a r ea s t h a n r oa ds . Alt h ou gh t h e
gover n in g cr it er ia an d dimen s ion s for r oads
an d air fields differ , t h e bas ic appr oach t o
t h eir loca t ion a n d la you t is t h e s a me. En -
gin eer s s h ou ld u s e t h e fact or s lis t ed below
t o loca t e a n d la y ou t a ll con s t r u ct ion
pr oject s .
MISSION
Th e mos t impor t a n t fa ct or in s elect in g a
s it e is t o en s u r e it will fu lfill mis s ion r e-
qu ir emen t s . Lin es of commu n ica t ion (LOC)
mu s t be bu ild t o accomplis h a s pecific mis -
s ion in t h e mos t dir ect a n d efficien t ma n n er
pos s ible. All loca t ion fa ct or s mu s t be
eva lu a t ed t o s u ppor t t h e mis s ion .
EXISTING FACILITIES
Us e all exis t in g facilit ies . Th e war t ime mis -
s ion s of en gin eer t r oops ar c s o ext en s ive
a n d t h e dema n d for t h eir s er vices s o gr ea t
t h a t n ew con s t r u ct ion s h ou ld be a voided.
Ext en s ive r oa dn et s of va r yin g qu a lit y a n d
ca pa cit y a lr ea dy exis t in mos t a r ea s of t h e
FACTORS
wor ld, Wh er e pos s ible, u s e t h es e r oadn et s
t o t h e fu lles t ext en t . In ma n y ca s es , expa n -
s ion a n d r eh a bilit a t ion of exis t in g fa cilit ies
is a dequ a t e for mis s ion a ccomplis h men t .
Except in h igh ly developed ar eas , exis t in g
a ir fields a r e s eldom a dequ a t e t o h a n dle
moder n , h igh -per for ma n ce a ir cr a ft . How-
ever , wit h min imu m r eh a bilit a t ion t h es e a ir -
fields ca n u s u a lly be ma de a dequ a t e t o a c-
commoda t e t h em. Th ey ma y s er ve a s t h e
n u cleu s for la r ger fields t h a t meet t h e r e-
qu ir emen t s of h igh -per for ma n ce a ir cr a ft .
Helicopt er s a n d ligh t pla n es ca n oft en
oper a t e fr om exis t in g r oa ds , pa s t u r es ,
at h let ic fields .
LOCATION AND DESIGN
or
To t h e gr ea t es t ext en t pos s ible, t h e loca t ion
a n d des ign for a fa cilit y mu s t pr ovide t h e
bes t r es pon s e t o a ll r equ ir emen t s . Alt er n a -
t ive r oad an d air field plan s can be
eva lu a t ed, fr om t h e s t a n dpoin t of t ot a l
ea r t h wor k a n d dr a in a ge s t r u ct u r e r equ ir e-
men t s , t o r edu ce con s t r u ct ion effor t .
Tr y t o con s t r u ct a ir fields in a n a r ea t h a t
will s er ve exis t in g a n d fu t u r e r equ ir emen t s .
Con s ider t h e fu t u r e n eeds of milit a r y u n it s
Site Selection and Reconnaissance 2-1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
an d facilit ies , s u ch as depot s an d h os pit als ,
wh en loca t in g r oa ds . Soil t ype a n d
in cu mben t pa vemen t s t r u ct u r e
r equ ir emen t s , r ock for ma t ion s , a n d
veget at ion s h ou ld als o be con s ider ed in
loca t in g r oa ds . A given r oa d s egmen t t o be
con s t r u ct ed or impr oved s h ou ld be
con s ider ed in view of it s con t r ibu t ion t o t h e
over a ll n et wor k. Simila r ly, a n a ir field
s h ou ld be eva lu a t ed for it s a bilit y t o
en h a n ce a n a r ifield n et wor k.
SOIL CHARACTERISTICS
Loca t e a ll r oa ds a n d a ir fields on t er r a in
h avin g t h e bes t pos s ible s u bgr ade s oil
con dit ion s . Th is will decr eas e con s t r u ct ion
effor t a n d r es u lt in a bet t er fa cilit y. Th e
s u bgr ade s h ou ld be compact ed u n der
con dit ion s a llowin g it t o s u ppor t t h e des ign
loads . Con du ct a bas ic s oils in ves t igat ion
pr ior t o con s t r u ct ion t o pr ovide da t a n eeded
t o en s u r e good con s t r u ct ion decis ion s .
Refer t o FM 5-410 for s oils in for ma t ion a n d
FM 5-530 for s oil s u r vey pr ocedu r es .
DRAINAGE
Loca t e r oa ds in a r ea s t h a t a r e ea s ily dr a in -
ed a n d wh er e dr a in a ge s t r u ct u r es a r e
min imized. Dr a in a ge is a mor e cr it ica l
fa ct or in loca t in g a ir fields t h a n r oa ds .
Becau s e of t h e wide ar eas in volved in
a ir field in s t a lla t ion s , wa t er mu s t be diver t ed
complet ely a r ou n d t h e field or lon g dr a in a ge
s t r u ct u r es t h a t a r e difficu lt t o ma in t a in
mu s t be con s t r u ct ed. Th is t opic is fu r t h er
dis cu s s ed in Ch apt er 6 of t h is man u al.
Avoid t h e low poin t s of va lleys or ot h er
depr es s ed ar eas becau s e t h ey ar e focal
poin t s for wa t er collect ion . Ma n y a ir fields
ar e con s t r u ct ed acr os s lon g, gen t le s lopes
becau s e of t h e r elat ive eas e of diver t in g
wa t er a r ou n d t h e fin is h ed in s t a lla t ion .
Avoid con s t r u ct ion on u n pr ot ect ed flood-
plain s an d allu vial fan s , if pos s ible, du e t o
t h e flood h a za r d. Allu via l t er r a ces a r e oft en
ideal locat ion s for air fields . Th ey offer flat
expa n s es t h a t a r e a bove t h e r iver floodpla in
a n d a r e n or ma lly pr ot ect ed fr om floodin g.
Avoid con s t r u ct in g fa cilit ies in a r ea s of h igh
wa t er t a bles . Alt h ou gh it is pos s ible t o con -
s t r u ct s u bs u r fa ce s t r u ct u r es t h a t will
r emove pa r t of t h is mois t u r e, ma in t a in in g
r ou t es t h r ou gh t h es e a r ea s pr es en t s a
con t in u a l pr oblem. If it is impos s ible t o
a void con s t r u ct in g a r oa d or a ir field in t h is
t ype of t er r a in , t h e wa t er t a bles mu s t be
lower ed du r in g con s t r u ct ion t o r edu ce t h e
a dver s e effect of wa t er on t h e s t r en gt h of
t h e s u ppor t in g s u bgr ade an d bas e cou r s e.
GEOLOGY
Befor e loca t in g a n y lin es of commu n ica t ion ,
ca r efu lly a n a lyze t h e geology of t h e a r ea .
Sizea ble qu a n t it ies of r ock a n ywh er e a lon g
a con s t r u ct ion pr oject will ca u s e a la r ge
r emova l pr oblem, s low con s t r u ct ion , a n d
in cr ea s e t h e con s t r u ct ion effor t . En gin eer
t r oop u n it s r equ ir e s pecia l equ ipmen t a n d
t r a in in g t o exca va t e r ock.
Rock ou t cr oppin g a r e mor e common in
h illy t er r a in t h a n in fla t or r ollin g cou n t r y.
In ar eas wh er e t h e pr elimin ar y des ign
in dica t es t h a t cu t t in g is r equ ir ed t o r ea ch
fin a l gr a de, t a ke en ou gh bor in gs t o
det er min e t h e loca t ion of t h e r ock.
iden t ify t h e t ype of r ock ma t er ia l for
eva lu a t ion a s a s u it a ble con s t r u ct ion
a ggr ega t e. Det er min e t h e s t r u ct u r a l
or ien t a t ion of t h e r ock ma s s t o pr oper ly
des ign r oad cu t s an d en s u r e r ock-s lope
s t a bilit y. In s edimen t a r y r ocks it is bes t t o
a lign r oa d cu t s per pen dicu la r t o t h e s t r ike.
If t h is is n ot pos s ible, u s e t h e s afe-s lope
r at ios s h own in Figu r e 2-1.
TOPOGRAPHY
Con s t r u ct a ll r oa ds a n d a ir fields wit h in
ma ximu m gr a de s pecifica t ion s . Th e
s pecificat ion s depen d u pon t h e facilit ys
con s t r u ct ion s t a n da r d. Th u s , a void
exces s ive gr ades an d s t eep h ills wh en
loca t in g t h es e r ou t es . If s t eep h ills mu s t be
n egot ia t ed, t h e r ou t e s h ou ld r u n a lon g t h e
s ide of t h e h ill r a t h er t h a n goin g dir ect ly
over it . Th is ma y r es u lt in a lon ger r ou t e,
bu t it is gen er a lly mor e econ omica l a n d
avoids exces s ive gr ades .
2-2 Site Selection and Reconnaissance
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 2-1.
EARTHWORK
Th e lar ges t s in gle wor k it em du r in g con -
s t r u ct ion of LOC is ea r t h wor k oper a t ion s .
An y s t ep t h a t s implifies ea r t h wor k oper a -
t ion s will decr eas e r equ ir ed wor k an d in -
cr eas e job efficien cy. Gen er ally, wh en cu t -
t in g a n d fillin g on a pr oject , ea r t h h a n dlin g
is r edu ced by u s in g t h e ma t er ia l exca va t ed
t o con s t r u ct r equ ir ed emba n kmen t s . Th is
ba la n cin g mu s t be wit h in t h e h a u l
ca pa bilit ies of t h e a va ila ble equ ipmen t .
Even t h ou gh ea r t h wor k s h ou ld be ba la n ced
t h r ou gh ou t a pr oject , if t h e h a u l dis t a n ce
becomes exces s ive, it may be mor e pr act ical
t o open a n ea r by bor r ow pit or es t a blis h
s poil ar eas . Balan cin g can n ot be don e
wh er e t h e exca va t ed ma t er ia l is n ot a ccept -
a ble for u s c in a n emba n kmen t .
ALIGNMENT
Keep t h e n u mber of cu r ves a n d gr a des a t a
min imu m for efficien t t r a ffic flow over
r oads . All veh iceles h ave difficu lt y in
n egot iat in g s h ar p cu r ves ; even gen t le cu r ves
decr ea s e t r a ffic ca pa cit y. La y a ll r ou t es
wit h min imu m cu r ves by ma kin g t h e t a n -
gen t lin es as lon g as pos s ible. Locat in g
lon g t an gen t s is in flu en ced pr imar ily by t h e
t er r a in a n d limit ed by t h e followin g pr in -
ciples of efficien t loca t ion : min imizin g
ear t h wor k, avoidin g exces s ive gr ades , an d
Safe-slope ratio
obt a in in g s u it a ble fill ma t er ia l. Align r u n -
ways in t h e dir ect ion of t h e pr evailin g win d
beca u s e a ir cr a ft u s u a lly la n d a n d t a ke off
in t o t h e win d.
OBSTACLE CROSSINGS
Wh en ever a r ou t e cr os s es a ma jor obs t a cle,
s u ch a s a r iver , a r a vin e, or a ca n a l,
br idges or ot h er s t r u ct u r es a r c r equ ir ed.
Con s t r u ct ion is t ime-con s u min g a n d r e-
qu ir es ma t er ia ls t h a t ma y be in s h or t s u pp-
ly. Avoid t h es e obs t acles wh en ever pos -
s ible. It will be a dva n t a geou s t o for ego
ma n y of t h e ot h er loca t ion pr in ciples t o
decr eas e t h e n u mber of obs t acle cr os s in gs .
Us e exis t in g s t r u ct u r es t o decr ea s e t ot a l
wor k r equ ir emen t s , Th is ma y r equ ir e on ly
t h e s t r en gt h en in g of a n exis t in g br idge or
n o br idgin g wor k at all. Wh en pos s ible, t h e
r oa d s h ou ld n ot cr os s a pa r t icu la r obs t a cle
mor e t h a n on ce.
BRIDGE APPROACHES
Wh en loca t in g r ou t es , ca r efu lly eva lu a t e con -
s t r u ct ion r equ ir emen t s for a ppr oa ch es t o
obs t a cles . Con s t r u ct ion of a ppr oa ch es over
ma r s h es or floodpla in a r ea s ca n ca u s e
gr ea t er r equ ir emen t s t h a n t h e obs t a cle
cr os s in g it s elf. Appr oach con dit ion s may be
t h e pr ime fa ct or in obs t a cle cr os s in g a n d
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
ma y dict a t e r ou t e loca t ion . Con s ider t h e a p-
pr oa ch wit h t h e obs t a cle wh en es t a blis h in g
t h e opt imu m r ou t e.
GROUND COVER
All r ou t es s h ou ld avoid h eavily wooded
a r ea s t h a t r equ ir e ext en s ive clea r in g, lf
t h is is n ot pos s ible, t h e r ou t e s h ou ld pas s
t h r ou gh a r ea s h a vin g t h e lea s t veget a t ion .
Pr ecede all ear t h wor k by s t r ippin g u n -
s u it a ble ma t er ia l.
REQUIRED AREAS
Air fields n eed lar ge ar eas of r elat ively flat
la n d t o efficien t ly a ccomplis h t h eir mis s ion .
Th is u s u a lly r es t r ict s t h e n u mber of s it es
t h at can be con s ider ed for air field con s t r u c-
t ion . Adva n ce loca t ion a n d la you t will
avoid cr ampin g n eces s ar y facilit ies . Fr e-
qu en t ly, t h e a ir field mu s t be s pr ea d over a
la r ge s ect ion t o obt a in t h e r equ ir ed a r ea .
Th is r es u lt s in t h e con s t r u ct ion of a com-
plex n et wor k of t a xiwa ys a n d s er vice r oa ds .
Wh en t h is is t h e cas e, keep in min d t h e
a bilit y t o con s t r u ct t h is con n ect in g n et wor k
t o a ppr opr ia t e s pecifica t ion s .
Roa ds bu ilt on r ollin g or fla t t er r a in s eldom
r equ ir e la r ge, la t er a l a r ea s . Roa ds con -
s t r u ct ed in deep cu t s or fills r equ ir e pr opor -
t ion a t ely gr ea t er la t er a l a r ea s t o a ccou n t for
s lopes .
ACCESSIBILITY TO MATERIALS AND
UTILITIES
Th e efficien t oper at ion of air fields r equ ir es
t h e u s e of elect r icit y, wa t er , ga s , a n d s ewer
s ys t ems . Loca t in g n ew a ir fields n ea r exis t -
in g u t ilit y s ys t ems ca n a void t h e con s t r u c-
t ion of n ew fa cilit ies or lon g t r a n s mis s ion
lin es . A n ear by r ailh ead will h elp t h e con -
s t r u ct ion effor t .
Con s ider t h e qu a lit y a n d a va ila bilit y of con -
s t r u ct ion ma t er ia ls wh en loca t in g a fa cilit y.
Obt a in s u it a ble ba s e-cou r s e ma t er ia ls fr om
exis t in g pit s an d qu ar r ies wh en ever pos s ible
beca u s e mu ch pla n n in g a n d effor t a r e r e-
qu ir ed t o open a n ew qu a r r y. Th e qu a lit y
a n d a va ila ble qu a n t it y of ma t er ia ls mu s t
meet t h e con s t r u ct ion r equ ir emen t s . Th e
pr oximit y of a s u it a ble ba s e-cou r s e-ma t er ia l
s ou r ce is a cr it ica l pla n n in g fa ct or .
MARGINAL MATERIAL
Wh en pla n n in g t h e loca t ion of a pr oject ,
con s ider u s in g ma r gin a l ma t er ia ls n ea r by.
Us in g ma r gin a l ma t er ia ls for s u bba s e a n d
ba s e con s t r u ct ion a n d, a s a n a ggr ega t e in
pavemen t s is s omet imes pos s ible by u s in g
geot ext iles , mech a n ica l s t a biliza t ion , or a d-
mixt u r es . Oft en t h e u s e of ma r gin a l
mat er ial is u n avoidable. Wh er e pos s ible,
poor -qu a lit y ma t er ia l s h ou ld be exca va t ed
a n d r epla ced wit h mor e s u it a ble ma t er ia l,
or t h e pr oject s h ou ld be r elocat ed.
FLIGHT-WAY OBSTRUCTIONS
Th e s a fe oper a t ion of fixed- or r ot a r y-win g
a ir cr a ft r equ ir es t h e r emova l of a ll obs t a cles
above lin es s pecified by des ign cr it er ia.
Th es e cr it er ia depen d u pon t h e oper at in g
ch a r a ct er is t ics of t h e a ir cr a ft t o be s er viced.
For exa mple, mos t h elipor t s r equ ir e a n a p-
pr oach zon e wit h a 10:1 glide an gle (8:1 for
s h or t -du r a t ion oper a t ion s ), wh er ea s h ea vy-
ca r go a ir cr a ft in t h e r ea r a r ea r equ ir e a
glide an gle as flat as 50:1. To ach ieve t h is
glide an gle, it is oft en n eces s ar y t o r emove
veget a t ion a n d h ills a n d per for m ext en s ive
ea r t h wor k oper a t ion s fa r fr om t h e a ir field
pr oper . Th u s , a void loca t ion s t h a t r equ ir e
ext en s ive wor k t o ach ieve t h e n eces s ar y
glide an gle.
A s imilar clear an ce is r equ ir ed on t h e s ides
of r u n wa ys . An a r ea of s pecified widt h
mu s t be clear ed of all obs t acles an d gr aded
accor din g t o s pecificat ion s .
SUNLIT SLOPES
lf t a ct ica l con cea lmen t is n ot r equ ir ed, lo-
cat e r oads on t h e s u n n y, expos ed s ides of
valleys or h ills , par t icu lar ly in wet or cold
a r ea s . Th is per mit s t h e r oa d s u r fa ce a n d
s u bgr ade t o dr y r apidly, min imizes icy con -
dit ion s , a n d ma kes ma in t en a n ce ea s ier .
Pr evailin g win ds s h ou ld als o be con s ider ed
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
wh en locat in g r oads . Pr evailin g win ds will
ca r r y s n ow, r a in , a n d s a n d on t o t h e r oa d -
wa y, if t h e or ien t a t ion of t h e r oa d is u n -
des ir able. Pr ot ect ive s n ow or s an d fen ces
s h ou ld be or ien t ed t o t a ke in t o a ccou n t t h e
pr evailin g win ds .
TACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Fr equ en t ly, it is n eces s a r y t o con s t r u ct t em-
por a r y r oa ds or h elipor t s or t o impr ove la n d-
in g s t r ips t o move per s on n el a n d ma t er ia ls .
Wh en t h is is t h e cas e, con s ider t h e follow-
in g t a ct ica l fa ct or s :
De fi l a d e . Loca t e a ll r oa ds in a defila de
pos it ion on t h e r ever s e s ide of a h ill or
r a vin e t o a void en emy obs er va t ion a n d t o
pr ovide cover fr om dir ect a r t iller y or mor t a r
fir e.
Ca m ou fl a ge . Wh en con s t r u ct in g a r oa d or
a ir field in a n expos ed a r ea , t a ke a dva n t a ge
of a ll n a t u r a l ca mou fla ge a n d con cea lmen t .
De fe n s e . Air fields in for war d ar eas ar e
pr ime t a r get s for en emy a ir a n d gr ou n d a t -
t acks . Wh en des ign in g t h e air field, dis -
per s e t h e fa cilit ies t o min imize t h e effect s of
bombin g or s t r a fin g a t t a cks . It ma y be
n eces s ar y t o u s e gr ou n d t r oops in defen s ive
pos it ion s a ga in s t en emy gr ou n d a ct ion .
FUTURE EXPANSION
Du e t o t h e u n pr edict a bilit y of milit a r y oper a -
t ion s , en gin eer t r oops a r e oft en r equ ir ed t o
modify an d expan d pr eviou s ly complet ed
con s t r u ct ion . Th e r oa d t h a t is a dequ a t e for
t oda ys ma n eu ver s ma y be in a dequ a t e for
t omor r ows oper a t ion s . Air fields bu ilt for
s ma ll a ir cr a ft wit h a limit ed eva cu a t ion mis -
s ion ma y h a ve t o be modified t o meet mor e
s t r in gen t des ign cr it er ia for a ccommoda t ion
of h igh -per for ma n ce a ir cr a ft , Impr ovemen t
a n d expa n s ion a r e a con t in u in g job on a ll
milit a r y con s t r u ct ion .
Tr y n ot t o con s t r u ct a r oa d or a ir field in a
r es t r ict ed ar ea wh er e t h er e is n o pos s ibilit y
of expan s ion . Des ign ba s ic fa cilit ies s o t h a t
t h ey ca n be u s ed a s pa r t of t h e expa n ded
facilit ies . Th e abilit y t o expan d an exis t in g
r ou t e or facilit y will con s er ve per s on n el an d
ma t er ia l a n d per mit r a pid complet ion of fu -
t u r e pr oject s .
RECONNAISSANCE
Recon n a is s a n ce oper a t ion s va r y wit h t h e
oper a t ion a l en vir on men t ; t h e a s s ign ed mis -
s ion : a n d t h e s ize, t ype, a n d compos it ion of
t h e r econ n a is s a n ce elemen t . An a er ia l,
map, or gr ou n d r econ n ais s an ce is n eces s ar y
t o det er min e t h e bes t exis t in g or bes t pos -
s ible loca t ion for a fu t u r e r oa d or a ir field.
MISSION
Th e pr ima r y mis s ion of a r econ n a is s a n ce
pa r t y is t o fin d a s it e meet in g mos t r equ ir e-
men t s , t o r ecommen d a gen er a l la you t a n d
con s t r u ct ion pla n , t o es t ima t e t h e wor k r e-
qu ir ed t o con s t r u ct t h e fa cilit y, a n d t o ob-
t a in t h e da t a n eeded t o det er min e a comple-
t ion da t e a n d det a iled con s t r u ct ion s ch ed -
u les . Wh en t h e r econ n ais s an ce mis s ion is
complet e, t h e r econ n ais s an ce r epor t s er ves
a s t h e ba s is for t a ct ica l pla n s a n d con s t r u c-
t ion s ch edu les .
Th e fin al con s t r u ct ion plan s an d s ch edu les
a r e ma de wit h r ega r d t o t h e t a ct ica l a n d
logis t ica l s it u a t ion a n d t h e con s t r u ct ion
t ime available. Th e r econ n ais s an ce r epor t ,
s u bmit t ed by per s on n el con du ct in g t h e in -
ves t iga t ion , mu s t be complet e, compr eh en -
s ive, an d s u fficien t ly det ailed t o per mit car e-
fu l an alys is ,
RECONNAISSANCE-PARTY
CAPABILITIES
Th or ou gh r econ n ais s an ce r equ ir es qu alified,
t r ain ed, an d exper ien ced per s on n el. Th e
qu alit y of t h e r econ n ais s an ce is dir ect ly r e-
la t ed t o t h e a bilit ies of t h e pa r t y a ccomplis h -
in g it . Th is is es pecially t r u e in air field
r econ n ais s an ce, wh ich r equ ir es br oader en -
gin eer in g ju dgmen t t h a n a n y ot h er en gin eer
r econ n ais s an ce, Even a qu alified civil
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
en gin eer wit h civilian or milit ar y exper ien ce
r equ ir es s pecia l t r a in in g for t h is a ct ivit y. It
is u n u s u a l for on e per s on t o be pr oficien t
in a ll t h e it ems a t h or ou gh r econ n a is s a n ce
mu s t in clu de. Th er efor e, t h e a s s ign men t of
per s on n el t o t h e pa r t y mu s t pr ovide for it s
over a ll efficien cy a s a u n it . Th e pa r t y mu s t
be s elect ed wit h r ega r d t o t h e con dit ion s it
ma y con fr on t .
Fact or s t o be con s ider ed in clu de t h e r oad -
n et , t h e gen er a l n a t u r e of t h e t er r a in , t h e
wea t h er , t h e pr eva len ce of la n d min es , t h e
a t t it u de of t h e civilia n popu la t ion , a n d t h e
a mou n t of en emy r es is t a n ce t h e pa r t y ma y
expect . Th es e fact or s als o in flu en ce t h e
equ ipmen t a s s ign ed t o t h e pa r t y. Th e equ ip-
men t s h ou ld in clu de a ll it ems n eces s a r y for
s oil an d t opogr aph ic s u r veys , mobilit y,
s ecu r it y, a n d good commu n ica t ion . Th e s u c-
ces s of t h e mis s ion depen ds on pr oper per -
s on n el a n d equ ipmen t . On e wit h ou t t h e
ot h er will n ot accomplis h t h e n eeded
r es u lt s , If a va ila ble, a s oils or t er r a in
a n a lys t is a va lu a ble member of t h e r econ -
n a is s a n ce pa r t y, If a n a n a lys t is n ot a va il-
a ble, obt a in s oil s a mples for la t er a n a lys is .
STEPS IN RECONNAISSANCE
Recon n a is s a n ce in volves t h e s t eps t h a t fol-
low.
Pla n n i n g
Pla n n in g is con cer n ed wit h t h e for ma t ion of
a r econ n a is s a n ce mis s ion . It in volves t h e
coor din a t ion of r econ n a is s a n ce effor t s by a p-
pr opr ia t e h ea dqu a r t er s , t h e es t ima t ion of
n eeds , a n d t h e a s s ign men t of a r econ n a is -
s a n ce mis s ion . Bot h gr ou n d a n d a er ia l
met h ods s h ou ld be in t egr at ed. Th is is a
r es pon s ibilit y of t h e en gin eer br igade, t h e
gr ou p, or t h e ba t t a lion , n ot t h e in dividu a l
r econ n a is s a n ce pa r t y. Recon n a is s a n ce mis -
s ion s ar e bas ed on u s er r equ ir emen t s a s
gover n ed by gr ou n d for ces . Main t ain clos e
lia is on wit h a ll h ea dqu a r t er s t o a ch ieve
pr oper coor din a t ion , Impr oper coor din a t ion
r es u lt s in du plica t ion of effor t in s ome
a r ea s a n d in a dequ a t e r econ n a is s a n ce in
ot h er a r ea s .
Br i e fi n g
Th e br iefin g t ells t h e r econ n ais s an ce par t y
exa ct ly wh ich s it e or a r ea is t o be r econ -
n oit er ed, wh a t is a lr ea dy kn own a bou t t h e
a r ea or s it e, a n d wh a t in for ma t ion t h e pa r t y
is expect ed t o obt a in , Det a ils con cer n in g
t h e t ime or met h ods of r epor t in g t h e in for -
mat ion will be in clu ded in t h e br iefin g. Th e
pa r t y mu s t a ls o kn ow t h e t ype of fa cilit y for
wh ich it is r econ n oit er in g. If a s it e h a s
been t en t a t ively s elect ed or if s ome in for ma -
t ion h a s a lr ea dy been det er min ed fr om a
pr elimin a r y s t u dy, t h e pa r t y mu s t be in -
for med. Ot h er wis e, t ime a n d effor t will be
wa s t ed. A s oils or t er r a in a n a lys t s h ou ld
br ief t h e r econ n a is s a n ce pa r t y, if s u ch a n
exper t is n ot a ble t o a ccompa n y t h e pa r t y,
If available, aer ial ph ot os s h ou ld be u s ed in
t h e br iefin g.
Th e followin g in for ma t ion is n eces s a r y for a
fu ll u n der s t a n din g of a pa r t icu la r r econ n a is -
s an ce mis s ion an d s h ou ld be cover ed in t h e
br iefin g:
Th e gen er al ar ea t o be cover ed, if an
ar ea r econ n ais s an ce is t o be con du ct ed;
or t h e exa ct loca t ion of t h e s it e or
facilit y t o be in ves t igat ed, if a s pecific
r econ n ais s an ce is t o be don e.
Th e n a t u r e of t h e pr opos ed fa cilit y; t h e
t ypes of veh icles or air cr aft s ch edu led t o
u s e it ; t h e len gt h of t ime s u ch u s e is a n -
t icipa t ed; a n d t h e min imu m r equ ir e-
men t s con cer n in g dimen s ion s , gr ades ,
an d clear an ces . (Th es e it ems ar e
cover ed by r efer en ce t o t h e applicable
s t a n da r d la you t a n d s pecifica t ion s pu b-
lis h ed by t h e join t for ce comma n der in
t h e t h ea t er . Th ey a r e u s u a lly fa milia r
t o t h e r econ n a is s a n ce officer bu t s h ou ld
be kept for r efer en ce.)
Th e a n t icipa t ed veh icle t r a ffic a n d n u m-
ber of air cr aft an d per s on n el t o be in i-
t ia lly a ccommoda t ed a t t h e pr opos ed
facilit y. (Wh en dealin g wit h air fields ,
figu r es a r e oft en given in t er ms of t h e
n u mber a n d t ype of a via t ion u n it s t o be
a s s ign ed t o t h e in s t a lla t ion . St r en gt h
an d equ ipmen t figu r es s h ou ld als o be
available for r efer en ce.)

FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Th e min imu m a mou n t of a ir cr a ft s er -
vice, r epair facilit ies , an d s pecial r e-
qu ir emen t s n eeded.
Th e expect ed fu t u r e expa n s ion of t h e
n ew fa cilit y.
Th e expect ed con s t r u ct ion t ime a va il-
able for bu ildin g s u ppor t facilit ies .
In for ma t ion pr eviou s ly obt a in ed a bou t
t h e pr opos ed pr oject .
Th e es s en t ial det ails con cer n in g t h e
r epor t a n d h ow, wh en , a n d t o wh om t h e
r epor t s h ou ld be made,
Wh en t h e r econ n a is s a n ce pa r t y is t o be
a wa y fr om it s pa r en t u n it for a len gt h y, con -
t in u ed r econ n ais s an ce, t h e followin g addi-
t ion a l in s t r u ct ion s mu s t be cover ed in t h e
br iefin g:
Th e loca t ion wh er e r a t ion s , clot h in g,
a n d equ ipmen t r epla cemen t s ca n be
dr a wn .
Th e s ou r ce fr om wh ich pet r oleu m, oils ,
an d lu br ican t s (POL) s u pplies can be
dr a wn .
Th e s er vice facilit y wh er e veh icle main -
t en a n ce ca n be obt a in ed.
Th e for m of commu n ica t ion s t o be a r -
r a n ged; for exa mple, r a dio, mes s en ger ,
or t eleph on e.
Wh en gr ou n d r econ n ais s an ce is or der ed
a h ea d of for wa r d gr ou n d-for ce elemen t s , t h e
followin g addit ion al in s t r u ct ion s ar e n eces -
s a r y:
Fr ien dly-for ce s it u a t ion .
Kn own en emy-for ce s it u a t ion ,
Loca t ion of a dja cen t fr ien dly u n it s .
Th e followin g in s t r u ct ion s ar e applicable
on ly t o pa r t ies en ga ged in a ir r econ n a is -
s an ce:
Alt er n at ive an d emer gen cy-lan din g in -
s t r u ct ion s .
Loca t ion of a va ila ble a via t ion pet r oleu m
s u pplies .
Loca t ion of t h e for wa r d flyin g lin e.
Pr e limin a r y St u dy
Th e pr elimin ar y s t u dy con s is t s of s t u dyin g
t h e in for ma t ion obt a in ed du r in g t h e br ief-
in g, con du ct in g a ma p r econ n a is s a n ce of
t h e a r ea in volved, s t u dyin g a er ia l ph ot os ,
delin eat in g s oil bou n dar ies , as s emblin g
ot h er a va ila ble pr elimin a r y in for ma t ion , a n d
pla n n in g a n d pr epa r in g for t h e a ct u a l r econ -
n ais s an ce.
Sou r ces of in for ma t ion t h a t ma y be u s efu l
in t h e pr elimin ar y plan n in g of r econ n ais -
s an ce mis s ion s an d in t h e pr elimin ar y
s t u dy of a s pecific mis s ion ar e dis cu s s ed
below. Su ch in for ma t ion mu s t be ver ified
by gr ou n d r econ n ais s an ce.
In t elligen ce dos s ier s t h at pr ovide plan -
n in g da t a a n d ot h er in for ma t ion on a
pa r t icu la r a ir field s it e or r ou t e t h a t ma y
alr eady exis t . Th es e dos s ier s ar e t h e
r es u lt of pr eviou s r econ n ais s an ce or
r econ n ais s an ce plan s an d can u s u ally
be obt a in ed if a dequ a t e coor din a t ion is
ma in t a in ed wit h h igh er h ea dqu a r t er s
a n d ot h er u n it s en ga ged in r econ n a is -
s a n ce. Simila r ly, r epor t s of a er ia l r econ -
n a is s a n ce t h a t wer e con du ct ed in a n -
t icipa t ion of la t er gr ou n d r econ n a is -
s a n ce ma y be a va ila ble fr om a dja cen t or
h igh er u n it s .
St r a t egic a n d t ech n ica l r epor t s , s t u dies ,
a n d s u mma r ies on s pecific a r ea s of a c-
t u a l or pot en t ia l milit a r y impor t a n ce a r e
pr epar ed by t h e Office of t h e Ch ief of En -
gin eer s an d s u bor din at e agen cies .
Th es e r epor t s pr ovide t h e bes t dat a
a va ila ble a t t h e t ime t h ey wer e pr in t ed.
Topogr aph ic, geologic, an d s oil maps , as
well a s da t a on t h e clima t e a n d
gr ou n dwa t er t a bles , a r e u s u a lly in -
clu ded. Th es e r epor t s may con t ain in -
for ma t ion on wa t er s u pply, con s t r u ct ion
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
ma t er ia ls , veget a t ion , a n d s pecia l ph ys i-
ca l ph en omen a .
Ar my an d Air For ce per iodic in t elligen ce
r epor t s a r e impor t a n t , r elia ble s ou r ces
of in for ma t ion . In t elligen ce r epor t s a r e
u s u a lly pr epa r ed in t h e in t er ior zon e,
bu t per iodic in t elligen ce r epor t s ar e
field-pr epar ed r epor t s of all-ar ou n d
for ce elemen t s . Th ey in clu de fact s
lear n ed by pr is on er -of-war in t er r oga-
t ion s , t a ct ica l da t a , r epor t s , r ecor ds ,
a n d in t er r oga t ion of loca l in h a bit a n t s .
In t elligen ce r epor t s ar e u s ed t o pr epar e
s t r a t egic a n d t ech n ica l r epor t s .
Roa d, t opogr a ph ic, s oil, veget a t ion , a n d
geologic maps pu blis h ed by fr ien dly or
en emy gover n men t s a n d a gen cies a r e
s ou r ces of in for ma t ion . Ma ps s h owin g
t h e s u it a bilit y of t er r a in for va r iou s
milit ar y pu r pos es may be of con s ider -
able valu e in plan n in g r oads an d air -
fields .
Aer ia l ph ot ogr a ph s s h ow t h e a p-
pr oxima t e a mou n t of gr a din g a n d ex-
ca va t ion r equ ir ed, t h e t ot a l a r ea a n d ex-
t en t of pr omis in g s it es , t h e ext en t of
n eces s ar y clear in g, t h e pr es en ce of
flyin g h azar ds (for air fields ), an d t h e
a r ea a n d loca l dr a in a ge con dit ion s .
If t ime a n d fa cilit ies a r e a va ila ble,
t opogr aph ic maps s h ou ld be pr epar ed
fr om a er ia l ph ot ogr a ph s .
Weat h er r epor t s pu blis h ed by
gover n men t a l a gen cies a n d t h e Air
For ce Air Weat h er Ser vice ar e u s ed t o
det er min e cr it ica l fa ct or s for r u n off
det er min at ion , pr evailin g win ds , an d
clou d cover wh ich will affect con s t r u c-
t ion a n d fu t u r e oper a t ion s .
Aer on a u t ica l r epor t s a n d ch a r t s pr ovide
an over view t o h elp plan aer ial r econ -
n ais s an ce.
In digen ou s gover n men t a l a gen cies ma y
pr ovide va lu a ble in for ma t ion on a gr ea t
diver s it y of s u bject s .
Ai r Re c on n a i s s a n c e
Air r econ n ais s an ce in volves a gen er al s t u dy
of t h e t opogr a ph y, dr a in a ge, a n d veget a t ion
of t h e a r ea . Th e con s t r u ct ion pr oblems ,
camou flage pos s ibilit ies , an d acces s r ou t es
s h ou ld be vis u alized. Us u ally t h e s pecific
gr ou n d-r econ n ais s an ce pr ocedu r e is
pla n n ed by s elect in g, fr om t h e a ir , a r ea s
t h a t n eed in ves t iga t in g a n d by det er min in g
wh a t qu es t ion s n eed a n s wer in g. Air r econ -
n ais s an ce can pr ovide valu able n egat ive in -
for ma t ion by elimin a t in g u n s u it a ble s it es ,
bu t it can n ot be s olely r elied on for pos it ive
in for ma t ion .
Gr ou n d Re c on n a is s a n c e
Wh ile air r econ n ais s an ce can effect ively
r edu ce t h e a mou n t of gr ou n d r econ n a is -
s a n ce, it ca n n ot r epla ce gr ou n d r econ n a is -
s a n ce. It is on t h e gr ou n d t h a t mos t qu es -
t ion s a r e a n s wer ed or t h a t qu es t ion s t en t a -
t ively an s wer ed fr om t h e air ar e ver ified.
Oft en gr ou n d a n d a ir r econ n a is s a n ce a r e
n ot s epa r a t e mis s ion s , A con t in u in g a ir
r econ n ais s an ce may be in t er s per s ed wit h
s pecific gr ou n d r econ n ais s an ce.
REPORTING
Th e r econ n a is s a n ce pa r t y mu s t a lwa ys s u b-
mit it s r epor t on t ime. Repor t s a r e s u b-
mit t ed for a ll s it es in ves t iga t ed, even if t h e
r econ n ais s an ce par t y con s ider s t h e s it e u n -
s u it a ble.
Fu ll det a ils on t h e met h od, pla ce, a n d t ime
of s u bmit t in g r econ n a is s a n ce r epor t s
s h ou ld be in clu ded in t h e in s t r u ct ion s given
t o t h e r econ n a is s a n ce pa r t y. Recon n a is -
s a n ce r epor t s ca n be s u bmit t ed in wr it in g
or by r adio. A r adio r epor t s h ou ld be fol-
lowed by a det a iled wr it t en r epor t . St a n d-
ar d r econ n ais s an ce r epor t s ar e pr efer r ed.
Th ey en s u r e fu ll cover age of n eeded in for ma-
t ion a n d a llow a compa r a t ive eva lu a t ion of
t wo or mor e s it es . St a n da r d for ma t s a r e
h elpfu l in compar in g s it es wh ich h ave been
r econ n oit er ed by differ en t par t ies . Th ey
s implify each par t y's wor k in pr epar in g
r epor t s .
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Milit a r y r oa ds a n d r oa d n et wor ks a r e
defin ed accor din g t o locat ion an d u s e.
Th ey ar e clas s ified accor din g t o widt h , s u r -
fa ce, a n d obs t r u ct ion s . Ter ms a n d for -
mu la s a ppr oved by t h e member n a t ion s of
t h e NATO, t h e Sou t h ea s t As ia Tr ea t y Or -
ga n iza t ion (SEATO), t h e Un it ed St a t es , t h e
Un it ed Kin gdom, t h e Ca n a dia n a n d
Au s t r a lia n Ar mies Non ma t er ia l St a n d-
a r diza t ion Pr ogr a m, a n d ot h er t r ea t y n a -
t ion s ar e cover ed in FM 5-36.
Abbr evia t ion s , s ymbols , a n d n ot a t ion s u s ed
in r ou t e r econ n ais s an ce (des cr ibed in FM 5-
36) may als o be u s ed in air field r econ n ais -
s a n ce. In for ma t ion given in r oa d r econ n a is -
s an ce r epor t s is u s efu l in r epor t in g on ac-
ces s r oads t o air field an d h elipor t s it es .
AIR RECONNAISSANCE
An a ir -r econ n a is s a n ce t ea m gen er a lly con -
s is t s of on ly t wo member s : t h e pilot a n d
t h e en gin eer obs er ver . Havin g t h e officer in
ch a r ge of t h e gr ou n d-r econ n a is s a n ce pa r t y
act as t h e en gin eer obs er ver is ad-
va n t a geou s a n d s h ou ld be a r r a n ged wh en
pos s ible. Time is s aved an d er r or s of omis -
s ion a r e min imized wh en a r epor t fr om t h e
en gin eer obs er ver t o t h e officer in ch ar ge of
t h e gr ou n d-r econ n a is s a n ce pa r t y is n ot
n eces s a r y except a s a ma t t er of r ecor d,
Th e pilot can als o as s es s t h e s it e an d make
t h e a ppr opr ia t e r ecommen da t ion s .
Two -place, fixed -win g air cr aft or t wo-place
h elicopt er s a r e s u it a ble for mos t a ir -r econ -
n ais s an ce mis s ion s , Recon n ais s an ce of
en emy-occu pied air fields is bes t ac-
complis h ed wit h modified t a ct ica l a ir cr a ft .
Effect ive air r econ n ais s an ce s h ou ld pr ovide
t h e followin g in for ma t ion :
Det er min a t ion of t er r a in fea t u r es .
Des cr ipt ion of obs t acles .
Eva lu a t ion of LOC.
As s es s men t of s u it a bilit y of t h e a r ea for
va r iou s t ypes of con s t r u ct ion .
Iden t ifica t ion of a va ila ble s ou r ces of
wa t er .
Su pply eva lu a t ion of con s t r u ct ion
ma t er ia ls in t h e a r ea of oper a t ion s .
Dis cu s s ion of cover a n d con cea lmen t .
GROUND RECONNAISSANCE
Th e compos it ion of t h e gr ou n d-r econ n a is -
s an ce par t y depen ds on t h e s cope an d ex-
t en t of t h e mis s ion a n d t h e n a t u r e of t h e
t er r a in it mu s t t r a ver s e. Th e compos it ion
depen ds u pon t h e pr obabilit y of con t act
wit h t h e en emy, t h e a t t it u de of t h e civilia n
popu lat ion , an d t h e pr evalen ce of min es in
t h e ar ea t o be r econ n oit er ed. Table 2-1,
page 2-10, pr ovides a lis t of per s on n el
s u it able for an air field r econ n ais s an ce. Th e
lis t ca n be modified t o meet t h e pa r t icu la r
n eeds of t h e s it u a t ion .
All per s on n el in volved s h ou ld be t r ain ed in
gr ou n d r econ n a is s a n ce. It is impor t a n t
t h a t t h e per s on in ch a r ge a n d t h e a s s is t a n t
be well ver s ed in all as pect s of r econ n ais -
s an ce.
All equ ipmen t n eeded t o ca r r y ou t t h e a s -
s ign ed t as ks s h ou ld be t aken . Th e equ ip-
men t va r ies a s t h e compos it ion of t h e pa r t y
var ies . A t ypica l lis t of equ ipmen t s u it a ble
for t h e par t y is lis t ed in Table 2-2, page
2-10.
Ma p a n d a ir s t u dies a r e n ot s u bs t it u t es for
gr ou n d r econ n ais s an ce; t h ey on ly r edu ce
t h e a mou n t of gr ou n d effor t r equ ir ed.
Gr ou n d r econ n a is s a n ce s h ou ld det er min e
t h e followin g in for ma t ion :
Es t ima t ed gr a des t o be en cou n t er ed.
Es t ima t ed a mou n t of clea r in g in volved.
Th is in clu des t r ees , t r ee s t u mps , an d
bou lder s . Somet imes object s s u ch as
bu ildin gs an d con cr et e fou n dat ion s ar e
in clu ded.
Con s ider at ion of debr is gen er at ed
du r in g clea r in g oper a t ion s . In s ome
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table 2-1. Typical airfield ground-reconnaissance party
Table 2-2. Suggested equipment list for airfield ground-reconnaissance party
cas es , t h e t r ees r emoved ma y be u s ed in
t h e con s t r u ct ion oper a t ion . Det a ils of
clear in g oper at ion s ar e dis cu s s ed in
Ch a pt er 4 of t h is ma n u a l.
Nat u r e of s oil en cou n t er ed, field det er -
min a t ion of gr a da t ion , per cen t a ge of
fin e-gr a dien t ma t er ia ls , a n d pla s t icit y
ch a r a ct er is t ics .
Con dit ion s of s t r ea ms a t cr os s in g s it es ;
widt h , dept h , a n d velocit y of t h e s t r ea m;
con dit ion of t h e ba n ks a n d s t r ea mbed;
an d in dicat ion s of h igh wat er levels .
Pr es en ce or abs en ce of local con s t r u c-
t ion mat er ials , in clu din g pos s ible s ou r -
ces of s a n d, gr a vel, cemen t , t a r , a s ph a lt
cu lver t pipe, an d lu mber , Local con -
s t r u ct ion capabilit ies an d labor con di-
t ion s ar e in clu ded.
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Est imat ed a mou n t of ea r t h wor k n eces -
s a r y, t h e a ppr oxima t e ba la n ce bet ween
cu t a n d fill, a n d t h e n eces s it y for lon g
h a u ls of ea r t h ma t er ia l.
Er r or s or dis cr epa n cies on t h e ma ps
fr om wh ich t h e s it e wa s t en t a t ively
s elect ed an d t h e effect s of s u ch er r or s
on t h e s elect ion .
Loca l r a in fa ll da t a a n d ot h er per t in en t
in for ma t ion a bou t s ea s on s a n d wea t h er
obt a in ed t h r ou gh loca l in h a bit a n t s or
ot h er s ou r ces ,
In for ma t ion or obs er va t ion s wh ich a ffect
t h e fin a l fa cilit y loca t ion .
Rela t ion s h ip wit h t h e loca l popu la t ion .
ROUTE AND ROAD RECONNAISSANCE
Th or ou gh r econ n ais s an ce is es s en t ial in t h e
s elect ion of r oa ds . It s t a r t s wit h a s t u dy of
a va ila ble ma ps a n d a er ia l ph ot ogr a ph s .
Aer ial r econ n ais s an ce pr ovides valu able in -
for ma t ion . Det a iled in for ma t ion , h owever ,
can be obt ain ed on ly by gr ou n d r econ n ais -
s an ce. Recon n ais s an ce per for med in con -
n ect ion wit h milit a r y LOC is r ou t e r econ -
n ais s an ce. Recon n ais s an ce t o ch eck exis t -
in g r oads is r oad r econ n ais s an ce. Recon -
n a is s a n ce t o det er min e t h e loca t ion for a
n ew r oa d is loca t ion r econ n a is s a n ce.
ROUTE RECONNAISSANCE
Rou t e r econ n a is s a n ce in clu des ga t h er in g in -
for ma t ion a bou t r oa ds , br idges , t u n n els ,
for ds , wa t er wa ys , a n d n a t u r a l t er r a in fea -
t u r es t h a t ma y a ffect t h e movemen t of
t r oops , equ ipmen t , a n d s u pplies in milit a r y
oper a t ion s . Rou t e r econ n a is s a n ce ma y be
h a s t y or deliber a t e. A h a s t y r ou t e r econ -
n a is s a n ce is con du ct ed t o det er min e t h e im-
media t e t r a ffica bilit y of a s pecified r ou t e
a n d is limit ed t o cr it ica l t er r a in da t a . It
ma y be a dequ a t ely r ecor ded on a ma p over -
lay or s ket ch an d be s u pplemen t ed by
r epor t s a bou t va r iou s a s pect s of t h e t er r a in ,
A deliber at e r ou t e r econ n ais s an ce is
det ailed. It pr ovides t h e da t a n eces s a r y for
a t h or ou gh a n a lys is a n d cla s s ifica t ion of s ig-
n ifica n t fea t u r es a lon g a r ou t e, in clu din g
r epair or demolit ion pr ocedu r es , if r equ ir ed,
An over la y is u s ed t o poin t ou t exa ct ma p
loca t ion s , a n d en clos u r es a r e a t t a ch ed t o
t h e over la y. Th e en clos u r es ar e DA Recon -
n a is s a n ce Repor t for ms t h a t pr ovide a per -
ma n en t r ecor d a n d en s u r e en ou gh det a il is
r ecor ded, Th e u s e of t h es e for ms is ex-
plain ed in FM 5-36.
ROAD RECONNAISSANCE
Roa d r econ n a is s a n ce is con du ct ed t o det er -
min e t h e t r a ffic ca pa bilit ies of exis t in g
r oa ds a n d t o pr ovide mor e det a iled in for ma -
t ion t h a n is n eeded for r ou t e cla s s ifica t ion .
It ma y in clu de en ou gh in for ma t ion t o
develop wor k es t ima t es for impr ovin g t h e
r oa d t o cer t a in s t a n da r ds of t r a ffica bilit y
DA For m 1248, s h own in Figu r e 2-2, pages
2-12 an d 2-13, is u s ed t o r ecor d t h is in for -
ma t ion . Ma ps , over la ys , a n d s ket ch es a r e
u s ed as n eces s ar y.
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 2-2. Sample Road Reconnaissance Report, DA Form 1248
ROAD RECONNAISSANCE REPORT I OAT
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FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 2-2. Sample Road Reconnaissance Report, DA Form 1248 (continued)
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FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Th e mos t impor t a n t fa ct or in pla n n in g
milit a r y r oa ds is ma kin g ma ximu m u s e of
t h e exis t in g r oa dn et . Su bject t o t h e r equ ir e-
men t s of t h e t a ct ica l pla n , t h e exis t in g r oa d-
n et mu s t be a da pt ed t o milit a r y u s e befor e
u n der t a kin g n ew con s t r u ct ion . Exis t in g
r oads s h ou ld be s u r veyed at t h e ear lies t op-
por t u n it y t o det er min e t h eir con dit ion a n d
capacit y. Time is s aved by impr ovin g an ex-
is t in g r oa d r a t h er t h a n con s t r u ct in g a n ew
on e.
Per iodic r oad r econ n ais s an ce is con du ct ed
t o obt a in in for ma t ion a bou t t h e r oa d s it u a -
t ion in a s pecific a r ea . A s it u a t ion ma p is
pr epa r ed a n d kept cu r r en t t o s h ow t h e con -
dit ion of r oa ds , t h e den s it y of t r a ffic, t h e
n eed for ma in t en a n ce wor k, a n d t h e r es u lt s
of ma in t en a n ce. Per iodic r econ n a is s a n ce
impor t a n t du r in g wet or u n u s u a lly dr y
ENGINEER
wea t h er t o det er min e t h e effect s of t h es e
con dit ion s . Ma in t en a n ce r equ ir emen t s
bas ed on per iodic r econ n ais s an ce mu s t be
coor din a t ed wit h t h e a gen cies u s in g t h e
r oa ds t o en s u r e pr oper s t a n da r ds of ma in -
t en a n ce a n d t o a void wor k on r oa ds n o
lon ger n eeded.
LOCATION RECONNAISSANCE
Wh en a n ew r oad is n eces s ar y, t h e fir s t
s t ep is t h e locat ion r econ n ais s an ce. Th is r e-
qu ir es r econ n ais s an ce of all pos s ible r ou t es
t o en s u r e s elect ion of t h e bes t r ou t e. Th e
ma in object ive of a loca t ion r econ n a is s a n ce
is t o loca t e a n ew r oa d t h a t will wit h s t a n d
an t icipat ed t r affic an d pr ovide t h e bes t pos -
s ible oper at in g con dit ion s .
is
En gin eer r econ n ais s an ce is oft en con du ct ed
in con ju n ct ion wit h deliber a t e r ou t e r econ -
n a is s a n ce t o det er min e r ou t e con dit ion s (in -
clu din g wor k es t ima t es ) a n d t o loca t e con -
s t r u ct ion ma t er ia ls t o impr ove or ma in t a in
t h e r ou t e. It is eit h er a gen er al or s pecial
r econ n a is s a n ce. Gen er al en gin eer in g r econ -
n a is s a n ce ga t h er s en gin eer in g in for ma t ion
of a br oa d n a t u r e wit h in t h e oper a t ion a l
a r ea t o loca t e a n d eva lu a t e con s t r u ct ion
RECONNAISSANCE
ma t er ia ls , r es ou r ces , t er r a in fea t u r es , a n d
fa cilit ies t h a t h a ve en gin eer implica t ion s .
Special en gin eer r econ n ais s an ce obt ain s
det a iled in for ma t ion r ega r din g a n in ves t iga -
t ion of a s pecific s it e or eva lu a t es t h e pot en -
t ial u s e of an u n developed facilit y s u ch as
a n a ir por t or h elipor t . DA For m 1711-R is
a r equ ir ed en clos u r e t o t h e r ou t e r econ n a is -
s an ce, as s pecified in FM 5-36.
AIRFIELD RECONNAISSANCE
Air field r econ n ais s an ce differ s fr om r oad-
locat ion r econ n ais s an ce, des cr ibed in FM
5-36, in t h e s cope of in for ma t ion . An a ir -
field pr oject in volves mor e per s on n el,
ma ch in e-h ou r s , a n d ma t er ia l t h a n a r oa d
pr oject . Air t r affic impos es mor e s ever e
limit a t ion s on it s t r a ffic fa cilit ies t h a n
veh icu la r t r a ffic. Con s equ en t ly, t h e s it e
s eIect ed mu s t be t h e bes t s it e available.
PLANNING AIRFIELD RECONNAISSANCE
Ten t at ive air field s it es ar e s elect ed wit h in
en emy t er r it or y u s in g ma p a n d a er ia l
ph ot ogr a ph r econ n a is s a n ce, s u pplemen t in g
da t a fr om r epor t s of a er ia l obs er ver s or in -
t elligen ce s ou r ces . Th es e s it es may be u n -
developed pot en t ial s it es or oper at in g en emy
in s t a lla t ion s . Recon n ais s an ce s h ou ld begin
as s oon as pos s ible.
For an u n developed pot en t ial s it e, t h e ob-
ject of t h e r econ n a is s a n ce is t o ver ify or
a men d t en t a t ive s elect ion s a n d la you t s a n d
t o es t ima t e t h e ma t er ia l, equ ipmen t , a n d
t r oop r equ ir emen t s for t h e con s t r u ct ion
plan n ed. If it is a capt u r ed en emy air field,
FM 5-430-00-1/AFP 93-4. Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFP 93-4, Vol I
a decis ion is n eeded on wh et h er t o u s e t h e
capt u r ed field or develop a complet ely n ew
s it e. Es t ima t es of t h e en gin eer in g
es s a r y t o r es t or e t h e a ir field ma y
qu ir ed.
New air fields added t o an ar ea in
a ir cr a ft a r e a lr ea dy oper a t in g ca n
oped in t h e followin g ma n n er :
effor t n ec-
als o be r e-
wh ich ou r
be devel-
Select t h e bes t a va ila ble ma p of t h e a r ea
in wh ich t h e n ew air fields ar e t o be lo-
ca t ed. Dr a w a 5-mile-dia met er cir cle
ar ou n d exis t in g air fields an d s h ade
t h em. Not e a ll h igh -t en s ion , elect r ic
t r an s mis s ion lin es an d s h ade a 2-mile-
wide s t r ip cen t er ed on t h es e lin es . Lo-
ca t e a n d s h a de a ll s imila r obs t r u ct ion s
on t h e ma p. As s a u lt or h a s t y a ir field s e-
lect ion is dis cu s s ed in Ch apt er 10 of FM
5-430-00-2/ Air For ce Pamph let
(AFPAM) 32-8013, Vol 2.
Con fin e t h e s t u dy for pot en t ia l a ir fields
t o t h e u n s h a ded pa r t s of t h e ma p. Look
for s it es of s u fficien t ar ea, pr efer ably
fla t wit h good n a t u r a l dr a in a ge, u n ob-
s t r u ct ed air appr oach es , an d acces s ibil-
it y t o r ou t es of commu n ica t ion . As s ign
t h e mos t likely s it es t o r econ n a is s a n ce
pa r t ies for a ppr opr ia t e a ir a n d gr ou n d
in ves t iga t ion .
SELECTING RUNWAY LOCATION
A con ven ien t wa y of s elect in g a r u n wa y loca -
t ion a t a s it e t h a t meet s glide-a n gle r equ ir e-
men t s is t o pr epar e an d u s e t h e ah -field-s it -
in g t emplat e illu s t r at ed in Figu r e 2-3, page
2-16. Th is t emplat e can be dr awn on ace-
t a t e or h ea vy celloph a n e for u s e on a n y
ma p t o meet s pecifica t ion s for fligh t wa y,
h or izon t a l a ppr oa ch , a n d glide a n gle. Wh en
pla ced on t h e ma p, t h e t empla t e s h ows la n d
for ms a n d n a t u r a l or ma n u fa ct u r ed obs t a -
cles t h a t a r e in or a bove t h e pla n e of t h e
glide an gle.
In Figu r e 2-3, an y h ill wit h in t h e appr oach
zon e a t a dis t a n ce of 8,000 feet fr om t h e
en d of t h e over r u n a n d h a vin g a n eleva t ion
of mor e t h a n 160 feet a bove t h a t of t h e en d
of t h e pr opos ed r u n way, is in a 50:1 glide
a n gle. Th is r u n wa y loca t ion is u n s u it a ble
a ccor din g t o t h e s pecifica t ion s . Th e t em-
plat e is u s efu l t o t h e r econ n ais s an ce officer
a n d t o t h e pr elimin a r y pla n n in g gr ou p. Pr e-
pa r ed t empla t es ca n mea s u r e dis t a n ces in
feet , yar ds , miles , an d kilomet er s by placin g
gr a da t ion s a lon g t h eir edges .
PROCEDURES FOR AIRFIELD AIR
RECONNAISSANCE
Th e gen er al pr ocedu r e for an air r econ n ais -
s an ce follows :
En r ou t e t o a pa r t icu la r s it e or a gen er a l
a r ea , t h e en gin eer n ot es open bor r ow pit s ,
la r ge s t ockpiles of con s t r u ct ion ma t er ia l,
r ail an d r oad acces s es t o t h e s it e, an d er -
r or s on ma ps t h a t h a ve been s t u died. Th e
pilot pla ys a n impor t a n t r ole on t h e r econ -
n a is s a n ce t ea m. Bes ides ch au ffeu r in g t h e
en gin eer officer , t h e pilot con s ider s ap-
pr oa ch es , men t a l h a za r ds , a n d ph ys ica l ob-
s t r u ct ion s r ela t ed t o t a ct ica l a ir cr a ft t h a t
ma y u s e t h e pr opos ed in s t a lla t ion . A pilot
wh o is fa milia r wit h oper a t ion a l r equ ir e-
men t s a n d t h e per for ma n ce ch a r a ct er is t ics
of t a ct ica l a ir cr a ft is mor e va lu a ble t h a n
on e wh o is n ot .
Th e en gin eer obs er ver as s es s es pos s ible con -
s t r u ct ion pr oblems a t a pot en t ia l s it e. Th e
en gin eer s elect s t en t at ive s it es an d dir ect s
qu es t ion s t o t h e gr ou n d r econ n a is s a n ce
par t y. Th e en gin eer r eceives t h e pilot s s u g-
ges t ion s con cer n in g t h e flyin g-r elat ed ch ar ac-
t er is t ics of t h e s it es in ves t iga t ed a n d modi-
fies es t ima t es a ccor din g t o t h es e r ecommen -
da t ion s .
To be effect ive as an en gin eer obs er ver t h e
officer s h ou ld pos s es s t h e followin g qu alifica-
t ion s :
Kn owledge of r oad an d air field r equ ir e-
men t s a n d con s t r u ct ion pr ocedu r es a n d
exper ien ce in air field wor k.
Immu n it y t o a ir s ickn es s . An a ir s ick offi-
cer can n ot effect ively accomplis h air r e-
con n ais s an ce. An y t en den cy of t h e en gi-
n eer obs er ver t o become air s ick is
gr ea t ly en h a n ced by t h e con t in u a l con -
cen t r a t ion on a pa r t icu la r s it e a n d by
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 2-3. Sample airfield-siting template
t h e s t eep t u r n s a n d ma n eu ver s es s en -
t ia l t o con t in u ed obs er va t ion .
Pr oficien cy in map r eadin g. Upon ap-
pr oa ch in g a des ign a t ed or t en t a t ively
s elect ed s it e for r econ n ais s an ce, t h e n or -
ma l a lt it u de for t h e fir s t cir cu it is a p-
pr oxima t ely 300 feet . Not h in g mor e
t h a n or ien t a t ion ca n be a ccomplis h ed in
t h is cir cu it . Somet imes a s it e t en t a t ive-
ly s elect ed du r in g an ar ea s ear ch can be
elimin a t ed du r in g t h is cir cu it or t h e
n ext few pas s es .
Similar s econ d an d t h ir d pas s es ar e flown .
Du r in g t h es e cir cu it s , obs t r u ct ion s , ma in
s lopes , an d gen er al feat u r es ar e n ot ed. Th e
pilot begin s t o for mu la t e a n es t ima t e of t h e
flyin g-r elat ed ch ar act er is t ics of t h e field.
Pin poin t s for t h e en ds of t h e r u n wa y a r e
ma de on t h e ma p, bu t a ddit ion a l t r ips
s h ou ld be flown acr os s t h e ar ea, if n eces -
s a r y.
Aft er t h e r u n wa y h a s been s elect ed, a n in i-
t ia l low pa s s is ma de a t a bou t 50 ya r ds t o
on e s ide of t h e pr opos ed cen t er lin e. A
s econ d pas s in t h e oppos it e dir ect ion is
flown on t h e ot h er s ide of t h e cen t er lin e.
Bot h of t h es e fligh t s s h ou ld be ma de a t a
con s t a n t a ir s peed s o t h e r u n wa y len gt h
ca n be es t ima t ed by mu lt iplyin g t h e a ir
s peed by t h e aver age fligh t t ime.
NOTE: Th e le n gt h u s u a lly i s ove r e s -
t i ma t e d wh e n flyi n g a t low a i r s pe e ds i f a
s t r on g wi n d i s blowi n g a lon g t h e c e n t e r -
li n e . Th i s c a n be de c r e a s e d i f t h e di s t a n -
c e s obt a in e d by t wo pa s s e s in oppos it e
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
di r e c t i on s a lon g t h e c e n t e r li n e a r e
a ve r a ge d (a s s u mi n g t h e wi n d i s c on s t a n t ).
A fin a l cir cu it is t h en flown a t a ppr oxima t e-
ly 200 feet . Du r in g t h is t r ip, t h e en ds an d
cen t er lin e of t h e r u n wa y a r e given a fin a l
ch eck, an d t h e pilot complet es t h e appr ais al
of t h e fields flyin g s u it abilit y.
In depar t in g, t h e obs er ver r eviews dis per s al
ar eas an d again ch ecks acces s r oads . Addi-
t ion a l pa s s es over t h e s it e a r e ma de if qu es -
t ion s a r is e a s a r es u lt of t h is la s t ch eck.
An a ir r econ n a is s a n ce r epor t s imila r t o Fig-
u r e 2-4, page 2-18, may be u s ed.
An ar ea r econ n ais s an ce t h en pr oceeds by
s imilar in s pect ion of ot h er pos s ible s it es ,
Complet e n ot es mu s t be kept t o a void
r eviewin g s it es alr eady ch ecked h owever , a
r ein ves t igat ion of t h e fin al s it e s elect ed an d
a n y s elect ed a lt er n a t ive s it es ma y s ome-
t imes be n eces s ar y.
PROCEDURES FOR AIRFIELD GROUND
RECONNAISSANCE
Th e gen er al pr ocedu r e for gr ou n d r econ n ais -
s an ce follows :
Th e gr ou n d-r econ n ais s an ce ph as e is
pr eceded by map an d air r econ n ais s an ce t o
dis cover wh at s pecific s it es an d qu es t ion s
wa r r a n t gr ou n d in ves t iga t ion .
En r ou t e t o t h e s it e or s it es t o be in ves -
t iga t ed on t h e gr ou n d, t h e r econ n a is s a n ce
par t y s h ou ld pr oper ly r ecor d t h e gen er al
con dit ion of r oa ds a n d br idges , t h e loca t ion
of u s able or r epair able r ailh eads , t h e locally
a va ila ble ma t er ia ls a n d equ ipmen t , a n d t h e
pot en t ia l wa t er poin t s . Wh en r econ n a is -
s an ce of a defin it e s it e is in volved, a mor e
det a iled obs er va t ion of t h e a cces s r ou t e
s h ou ld be ma de. A ch eck mu s t be ma de of
br idge capacit ies , over h ead clear an ces , an d
fea t u r es t h a t migh t h in der t h e movemen t of
con s t r u ct ion equ ipmen t t o t h e s it e, a s well
as t h e s u it abilit y of r ailh eads an d s idin gs
for u s e in con s t r u ct ion . A det a iled r epor t
of t h e qu a n t it y a n d qu a lit y of ma t er ia ls
available at qu ar r ies , pit s , an d s t ockpiles
mu s t be pr epar ed.
Wh en t h e s it e t o be s u r veyed is r each ed,
t h e mos t likely loca t ion s for a r u n wa y mu s t
be in ves t igat ed. If t h e t er r ain is open
en ou gh t o per mit good obs er va t ion , t h es e
loca t ion s ma y be qu ickly det er min ed. Loca -
t ion s for r u n ways ar e t r aver s ed by veh icle
or on foot . A r ou gh s u r vey of ea ch s elect ed
r u n wa y is ca r r ied ou t immedia t ely. Len gt h s
ar e paced, cr it ical s lopes ar e meas u r ed wit h
a clin omet er , a n d dir ect ion s a r e det er min ed
wit h a ma gn et ic compa s s . Th e t ype of s oil
is n ot ed a n d obs er va t ion s of a few s a mples
ar e made. A pr elimin ar y ch eck of a pos -
s ible r u n way can be made in 15 min u t es , if
t h e cou n t r y is r ea s on a bly clea r a n d open .
If t h e cou n t r y is r ou gh a n d is n ot s u fficien t -
ly open t o per mit a qu ick s elect ion of r u n -
wa y loca t ion s , a det a iled s ea r ch mu s t be
ma de on foot . Th e r econ n a is s a n ce officer ,
accompan ied by n eces s ar y per s on n el, fol-
lows t h e cen t er lin e of t h e a r ea for t h e r u n -
way an d dis per s al ar eas . Th e r econ n ais -
s a n ce officer n ot es on a la r ge-s ca le ma p or
s ket ch a ll obs t a cles t h a t ca n n ot r ea dily be
elimin at ed, s u ch as gu llies , r ock ou t cr ops ,
a n d s wa mpy a r ea s . Exa min a t ion of t h e
r es u lt s dis clos es t h e pos s ible r u n way loca-
t ion s .
Th e bes t r u n way locat ion is s elect ed by con -
s ider in g t h es e cen t er lin e in ves t igat ion s wit h
pr evailin g win d dir ect ion , air appr oach es ,
glide an gles , gr ou n dwat er con dit ion s , dis -
ch ar ge ar eas for collect ed r u n off, clear in g,
gr u bbin g, a n d ea r t h wor k. If a s u it a ble r u n -
wa y does n ot exis t , a n ega t ive r epor t on t h e
s it e is s u bmit t ed.
On ce t h e s elect ion of a pot en t ia l r u n wa y is
ma de, a ca r efu l a n d det a iled wa lk of t h e
cen t er lin e of ea ch r u n wa y is ma de t o
r ech eck it s s u it a bilit y. St a kes a r e dr iven a t
ea ch en d of t h e r u n wa y a n d pr omin en t fea -
t u r es ar e pr oper ly r efer en ced t o lat er ex-
pedit e t h e loca t ion of t h e s elect ed r u n wa y
by con s t r u ct ion u n it s u r veyor s .
Th e s u r vey s er gean t of t h e r econ n ais s an ce
pa r t y s t a kes ou t t h e cen t er lin e of t h e r u n -
wa y a n d r u n s a gr ou n d pr ofile of it a t t h e
cen t er lin e an d at each s h ou lder lin e.
Levels a r e t a ken a t 500-foot in t er va ls
a n d
2-17
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 2-4. Air Reconnaissance Report
a t in t er media t e br ea ks or s lope ch a n ges . In elu ded in t h e r epor t . A s u gges t ed r epor t for -
fla t cou n t r y, t h is in t er va l ma y be in cr ea s ed
t o a s mu ch a s 1,000 feet . If a n a lt er n a t ive
r u n way is s elect ed, a s imilar s u r vey is con -
du ct ed for t h a t r u n wa y, if t ime per mit s .
Th e s oils an alys t con du ct s a field in ves t iga-
t ion of t h e s oil con dit ion s a t t h e s it e, Refer
t o Ch a pt er 7 of t h is ma n u a l for mor e in for -
ma t ion a bou t s oil con dit ion s .
Pr eviou s ly acqu ir ed in for mat ion is ch ecked
a t t h e s it e for a ccu r a cy. Er r or s , in clu din g
dis cr epan cies on maps an d mis t akes in
a er ia I ph ot ogr a ph in t er pr et a t ion s , a r e in -
mat is s h own in Figu r e 2-5:
Wh en pos s ible, local in h abit an t s ar e in t er -
viewed t o ch eck in for mat ion alr eady ob-
t a in ed a n d t o obt a in mor e in for ma t ion .
Sever al opin ion s s h ou ld be obt ain ed. Qu es -
t ion s s h ou ld be ph r as ed t o pr ovide t h e bes t
compa r is on of a n s wer s . In for ma t ion mu s t
be weigh ed car efu lly wit h r egar d for t h e
cr edibilit y of each per s on qu es t ion ed.
Th e r econ n ais s an ce of a des ign at ed s it e
s h ou ld be accomplis h ed in on e day, u n les s
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 2-5. Ground Reconnaissance Report - Undeveloped Airfield Site
RlCOfllfllA,S\.A"'Cl RlPOHI
ufIIDEVELOPEO A,Rflllll SIIE
10 Comm.nCltnQ QUlc.r
:5:1.7 QN
FROM CO C
CP _____ _
Note - Th. 'econnil,h,llnl..t' ,hutV mUll bi:' .,.,.!h UIt" '0111,,,,,, "\I,nlurm ... on
1
2
3
4
locillon 'uf .II,t't!'ld .. 1 Uf ilJt'l.IItL
b TvPt!' of .,t.:rlllh Ihdl Will occuP'r' "'t' IIIlfI'I'hl
c f\.Iumbt'f 01 ,,'uuj): .ea"t'Cle:d 11..1 11,,: ,urlt ... I"
DESIGNATIO'" "'don" C'It'Ef. ""-EtY #,4"" Nu,,,,,,,
I
AlleF/EL.D
LOCATION IJ"vs 0" .,A"",.ANP /I1IP
,.I",."cw""'l1!t4i.4! "'I'''''i'4I<''u . " .. ,,, __
S('4.61:..I .. ' ,fIIAME .nd SCALEI
Ldllh . .lClt! & lon .... ludco :, ... 7';;-",," vullhll,II .. : t( U8p(A. E 8'&(1<:' 'l
d (tr'I"LTEN.y4.tf(fue <gal (1rfJ Dye L,sr ,rhn ;flU
,S,/e: dlSlanclI!' .. nu ctUt:"LI1U'( hUIII :o.IIt', A'cAO ,.tr""" .' re
ROADS tI-r cdc,rlNt(41(( .... cF"cr,llrrlLitf "-ol.tJe.1L 12."1-2 NEr
..:unc.hllun bl,dVt!i 'oHho ,:,_
AAILROAP$ J"e{..t'N.JU Vd,.,.,,,,, If" s(Q(.nl dT %"9'*"1" 42 m" #1 de r pr SI rC
IGdYt' cundlllon c.)I'!t 1.1 Ill..t" I'ulll ::'111' itrllJ.nw c.;dj).JL.lly lunnt'l,
GENERAL DESCR,PTlO'" Of LAfIIOlfllG AREA AfIIO <;UHHUUfIIO,,,,u COUNTRY '';CCAY' '-#,('
vI h'tft'l'L fi'd.DIO sr41'relt/ 51""' Nql!( pCCLyrtQN ((OMC Fel PC'tNdvfiyr ,Dqys
6 GLIDE Mt";U", UNe/MIUP IN MqSr D,u(rl6'1 scE IrE.., '7
s.lu,",t' ANrlvAlA, FilA-NI Ar hi N. S IS IS-n" tV o,r Sire;'
1 fLIGHT OE.STRUC110fll5 A"'O MEflllAL CLvl'T"EP w.orlfit -r"ow{lt AT 11 v'" C or SirE.
,RdVlflt'5. 1..1"" muufll ,n'!t .. ,ull"" t.::tHnlnlt'y::. to"-'t!.!t powt'r Ilnt'!t to". I
8 MEIEOROI...OliollAl CONDITIONS ttvEfrChY ..... <A('N- rruc",tIa.'tad, ",,0 PIEC,ecr4Tm('l4.oJ!4,'v.
'P't"\I,III,tI/lW W'V1.llh '!tlut"':. l,u:1 Irml)t:'tdhJlt'! v,sllI,hl"
9 HYOROlOCilCAL CONDITIONS SrPEdf-S G6I eACH .'flOC o,.c:= SIrE "UN Ta erSC,T4lfjay Rp/Ca
10 ORA'fIIAul <,iaQQ
\.I'UIIIHI.....,.IIt" 1I "II..UIII'II,un::. IIUd! v,I",lllon::.,
<VA w?AL pRAINAGe
11
12
13
14
16
1 J
18
19
Ifl.11 ul pi ... ,.
SOIL TYPb A"'O uEOlO(';'CAL OA 1 A _____________ _
ISdn(1 W'd"".:1 !tdl U' (Un.II,'l.IIIt)II'!t ,,, ... o\lI""u6 t.:ordl lutf .... llId'cl
CLEARINli..(lQ AUN'S,,." CLC&",s eFe(' "'O,4UD rT,es-f'''IIAM&,o ,r#4..,' lu,LpcKl_
it I It:" diU' Ut'n!tll'r uf IUI."::.I w."4D "".,1 74 .
PROPOSED LAYOUT N' C .. SW NWV' U1F EltJ.1r,@ If.lDQ S .S"<',r,l 81lNk/4v$ 't.(tUD+L' 'cL
dllun "nU U.';:;llun ut , .. tiel tll::.", ... '::'dl ,yslem , .. Udl.1I
RECOMME"'OlD SURf AlIfllu h4< 'If ""pua' C SUPCBC WG
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ICU""tH c.;unc.;cdlmt!nl IJISVt'r!tlun tJt!(;t:f,lIIOnl
BIVOUACAREIAS Pa''1,z:qtCtE5 - ..... ILL ACC.Qw""qPAzE MEN
ILocallon SIlt!' cuvcr p,e:vlou!illy UCl.up,,:!tJl .MA" STI.A/IIfS A',"OIJ)
WA.TER SUPPLY ,VArf) rAttltt "ao DISr"au Z7"IY 1 ysriH 1ft( Opa.fTIO'Y .. moN.
h,u .. dllun QUdnt,I'r Qu "'.'IIS
EXISTING rAClUrlES ('''CrC'e w'C,ty6 ,5wtAQeC tU"lO'1 t'7+<1T Blr INsr44'P
lBudu,nys 'IIU'''We: PO""&!' k'hll!'fIllWt!" C,6A ... ,1. p,r PIT.
MATERIALS AVAILA.BLE "0 ..... ,11 p+A,vt w"C'dEEl! ,PArL ur 1l/4L4G:
bulluVv P'I!!. W'IIIlf'tI!l qUd".e, mine dump, 11mb."
20 WORI( ESTlMAIE OUAfIITIT'ES
CI 'ln" ... Q,",I:Ja.l..t:"..ir,-__________________________ _
tAI.,cI ul IlmulI!" ue:ns"YI
b O'llln.wll!' GUt( Plr&"f 4CalMl.a URIMrFti 9' '''AlwAy ,earl r;. s-rUdM
IL.ntl4r Ict!'1 01 UIJt'n lMl.:hlnw ut ... mount 0' IJlpe .nd .pproa,m.te
E.,.II n'O""lnW ,..q"g"r "(0"" C'<a((;. YP$ NO I1e"""" '&a(L pR LqNe:. tjAUL
IEsIIIIl.It:' tu, R W T W H 5,
d Surt4c.;Inw rAy -9 Qcur POg id' ET ,t,rz&
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IMdt:'5 cundlllonl
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.. nu Illlt' lull.lIdll'' to. ope'8110n, ql,l.nlll'lng.
;; i i'ME ES T,MA YE fOR COMPL[ T 10fll _____ ....:;;=I<--... Cl"l:2..:.....-_.. P,,'dz...z:V-"S'-____________ _
22
23
24
Ill' IBn 0' Co d''r'11
AOOITIOfllAL IfIIfORMAT,Ofll 1- ojIo'r_ ,.,A'I ", .. 41"41J" r.r_,." ""D
'4tI"",,,'EM#AI"Y':Y, ClvnhlN ut' IIII'A (10" .. 0 IIC Mr&.J'
/'00<' ",,"riVer ""pr "r I"Rr>P"'SCP A-....... A"y
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"fIIfIIEXES $"cE Arrtf('h'ED ItUP "'1'2 o rEA! 1y
SIG"'ATUR(

FM 5-430-00-3/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
h os t ile for ces delay t h e wor k. A s pecific
r econ n ais s an ce of a capt u r ed en emy air field
is s omewh a t differ en t fr om t h a t ou t lin ed
a bove. Det a iled in for ma t ion a bou t t h e exis t -
in g facilit ies an d t h eir con dit ion is des ir ed.
Th e s pecific in for mat ion n eeded is in dicat ed
on t h e s u gges t ed for m for r econ n a is s a n ce
r epor t s of capt u r ed en emy air fields s h own
in Figu r e 2-6.
Wh en t h e r econ n a is s a n ce pa r t ies a r e oper a t -
in g a t a con s ider a ble dis t a n ce fr om t h e
h ea dqu a r t er s dir ect in g t h e r econ n a is s a n ce,
it is imper a t ive t h a t a n in it ia l r epor t r ea ch
h ea dqu a r t er s wit h ou t dela y. Us e or ga n ic
r a dio equ ipmen t a n d t h e s u gges t ed mes s a ge
for mat in Figu r e 2-7, page 2-22. Th e t act i-
ca l s it u a t ion ma y dict a t e t h e a mou n t of in -
for ma t ion t r a n s mit t ed. Un it s t a n din g
oper at in g pr ocedu r es (SOPS) s h ou ld in dicat e
wh a t in for ma t ion is cr it ica l for r a dio
r epor t s . A complet e, wr it t en r epor t s h ou ld
follow t h e r a dio r epor t .
Th e for mat s illu s t r at ed in Figu r e 2-4, page
2-18; Figu r e 2-5, page 2-19; an d Figu r e 2-
6, a r e s u gges t ed for wr it t en r epor t s . Th e
r epor t s s h ou ld in clu de t h e s a me it ems of in -
for ma t ion s h own on t h es e for ms . Su it a ble
s ket ch es s h ou ld be a t t a ch ed t o a ll wr it t en
r econ n ais s an ce r epor t s . Figu r e 2-8, page 2-
23, is a t ypical s ket ch .
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 2-6. Ground Reconnaissance Report - Captured Enemy Airfield
2-21
FROM
RECONNAlss"'''ce REPORT
CAPTUREO ENEMY AlIFlFIELO
3.2 7 EN(7R ,8#
___ Cl' _______ OAlE
DESJGNATlON N .. m .. .2ikNsLO ,eNtia ,4d'T/EI.l) I\j"m"." _____________ _
lOCATION P&Nt",PAJ.1 r}l (Ill'" 2Jt:IHQa
Ma" , .. Milp.tr [(,41. c I r-t: E, ..... """ ___ __________ _
,Na"'" .. nil s,.'''' ,MSL,
L.I"Ul;t!' .NI longtl",d. 'ri2 S'sltl, 3'7 :13' e M ... cuo,d,,, .. tt"!a
d N,,,,,t,, ,u",,, .3bt:!:;'" q_t;e ,$ rill ""'It.'! 1'1 E 01'" Se,-' A!k?u-r CI?O
3 RUNWAYS
8
I,
'2
No 1 EwPv..vWA)' eo
No 2 N S Pv ........ ",Y ;J 7<'0
Nu 3 /loA/"
HAROSTANOS lliumC"" h .....
CONDiTiO'" OF AIRFlhD FACILITIES
; ....... a. "')"0 ;;,. ;; 6)' tA, ... U"""'" l e.t'ri f.)
t. tqq T r I W"C C q" +u<+ htr'cu lv(Q1?'C' r,,;'
RUf\lN'dVS, rEt"qt"'PA'y "''''.N' ....... y Que !Iv r <p:r M/Alp g "C PAI<r Mel r (41tHI'''' ff-PJ
b Tfu.WdVll "Q9D 7Y'6t.HID.fNq
HarQS1"n/lS "t!hqr ..-Atl'" vr ACt' (/lc;dU,I:-. AOTdC""'T Weeri!' "'e"', N'" ",I(IIJ!tr
(i RUdt,l!. IClass1tv "",Q,.., r rA!AF"""
d. "',L"" I"",t><Mf 4['- <6, ':='0." N<JR,# A.il.ty'3o,.,.r K6
"
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iNumD't u, I..dUdlt,)l\' U S VdIS' PIPE" kiN':.
8Qtflb >ifiU dfflmU"ltlon Lh"nlU\ $IAlfI re; i r/ill"'f E
St!!t.ot.tMlii.: N9"':: rc?' <:;,:-1"[4 O,e If Cqa'Qt rice(
"IJI" LU('IthltOlH :/16,/h',o BUT pc
Oth\.t" eN" r ,rptC'y llRICK 8J.Ptir - 4'4$14. V e, r9..('1!!.a
ON6 INumbll!'( ul bun\J.ny" lI:Q "'/f/::u,'IO .-IIA'IA 3.,.l""tI &.I/w __ L:1
Sf'loi,i .. y 4S ..$1/0# .4LHDS"""'"
ut th.lHQ,nV$ IQ tJl
StQld\lit CU\l ... OCtr
n
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I
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6,....11_ s .. ::W $Vr,AIf Jtri.'.""'I..'tI 1fItIIh",.2 "AIA ,,, .. 4.-
O, ... n.Vt" 9' 'Y'U , Y" Ooef'l "'''''"'' n "'K" '1"9",,4 J.tlr" ',9< e'
; T VUI!:' .nu IVCoHi" 01 {J4I"'4Wt:"S: 10(:"'101\ 0' ourt,.JI I ,JIIP' "."", .. A "'1'" '4fJA"
Ul"'!,n Pu--II"J ,fNP ""#""&;""1"1
11, Wdltof SYUUh -CtrtL /' Ne 1:Jt,<",(',tl"f"/fM' sr; "c ,.,IJ{ Peg rc, tlgN
I21 S\t!ttt'm vyr.pgg4!! _dr#;,.,t:' 'Yl %'pr CL {'.I"'''' t 't'<,,9 9<
131 Erffclfl('!h "(14<<1 cfe
C
."" r. 4"H"ure< IV' aM ",fMtfg'P 8C)l'wYP :fi!!PAJR
14. 'vSlt,om5 it"1Ptff _________________ _
Ot\e-t f'Wr""<64 "'"bM' """",...,.. ,<It c !tUGC ,s(1 "'(4'1 <!'
"'i,.;,'PJJ,I'ji'l' p, :lll. ",,,,. 'Ii .
R tfl,;ttus.:z:!IWtb {""'=!4C ... p, .... , .htY49 re ea'T
tf,r:c"" At,,, fllw'1"
os .., .. IU:P At:IES
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 2-7. Air Landing Area Report
I
~ , undinl SillS
Ltttll desipation
A
B
C
0
E
F
G
H
I
J
Airstnps (Runw,ysl
letter dlSllII.IICItI
A
8
C
D
E
F
G
H
AIR lANDING AREA REPORT
EaplalllliCltl
Map sheel(S1
Dall .nCl time of cdeclioll 0' infarmation
Location Will r.'erllltesl
Runw.y
III 81111nl
12) lInatf\lIId widlh
III Gradients IItlldinl slandards
141 ROUlh .ptII'aisII 01 earttl work
15) FusIbility of runw.y ext.nsion
Dru."
Major oOstKIIs to llyinl
111 Wilhm tll pproach ZOll.
12) Outsld. the allPlOIth zone but .. iII 5 1IIi11s
Type of sod
Wbetller sUltabl 11. lor diJpersiIs till be lound
lataIlISOUItlS
APIlfO.clI roads
uplan.tlon
M.p slleetlsl
D.le .nd tlm. of collection 0' Inform.tiCltl
Loc:alJOn (11Id relerencesl
DimenSions
Type .nd condlllon 0' IlIe .lIstnp
Access by road
FelSlblllty 0' runw., utension
Any otfIer l"formallGn such IS work required, in m.ft
hours. 10 m.ke tile rstnp servic:e.bie lor sustained
or hmlted openllofts
Report air landing areas by serial number. The appropriate
letter designation must precede each category of Information
reported.
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 2-8. Typical sketch to accompany airfield reconnaissance report
2-23
o
o
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s;fe ske fch 1:.1.'" 000
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3
Surveys and Earthwork Operations
Construction Surveys
Construction Stakes
The Mass Diagram
SURVEYS AND
OPERATIONS
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
EARTHWORK
Con s t ru ct ion s u rv e y s a re in it ia t e d w h e n n e w con s t ru ct ion is
neces s ary . Thes e s urvey s reveal the k ind s of s tak es to be us ed :
prov id e d a t a f or e a rt h w ork e s t ima t ion , in clu d in g w h ich me t h od
of e s t im a t ion t o u s e ; a n d p rov id e in f orm a t ion f or u s e on t h e
ma s s d ia gra m. Th e f in is h e d s u rv e y book s s h ou ld be f ile d w it h
t h e con s t ru ct ion proje ct re cord s of t h e Ope ra t ion s a n d Tra in in g
Of f ice r (US Army ) (S 3 ).
Earthw ork operations are one of the mos t important cons truction
a s p e ct s in roa d a n d a irf ie ld con s t ru ct ion . Ea rt h w ork re qire s
t h e gre a t e s t a mou n t of e n gin e e rin g e f f ort f rom t h e s t a n d poin t of
pe rs on n e l a n d e qu ipme n t . Th e re f ore , t h e pla n n in g, s ch e d u lin g,
a n d s u p e rv is ion of e a rt h w ork op e ra t ion s a re im p ort a n t in ob -
t a in in g a n e f f icie n t ly ope ra t e d con s t ru ct ion proje ct .
CONSTRUCTION SURVEYS
Con s t r u ct ion s u r veyin g is t h e or der ly
pr oces s of obt a in in g da t a for va r iou s ph a s es
of con s t r u ct ion a ct ivit y. It in clu des t h e fol-
lowin g s u r veys : r econ n ais s an ce, pr elimi-
n a r y, fin a l loca t ion , a n d con s t r u ct ion la y-
ou t . Th e r econ n a is s a n ce a n d pr elimin a r y
s u r veys a r e u s ed t o det er min e t h e bes t loca -
t ion . Th e r emain in g s u r veys ar e con du ct ed
a ft er a loca t ion h a s been es t a blis h ed.
Th e pu r pos e of con s t r u ct ion s u r veys is t o
con t r ol con s t r u ct ion a ct ivit ies . Th e n u mber
an d ext en t of s u r veys con du ct ed is
gover n ed by t h e t ime a va ila ble, t h e s t a n d-
a r d of con s t r u ct ion des ir ed, a n d t h e
il bilit f l d t i l I
du ct ed for a deliber at e pr oject in t h e com-
mu n ica t ion s zon e. Th e qu alit y an d efficien -
cy of con s t r u ct ion is dir ect ly pr opor t ion a l t o
t h e n u mber a n d ext en t of s u r veys a n d ot h er
pr eplan n in g act ivit ies . Th e pr in ciples an d
t ech n iqu es of field s u r veyin g ar e dis cu s s ed
in det ail in t ech n ical man u al (TM) 5-232
an d FM 5-233.
Aft er complet in g a t h or ou gh con s t r u ct ion
s u r vey, t r a n s fer t h e des ign in for ma t ion fr om
pa per t o t h e field by con s t r u ct ion s t a kes .
Th es e s t akes ar e t h e gu ides an d r efer en ce
ma r ker s for ea r t h wor k oper a t ion s .
M k t h t k t h t t h t t i
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY
Th e r econ n ais s an ce s u r vey pr ovides t h e
bas is for s elect in g accept able s it es an d
r ou t es a n d fu r n is h es in for ma t ion for u s e on
s u bs equ en t s u r veys .
If t h e loca t ion ca n n ot
be s elect ed on t h e bas is of t h is wor k, it
mu s t be det er min ed by t h e pr elimin a r y s u r -
vey.
PRELIMINARY SURVEY
Th e pr elimin ar y s u r vey is a det ailed s t u dy
of a loca t ion t en t a t ively s elect ed on t h e
bas is of r econ n ais s an ce, s u r vey in for ma-
t ion , a n d r ecommen da t ion s . It con s is t s of
r u n n in g a t r a ver s e a lon g a pr opos ed r ou t e,
r ecor din g t opogr a ph y, a n d plot t in g r es u lt s .
For r oa ds , it ma y be n eces s a r y t o con du ct
s ever al pr elimin ar y s u r veys if t h e r econ n ais -
s a n ce pa r t y h a s in ves t iga t ed mor e t h a n on e
s u it a ble r ou t e. Es t a blis h , s t a t ion , a n d
pr ofile t h e r ou t e cen t er lin e wit h h or izon t a l
an d ver t ical con t r ol poin t s s et . Take cr os s -
s ect ion r ea din gs t o a llow r ou gh ca lcu la t ion s
of t h e ea r t h wor k in volved. (Somet imes
cr os s s ect ion s ma y be t a ken du r in g t h e
r econ n ais s an ce s u r vey if t h e con dit ion s war -
r a n t .) If t h e bes t a va ila ble r ou t e h a s n ot
been ch os en , s elect it a t t h is t ime.
Th e air field s u r vey con s is t s of es t ablis h in g
con t r ols , n ot in g t er r a in fea t u r es , mea s u r in g
glide-an gle clear an ce, makin g s oil pr ofiles ,
a n d in ves t iga t in g dr a in a ge pa t t er n s a n d a p-
pr oa ch es . Accu r a t ely es t a blis h t h e fin a l
cen t er lin e du r in g t h e s u r vey.
FINAL LOCATION SURVEY
Wh en t ime per mit s , con du ct a fin a l loca t ion
s u r vey. Es t a blis h per ma n en t ben ch ma r ks
for ver t ica l con t r ol a n d well-ma r ked poin t s
for h or izon t a l con t r ol. Th es e poin t s a r c
ca lled h u bs beca u s e of t h e s h or t , s qu a r e
s t ake u s ed. On mos t s u r veys , t h e h u b is
dr iven flu s h wit h t h e gr ou n d, a n d a t a ck in
it s t op ma r ks t h e exa ct poin t for a n gu la r
a n d lin ea r mea s u r emen t s . Th e h u b loca -
t ion is in dica t ed by a fla t gu a r d s t a ke ex-
t en ded a bove t h e gr ou n d a n d dr iven a t a
s lope s o it s t op is over t h e h u b. Hu bs ar e
2 in ch es by 2 in ch es an d t h e gu ar ds ar e
flat s t akes , abou t 3/ 4 in ch by 3 in ch es .
Hor izon t a l Con t r ol
Th e pu r pos e of h or izon t a l con t r ol is t o a c-
cu r a t ely det er min e poin t s for t h e va r iou s
facilit ies of an en gin eer in g pr oject . Es t ab-
lis h per ma n en t , well-ma r ked poin t s for
h or izon t a l con t r ol a n d r efer en ce t h em a t t h e
s it e befor e con s t r u ct ion begin s . On a la r ge
fa cilit y, es t a blis h a gr id n et wor k a n d u s e it
for t h is con t r ol. Tie t h e n et wor k in t o t h e
milit a r y gr id s ys t em in t h e pa r t icu la r a r ea ,
if s u ch a s ys t em h as been es t ablis h ed. On
an air field, place con t r ol poin t s beyon d t h e
clea r zon e. Th es e poin t s defin e t h e cen t er -
lin e of t h e r u n wa y a n d ot h er impor t a n t s ec-
t ion s of t h e a ir field.
As t h e t a xiwa ys a n d ot h er fa cilit ies a r e la id
ou t , es t a blis h a n d r efer en ce n ew con t r ol
poin t s . In la yin g ou t t h e cen t er lin e, pla ce
t a r get boa r ds a t ea ch en d of t h e r u n wa y s o
t h e in s t r u men t per s on ca n ma ke fr equ en t
ch ecks on align men t wh ile t h e lin e is bein g
s t a ked ou t . Ta r get boa r ds ma y be s et u p
on a n y lin e t h a t r equ ir es pr ecis ion a lign -
men t . Refer en ce con t r ol s t a kes t o en s u r e
r epla cemen t , if t h ey a r e dis t u r bed or los t .
Loca t e t h e t a r get boa r d ju s t beyon d t h e ou t -
er mos t con t r ol-poin t s t a ke.
Ve r t i c a l Con t r ol
Ver t ica l con t r ol met h ods det er min e t h e dif-
fer en ce in elevat ion bet ween poin t s . If avail-
able, es t ablis h a level r efer en ce s u r face or
da t u m fr om a kn own ben ch ma r k. Differ en -
ces in elevat ion , wit h cor r ect ion s , ar e s u b-
t r a ct ed fr om or a dded t o t h is a s s ign ed
va lu e, r es u lt in g in t h e eleva t ion of t h e
poin t s . Ta ke t h e da t u m of t h e ben ch ma r k
s ys t em fr om a kn own eleva t ion or
ba r omet er r ea din g or ma ke a n a r bit r a r y a s -
s u mpt ion .
CONSTRUCTION LAYOUT SURVEY
Th e con s t r u ct ion la you t s u r vey is t h e fin a l
pr econ s t r u ct ion oper a t ion . It pr ovides a lign -
men t s , gr a des , a n d loca t ion s t h a t gu ide con -
s t r u ct ion oper at ion s . Th e s u r vey in clu des
det er min in g exa ct pla cemen t of t h e
3-2 Surveys and Earthwork Operations
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM
cen t er lin e; la yin g ou t cu r ves ; s et t in g a ll cu lver t s it es ; a n d per for min g
r emain in g s t akes , gr ades , an d s h ou lder s ; qu ir ed t o begin con s t r u ct ion .
32-8013, Vol 1
ot h er wor k r e-
Con t in u e t h is
s t a kin g ou t n eces s a r y s t r u ct u r es ; la yin g ou t s u r vey u n t il con s t r u ct ion is complet ed.
CONSTRUCTION STAKES
Us e con s t r u ct ion s t a kes for cen t er lin e,
s lope, offs et , s h ou lder , gr ade, r efer en ce,
dit ch , cu lver t , a n d in t er media t e s la kes a n d
for t empor a r y ben ch ma r ks . Th e s t a kes
s h ou ld be appr oximat ely 1 in ch by 3 in ch es
by 2 feet . Us e fin is h ed lu mber wh en pos -
s ible. If it is n ot pos s ible t o u s c fin is h ed
lu mber , u s c s mall t r ees or br an ch es blazed
on bot h s ides an d cu t t o len gt h . Fin is h ed
gr a de s t a kes a n d t empor a r y ben ch ma r ks
ar e 2 in ch es by 2 in ch es by 12 in ch es .
Place s t akes u s in g a t h r ee- t o five-per s on
cr ew equ ipped wt t h t r a n s it , level, r od, t a pe,
a x, s ledgeh a mmer , a n d ma ch et e.
Th e pr ima r y fu n ct ion s of con s t r u ct ion
s t a kes a r e t o in dica t e fa cilit y a lign men t con -
t r ol eleva t ion s , gu ide equ ipmen t oper a t or s ,
an d elimin at e u n n eces s ar y wor k. Th ey als o
det er min e t h e widt h of clea r in g r equ ir ed by
in dica t in g t h e limit s of t h e cu t a n d fill a t
r igh t a n gles t o t h e cen t er lin e of a r oa d.
Ma r k a n d pla ce con s t r u ct ion s t a kes t o con -
for m t o t h e pla n n ed lin e a n d gr a de of t h e
pr opos ed facilit y. Us e color ed mar kin g
cr a yon s t o ma r k t h e s t a kes . Us e a u n ifor m
s ys t em s o t h e in for ma t ion on t h e s t a kes
can be pr oper ly in t er pr et ed by t h e con s t r u c-
t ion cr ew.
Con s t r u ct ion s t a kes in dica t e-
Th e s t a t ion in g or loca t ion of a n y pa r t of
t h e fa cilit y in r ela t ion t o it s s t a r t in g
poin t . If t h e s t a ke is loca t ed a t a cr it i-
ca l poin t s u ch a s a poin t of cu r va t u r e
(PC), poin t of in t er s ect ion (PI), or poin t
of t a n gen cy (PT) of a cu r ve, n ot e t h is on
t h e s t a ke.
Th e h eigh t of cu t or fill fr om t h e exis t in g
gr ou n d s u r fa ce t o t h e t op of t h e s u b-
gr a de for cen t er lin e s t a kes or t o t h e
s h ou lder gr ade for s h ou lder or s lope
s t akes .
Th e h or izon t a l dis t a n ce fr om t h e cen t er -
lin e t o t h e s t a ke loca t ion .
Th e s ide-s lope r at io u s ed on s lope
s t akes .
Th e n u mber an d locat ion of s t akes u s ed dif-
fer bet ween r oads an d air fields . A t ypical
s et of con s t r u ct ion s t a kes con s is t s of a
cen t er lin e s t ake an d t wo s lope s t akes an d
is r efer r ed t o a s a t h r ee-poin t s ys t em.
Poin t on e is t h e cen t er lin e of t h e fa cilit y.
Poin t s t wo a n d t h r ee a r e t h e con s t r u ct ion
limit s of t h e cu t a n d fill a t r igh t a n gles t o
t h e cen t er lin e.
CENTERLINE OR ALIGNMENT STAKES
Th e cen t er lin e or align men t (h u b) s t akes ,
s h own in Figu r e 3-1, ar e placed on t h e
cen t er lin e of a r oad or air field an d in dicat e
it s a lign men t , loca t ion , a n d dir ect ion . Th ey
a r e t h e fir s t s t a kes pla ced a n d mu s t be lo-
ca t ed a ccu r a t ely. Th es e s t akes ar e u s ed as
r efer en ce poin t s in loca t in g t h e r ema in in g
s t akes . Cen t er lin e s t akes ar e placed at 100-
foot (or 30-met er ) in t er va ls . On r ou gh
gr ou n d or s h a r p h or izon t a l a n d ver t ica l
Figure 3-1. Centerline stakes
Surveys and Earthwork Operations 3-3
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
cu r ves , place t h e s t akes clos er t oget h er .
On h or izon t a l cu r ves , a ls o s t a ke t h e PC, PI,
an d PT. On ver t ical cu r ves , als o s t ake t h e
poin t of ver t ica l cu r va t u r e (PVC), t h e poin t
of ver t ica l in t er s ect ion (PVI), t h e poin t of ver -
t ica l t a n gen cy (PVT), a n d t h e low poin t (LP)
or h igh poin t (HP) of t h e cu r ve.
Place cen t er lin e s t akes wit h t h e br oad s ides
per pen dicu lar t o t h e cen t er lin e. Th e s ide of
t h e s t a ke t h a t fa ces t h e s t a r t in g poin t is
t h e fr on t . Ma r k t h e fr on t of t h e s t a ke wit h
a for cen t er lin e an d, if applicable, PC, PI,
or PT. Als o ma r k on t h e fr on t t h e dis t a n ce
fr om zer o or t h e s t a r t in g poin t in 1 00-foot
s t a t ion s a n d t h e fr a ct ion a l pa r t of a s t a t ion ,
if u s ed, For example, mar ked on
a s t ake in dicat es it is 654.22 feet fr om t h e
or igin of t h e fa cilit y a n d is kn own a s t h e
s t a t ion of t h is poin t . St a t ion s a r e u s ed in
loca t in g s ect ion s of con s t r u ct ion a n d in
pr epar in g r epor t s .
PIa ce t h e a mou n t of cu t or fill r equ ir ed a t
t h e s t a t ion on t h e r ever s e s ide of t h e s t a ke.
A cu t is mar ked C; a fill, F. A cen t er lin e
s t a ke, pla ced a t s t a t ion 78 + 00 a n d r equ ir -
in g a fill of 6.0 feet t o br in g t h is s t a t ion u p
t o t h e fin al gr ade lin e, wou ld be placed an d
s h own as in dicat ed in Figu r e 3-1, page 3-3.
Th e a mou n t of cu t or fill in dica t es t h e dif-
fer en ce bet ween t h e fin al gr ade lin e an d t h e
gr ou n d lin e wh er e t h e s t ake is emplaced. A
poin t on t h e s t a ke is s eldom u s ed a s t h e
lin e of r efer en ce t o t h e fin al gr ade.
To pr even t mis in t er pr et a t ion of t h e a mou n t
of cu t or fill, ma r k decima l pa r t s of a foot ,
as s h own in Figu r e 3-1. Th e decimal par t
is wr it t en s maller , r ais ed, an d u n der lin ed.
Fa cin g t h e dir ect ion of in cr ea s in g s t a t ion s ,
t h e cen t er lin e for ms t h e dividin g lin e be-
t ween t h e r igh t a n d left s ides of t h e a r ea t o
be gr aded. Wh en facin g eit h er s ide of t h e
cen t er lin e, it is cu s t oma r y t o r efer t o t h e
a r ea s a s t h e r igh t or left s ide.
SLOPE STAKES
Slope s t akes , s h own in Figu r e 3-2, defin e
t h e limit s of gr adin g wor k. Wh en u s ed in
r ead wor k, t h ey can be u s ed as gu ides in
Figure 3-2. Marking and placement of slope
stakes
det er min in g t h e widt h of clea r in g n eces s a r y.
Th e ar ea t o be clear ed u s u ally ext en ds 6
feet beyon d t h e s lope s t akes . Set s lope
s t akes on lin es per pen dicu lar t o t h e cen t er -
lin e (on e on each s ide), at poin t s wh er e t h e
cu t a n d fill s lopes in t er s ect t h e n a t u r a l
gr ou n d s u r fa ce. St a kes a t poin t s of zer o
cu t or fill a r e pla ced s lopin g ou t wa r d fr om
t h e cen t er lin e.
Slopin g t h e s t a kes ou t wa r d a llows t h e equ ip-
men t t o wor k t o t h e s t a ke wit h ou t r emovin g
it . Th e s lope in dicat es t h e dir ect ion of t h e
cen t er lin e of t h e r oad an d en ables t h e equ ip-
men t oper a t or s t o r ea d t h e s t a kes mor e ea s i-
ly. Place s lope s t akes at 100-foot in t er vals
on t a n gen t s a n d a t 50-foot in t er va ls on
h or izon t a l or ver t ica l cu r ves , Wh en ever a
s h ar p br eak in t h e or igin al gr ou n d pr ofile
occu r s , it s h ou ld be s t aked.
Th e fr on t of a s lope s t ake is t h e s ide facin g
t h e cen t er lin e. On t h is s ide of t h e s t a ke,
mar k t h e differ en ce in elevat ion bet ween
t h e n a t u r a l gr ou n d eleva t ion a t t h is poin t
a n d t h e fin is h ed gr a de a t t h e edge of t h e
s h ou lder s . Un der t h is figu r e, pla ce a n ot h er
figu r e t h a t in dica t es t h e h or izon t a l dis t a n ce
fr om t h e cen t er lin e of t h e r oa d t o t h e s lope
s t a ke. Pla ce t h e s t a t ion n u mber on t h e
ot h er s ide of t h is s t a ke. Below t h e s t a t ion
n u mber , in dica t e t h e a ppr opr ia t e s lope
r a t io. Figu r e 3-2 s h ows t h e pr oper mar k-
in gs for a s lope s t a ke in a t ypica l s it u a t ion .
OFFSET STAKES
Equ ipmen t u s ed on a cu t or fill s ect ion ma y
des t r oy or r emove ma n y of t h e gr a de (cen t er -
lin e, s h ou lder , or s lope) s t akes . To pr even t
los s of ma n -h ou r s a n d r epet it ion of s u r vey
wor k, ca u t ion con s t r u ct ion cr ews t o pr ot ect
gr ade s t akes wh en ever pos s ible. Place off-
s et s t a kes beyon d con s t r u ct ion limit s t o
a void r es u r veyin g por t ion s of t h e r oa d t o
r eloca t e t h es e s t a kes . Figu r e 3-3 s h ows off-
s et s t a kes u s ed t o r eloca t e t h e or igin a l
s t akes .
Pla ce offs et s t a kes on a lin e a t r igh t a n gles
t o t h e cen t er lin e of t h e fa cilit y. Fr om
t h es e, t h e s lope s t akes can eas ily be lo-
ca t ed. Aft er r eloca t in g a s lope s t a ke, r elo-
ca t e t h e cen t er lin e s t a ke by mea s u r in g
t owa r d t h e cen t er lin e of t h e r oa d t h e
h or izon t a l dis t a n ce in dica t ed on t h e s lope
s t ake an d placin g t h e n ew cen t er lin e s t ake
t h er e.
An offs et s t a ke con t a in s a ll t h e in for ma t ion
given on t h e or igin al s lope s t ake plu s t h e
differ en ce in elevat ion an d h or izon t al dis -
t a n ce fr om t h e or igin a l s lope s t a ke t o t h e
offs et s t a ke. Ma r k t h e offs et dis t a n ce on
t h e fr on t of t h e s t a ke a n d cir cle it t o in di-
ca t e it is a n offs et r efer en ce. If t h e offs et
s t a ke is a t a differ en t eleva t ion fr om t h e
s lope s t a ke, t h e cu t or fill va lu e mu s t be in -
cr eas ed or decr eas ed by t h e differ en ce in
eleva t ion . An offs et s t a ke pla ced a h or izon -
t a l dis t a n ce of 10 feet fr om a n d 1 foot
above t h e r igh t s lope s t ake wou ld be placed
an d mar ked as s h own in Figu r e 3-3. Coor -
din a t ion bet ween t h e s u r veyor a n d gr a de s u -
per vis or con cer n in g t h e mea n in g of t h e
ma r kin gs is mos t impor t a n t r ega r dles s of
t h e t ype of ma r kin g u s ed.
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 3-3. Marking and placement of offset
stakes
FINISH-GRADE STAKES
Us e wooden s t akes , 2 in ch es by 2 in ch es ,
wit h t ops color ed r ed or blu e, for fin is h -
gr ade s t akes . Blu e or r ed t ops , a s t h ey a r e
called, in dicat e t h e act u al fin is h ed elevat ion
of t h e fin a l gr a de t o wh ich t h e complet ed
facilit y is t o be con s t r u ct ed. Th ey ar e u s ed
wh en t h e gr a de is wit h in a s h or t dis t a n ce
of t h e fin a l eleva t ion . Do n ot u s e t h es e
s t a kes in comba t r oa d con s t r u ct ion except
in ar eas wit h s t eep s lopes . Th is t ype of
s t a ke n or ma lly r equ ir es a gu a r d s t a ke t o
pr ot ect it a n d in dica t e it s loca t ion . On
la r ge pr oject s , it ma y be impr a ct ica l t o u s e
gu a r ds wit h ea ch s t a ke.
Th er e ar e n o mar kin gs on fin is h -gr ade
s t a kes ot h er t h a n t h e color on t h e t op.
Th es e s t a kes ma y be s et for u s e wit h t h e
t op of t h e s t a ke exa ct ly a t t h e fin is h ed
gr a de or wit h t h e t op of t h e s t a ke a bove t h e
fin is h ed gr ade, as decided u pon by t h e s u r -
veyor a n d con s t r u ct ion for ema n .
Surveys and Earth work Operations 3-5
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Wit h t h e s t a kes s et a n d ma r ked a t a
pr edet er min ed dis t an ce above t h e fin is h ed
gr a de, s t r et ch a s t r in g bet ween t wo s t a kes
a cr os s t h e wor k a n d u s e a gr a du a t ed r u ler
or s t ick t o ch eck t h e eleva t ion . On a n a ir -
field la you t , pla ce t h es e s t a kes a lon g t h e
cen t er lin e, edge of pa vemen t , in t er media t e
lin es , s h ou lder lin es , an d dit ch s lopes . For
r oad wor k, place s t akes alon g t h e cen t er lin e
a n d t h e edge of t h e s h ou lder ; t h ey ma y or
may n ot be placed on t h e s lopes .
REFERENCE STAKES
Ma n y h u bs ma r kin g t h e loca t ion of h igh -
ways an d air fields ar e u pr oot ed or cover ed
du r in g con s t r u ct ion . Th ey mu s t be
r epla ced, oft en mor e t h a n on ce, befor e con -
s t r u ct ion is complet ed. AS a n a id in r eloca t -
in g a poin t wh ich may become h idden by
veget a t ion , or a s a mea n s of r epla cin g
poin t s wh ich may h ave been des t r oyed,
mea s u r emen t s a r e ma de t o n ea r by per -
ma n en t or s emiper ma n en t object s . Th is
pr oces s is kn own as r efer en cein g or wit n es s -
in g a poin t . On ma n y s u r veys , per ma n en t
object s ma y n ot be a va ila ble a s wit n es s es .
In s u ch ca s es , a ddit ion a l s t a kes ma y be
dr iven . Th es e s t akes u s u ally ar e ap-
pr oximat ely 2 in ch es by 2 in ch es by 18 in -
ch es .
Th er e ar e n o mar kin gs on a r efer en ce s t ake.
A poin t can be r efer en ced by a kn own dis -
t a n ce a n d a kn own a n gle or by t wo kn own
dis t a n ces . A t r a n s it mu s t be u s ed in t h e
fir s t ca s e a n d ma y be u s ed t o a dva n t a ge in
t h e s econ d, Th e met h od of u s in g t wo
kn own dis t an ces can be u s ed, h owever ,
wh en a t r a n s it is n ot a va ila ble. Pla ce t wo
poin t s a t mea s u r ed dis t a n ces fr om t h e poin t
t o be r efer en ced. Us e t wo t a pes t o r eloca t e
t h e or igin a l poin t or s t a ke. Hold t h e zer o
en d of on e t ape on on e r efer en ce poin t an d
t h e zer o en d of t h e ot h er t a pe on t h e ot h er
r efer en ce poin t . Th e poin t of in t er s ect ion of
t h e t wo t a pes a t t h e r es pect ive dis t a n ces
gives t h e loca t ion of t h e poin t in qu es t ion .
To be of mos t valu e in r eplacin g a mis s in g
s t a t ion or poin t , t h e r efer en ce s t a kes or wit -
n es s es will be les s t h an 100 feet fr om t h e
poin t an d, if pos s ible, t h e ar cs s h ou ld in t er -
s ect a t a ppr oxima t ely r igh t a n gles . Pla ce
t h em ou t s ide t h e con s t r u ct ion limit s , a n d in -
dica t e t h eir loca t ion by bla zin g t r ees or a ddi-
t ion a l s t a kes . Nor ma lly, t h e loca t ion of t h e
r efer en ce s t a kes ca n be obt a in ed fr om t h e
s u r veyor s n ot ebook.
CULVERT STAKES
Cu lver t s t akes ar e locat ed on a lin e par allel
t o a n d offs et a few feet fr om t h e cen t er lin e.
Th e in for ma t ion r equ ir ed on t h e cu lver t
s t a kes in clu des t h e dis t a n ce fr om t h e s t a ke
t o t h e cen t er lin e, t h e ver t ica l dis t a n ce t o t h e
in ver t , a n d t h e s t a t ion n u mber . On ce t h e
s u r vey cr ew h as fin is h ed s t akin g ou t t h e cu l-
ver t , t h e con s t r u ct ion s u per vis or ca n pla ce
t h e pipe a ccu r a t ely by u s in g ba t t er boa r ds .
BENCH MARKS
Ver t ica l con t r ol of a r oa d or a ir field mu s t be
ma in t a in ed du r in g con s t r u ct ion . To do t h is ,
poin t s of kn own eleva t ion mu s t be es t a b-
lis h ed. Obt a in eleva t ion s fr om per ma n en t
mon u men t s , kn own a s ben ch ma r ks , es t a b-
lis h ed by geodet ic s u r veys . Fr om t h es e
ben ch mar ks , r u n a lin e of levels an d s et
t empor a r y ben ch ma r ks (TBMs ). On s mall
pr oject s t h e TBMs fr equ en t ly a r e s et by r u n -
n in g t h e levels fr om a poin t of a s s u med
eleva t ion . Th is is es pecially t r u e of con s t r u c-
t ion in comba t a r ea s .
Us u ally, TBMs ar e placed at 500- t o 1,000-
foot (or 150- t o 300-met er ) in t er va ls a n d a r e
pla ced off t h e limit s of con s t r u ct ion . St a kes
2 in ch es by 2 in ch es , s olidly emplaced in
t h e gr ou n d, ma y be u s ed for t h is pu r pos e.
However , a n a il dr iven in t o a t r ee, a ma n -
h ole cover , or a pipe dr iven in t o t h e gr ou n d
may als o be u s ed. Fr equ en t ly, r efer en ce
poin t s s er ve as TBMs . Th e TBMs ar e s et
befor e s et t in g t h e cen t er lin e s t akes becau s e
ver t ical con t r ol mu s t be es t ablis h ed befor e
con s t r u ct ion begin s .
EARTHWORK ESTIMATION
Ea r t h wor k compu t a t ion s in volve t h e ca lcu la -
t ion of ea r t h wor k volu mes , t h e det er min a -
t ion of fin a l gr a des , t h e ba la n cin g of cu t s
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
a n d fills , a n d t h e pla n n in g of t h e mos t
econ omica l h a u l of ma t er ia l. Th e exa ct n es s
wit h wh ich ea r t h wor k compu t a t ion s a r e
ma de depen ds u pon t h e ext en t a n d a c-
cu r a cy of field mea s u r emen t s , wh ich in
t u r n a r c con t r olled by t h e t ime a va ila ble
a n d t h e t ype of con s t r u ct ion in volved. To
pla n a s ch edu le, t h e qu a n t it y of ea r t h wor k
a n d t h e s oil a n d h a u l con dit ion s mu s t be
kn own s o t h e mos t eficien t t ype a n d qu a n -
t it y of ea r t h movin g equ ipmen t ca n be
ch os en a n d t h e a ppr opr ia t e t ime a llot t ed.
Wh en t ime is cr it ica l, t h e ea r t h wor k qu a n -
t it ies a r e es t ima t ed eit h er ver y r ou gh ly or
n ot a t a ll. Wh en t ime is n ot cr it ica l, h igh er
con s t r u ct ion s t a n da r ds a r e pos s ible a n d
ea r t h wor k qu a n t it ies a r e es t ima t ed a n d con
t r olled by mor e pr ecis e met h ods .
FUNDAMENTAL VOLUME
DETERMINATION
Th e volu me of a r ect a n gu la r object ma y be
det er min ed by mu lt iplyin g t h e a r ea of on e
en d by t h e len gt h of t h e object , Th is
r elat ion s h ip can be applied t o t h e det er -
min a t ion of ea r t h wor k by con s ider in g r oa d
cr os s s ect ion s a t t h e s t a t ion s a lon g t h e
r oa d a s t h e en d a r ea s a n d t h e h or izon t a l
dis t an ce bet ween cr os s s ect ion s as t h e
len gt h s . Th e en d ar eas of t h e cr os s s ec-
t ion s mu s t be compu t ed befor e volu mes ca n
be calcu lat ed.
METHODS OF END-AREA
DETERMINATION
Wh en t h e cen t er lin e of t h e con s t r u ct ion h a s
been loca t ed, mea s u r emen t s a r e t a ken in
t h e field fr om wh ich t h e r equ ir ed qu a n t it ies
of cu t or fill ca n be compu t ed. A cr os s -
s ect ion a l view of t h e la n d is plot t ed fr om
t h es e mea s u r emen t s . Th e cr os s s ect ion s
a r e t a ken on ver t ica l pla n es a t r igh t a n gles
t o t h e cen t er lin e. Wh er e t h e gr ou n d s u r -
fa ce is r egu la r , cr os s s ect ion s a r e t a ken a t
ever y fu ll s t at ion (100 feet ), Wh er e t h e
gr ou n d is ir r egu la r , t h ey mu s t be t a ken a t
in t er media t e poin t s a s det er min ed by t h e
s u r veyor . A t ypical cr os s s ect ion is s h own
in Figu r e 3-4.
Figure 3-4. Typical fill cross section
Plot gr ou n d eleva t ion s fr om t h e s u r veyor s
n ot es . Ma ke a s ect ion a l t empla t e of t h e
s u bgr ade t h at s h ows t h e fin is h ed s u bgr ade
a n d s lopes plot t ed t o t h e s a me s ca le a s t h e
cr os s s ect ion s . Su per impos e t h e t empla t e
on t h e cr os s s ect ion a n d a dju s t it t o t h e cor -
r ect cen t er lin e eleva t ion . Tr a ce t h e t em-
plat e an d ext en d t h e s ide s lopes t o in t er s ect
t h e or igin a l gr ou n d. If t h e s ect ion in volves
bot h cu t a n d fill, dr a w on ly t h e a ppr opr ia t e
lin es of ea ch t empla t e. Wh en t h e s ect ion s
ar e complet ed, begin t h e en d-ar ea meas u r e-
men t s , t h en det er min e t h e volu me. Of t h e
s ever a l s a t is fa ct or y met h ods of mea s u r in g
t h e en d a r ea s , on ly t h e t r a pezoida l, s t r ip-
per , dou ble-mer idian (t r ian gu lar ), an d
plan imet er met h ods will be des cr ibed in
t h is ma n u a l. Th e met h od ch os en will
depen d u pon t h e t ime available, t h e ac-
cu r a cy des ir ed, t h e a ids a t h a n d, a n d t h e
en gin eer s pr efer en ce.
Tr a pe zoida l Me t h od
Th e t r a pezoida l met h od is widely u s ed t o
det er min e en d a r ea s . Th e compu t a t ion s a r e
t ediou s , bu t t h e r es u lt s a r e a ccu r a t e. In
u s in g t h e t r a pezoida l met h od, t h e a r ea of
an y cr os s s ect ion is obt ain ed by dividin g
t h e cr os s s ect ion in t o t r ia n gles a n d
t r a pezoids , compu t in g t h e a r ea of ea ch pa r t
s epa r a t ely, a n d t a kin g t h e t ot a l a r ea of t h e
ver t icals t o t h e gr ou n d lin e (Figu r e 3-5,
page 3-8) in or der t o divide t h e cr os s s ec-
t ion in t o t wo t r ia n gles a n d t wo t r a pezoids .
Ma ke t h e a s s u mpt ion t h a t t h e gr ou n d is
per fect ly s t r aigh t bet ween t h es e s elect ed
poin t s on t h e gr ou n d lin e. Wh ile t h is is
n ot u s u a lly cor r ect , t h e a s s u mpt ion is
wit h in t h e a ccu r a cy n or ma lly r equ ir ed.
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 3-5. Cross section in cut with
verticals drawn at critical points
Bas ic Formulas . Befor e t h e a r ea of t h e
cr os s s ect ion can be compu t ed, t h e bas ic
for mu la s for t h e compu t a t ion of t h e a r ea s
of t r ia n gles a n d t r a pezoids mu s t be u n der -
s t ood. If a lin e is dr awn , as s h own in Fig-
u r e 3-6, fr om on e of t h e ver t ices of a t r i-
an gle per pen dicu lar t o t h e s ide or bas e (b)
oppos it e t h is ver t ex, t h e lin e for med r epr e-
s en t s t h e a lt it u de (h ) of t h e t r ia n gle. Th e
ar ea of an y t r ian gle can be expr es s ed as
t h e pr odu ct of on e-h a lf t h e ba s e mu lt iplied
by t h e alt it u de. Th is r elat ion s h ip is ex-
pr es s ed by t h e for mu la:
Figure 3-6. Triangle base and height
dimension locations
A t r apezoid is a fou r -s ided figu r e h avin g
t wo s ides pa r a llel bu t n ot equ a l in len gt h ,
a s s h own in Figu r e 3-7. If t h e t wo pa r a llel
s ides of t h e bas es ar e cr os s ed
by a lin e per pen dicu lar t o each , t h e dis -
t a n ce bet ween t h e t wo ba s es a lon g t h is per -
pen dicu la r lin e is t h e a lt it u de of t h e
t r a pezoid. Th e a r ea of a n y t r a pezoid ca n be
expr es s ed as t h e aver age len gt h of t h e
bas es mu lt iplied by t h e alt it u de. Th is
r elat ion s h ip can be expr es s ed by t h e for -
mu la :
Figure 3-7. Trapezoid base and height
dimension locations
Computation of Areas . Th e fir s t s t ep in com-
pu t in g a r ea s by t h e t r a pezoida l met h od is
t o br ea k t h e cr os s -s ect ion a l a r ea in t o t r i-
an gles an d t r apezoids by dr awin g ver t icals ,
as s h own in Figu r e 3-5. Th en det er min e
t h e a r ea of t h es e s ma ll figu r es by t h e a p-
pr opr ia t e for mu la .
To det er min e t h e a ppr opr ia t e dimen s ion s ,
t h e n ot es t a ken by t h e s u r veyor s mu s t be
kn own . Th e cr os s -s ect ion n ot es t aken in
t h e field a r e in fr a ct ion a l for m. Th e figu r e
below t h e lin e in dicat es t h e h or izon t al dis -
t a n ce fr om t h e cen t er lin e t o t h a t poin t on
t h e gr ou n d. Th e figu r e above t h e lin e in di-
ca t es t h e gr ou n d eleva t ion of t h a t poin t .
Poin t s on t h e gr ade lin e of t h e pr opos ed
r oa d a r e wr it t en in a s imila r ma n n er a n d
a r e obt a in ed by compu t a t ion s fr om t h e fin a l
gr ade lin e t o be es t ablis h ed, as s h own in
Figu r e 3-8. Th u s , t h e n ot e 32.0/ 21 in di-
ca t es a poin t t h a t is a t eleva t ion 32.0 a n d
21 feet fr om t h e cen t er lin e of t h e r oa d. If
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
t h e cr os s s ect ion is divided in t o t r ian gles St r ippe r Me t h od
a n d t r a pezoids by er ect in g ver t ica ls , obt a in
Th e s t r ipper met h od is a va r ia t ion of t h e
n ot es for t h e cen t er lin e, s h ou lder s , an d en d
t r a pezoida l met h od. To u s e t h is met h od,
of s lopes t o s olve for t h e a r ea .
con s ider a s ect ion s u ch a s t h a t s h own in
Figu r e 3-9.
Figure 3-8. Cross-section cut showing
distances and elevations
To s olve t h e t r ia n gles a n d t r a pezoids
for med, con s ider t h e bas es of t h es e figu r es
t o be ver t ica l a n d t h e a lt it u des t o be
h or izon t a l. All ver t ica l ba s es a r e fou n d by
s u bt r a ct in g eleva t ion s , a n d a ll h or izon t a l a l-
t it u des a r e fou n d by s u bt r a ct in g h or izon t a l
dis t a n ces fr om t h e clos es t ver t ica l in t h e
dir ect ion of t h e cen t er lin e.
Exa mples :
Refer r in g t o Figu r e 3-8, ar ea a], an d s u b-
s t it u t in g in t h e for mu la for t h e a r ea of a t r i-
an gle:
Refer r in g t o Figu r e 3-8, ar ea an d s u b-
s t it u t in g in t h e for mu la for t h e a r ea of a
t r a pezoid:
Fin d t h e a r ea s of t h e r ema in in g t r a pezoid
a n d t r ia n gle in t h e s a me wa y.
Figure 3-9. Fill cross section arranged to
show the stripper method
Exa mple:
If ver t ica l lin es a r e dr a wn a t equ a l dis t a n -
ces a pa r t , t h en by t h e t r a pezoida l for mu la ,
t h e en d ar ea, A, will be given by t h e follow-
in g compu t a t ion :
Fa ct or in a n d combin e t er ms :
Fir s t , meas u r e (gr aph ically) each len gt h (b)
a n d mu lt iply t h e s u m by t h e widt h (w) (con -
s t an t ). Th e dis t an ce bet ween ver t ical lin es ,
w, ma y be a n y va lu e, bu t it mu s t be con -
s t a n t t h r ou gh ou t t h e cr os s -s ect ion a r ea . In
r ou gh t er r a in t h e ver t ica l lin es s h ou ld be
clos er t oget h er t o en s u r e gr ea t er a ccu r a cy.
On e of t h e ea s ies t a n d mos t con ven ien t
wa ys t o mea s u r e t h e ver t ica l lin es (b) is
wit h a s t r ip of pa per or pla s t ic. La y t h e
s t r ip a lon g ea ch ver t ica l lin e in s u ch a ma n -
n er a s t o a dd ea ch in t u r n t o t h e t ot a l.
Th e s t r ip will s h ow t h e s u m of a ll ver t ica l
lin es in t h e s a me s ca le t h a t t h e cr os s s ec-
t ion is plot t ed. Th is figu r e, mu lt iplied by
t h e va lu e of w, will give t h e a r ea of t h e
cr os s s ect ion .
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
In a ccu r a cies r es u lt wh en eit h er a t r ia n gle
or t r a pezoid fa lls wit h in t h e limit s of w or
wh en t h e a r ea is cu r ved. However , t h e
met h od is r apid, an d t h e accu r acy is ade-
qu a t e u n der u r gen t con dit ion s . Figu r e 3-10
s h ows a t ypica l cr os s s ect ion wit h a s t r ip-
per ma r ked t o s h ow t h e t ot a l len gt h of a ll
ver t ical lin es an d t h e valu e of w. Th e s t r ip-
per in dica t es t h a t t h e s u m of a ll ver t ica l
lin es is 21.7 feet : w is given as 10 feet . Ap-
plyin g t h es e figu r es t o t h e for mu la , t h en -
Figure 3-10. Cross section with the sum of all
vertical lines added on the stripper
Dou ble -Me r i di a n Tr i a n gle Me t h od
Th e dou ble-mer idian met h od explain ed in
Ch apt er 13 of TM 5-232 gives a mor e
pr ecis e va lu e for a cr os s -s ect ion a r ea t h a n
t h e s t r ipper met h od. However , it in volves
mor e t ime.
Wit h t h is met h od, s h own in Figu r e 3-11,
t h e ar ea is s u bdivided in t o t wo s er ies of
t r a pezoids u s in g t h e eleva t ion s of a dja cen t
poin t s a n d t h eir pr oject ion s on t h e cen t er -
lin e (t h e dis t an ces ). Th es e t r apezoids h ave
ba s es equ a l t o t h e h or izon t a l dis t a n ce of
t h e r es pect ive poin t s fr om t h e cen t er lin e,
a n d h eigh t s equ a l t o t h eir differ en ces in
elevat ion . Wh er e t h e differ en ce in elevat ion
is plu s , t h e a r ea of t h e t r a pezoid is plu s ;
wh er e t h e differ en ce is min u s , t h e a r ea of
t h e t r a pezoid is min u s . Th e compon en t
ar eas ar e added algebr aically. Becau s e t h is
pr ocedu r e u s es t h e s u m of t h e ba s es of t h e
t r a pezoid, t h e a r ea obt a in ed is dou ble t h e
t r u e ar ea an d mu s t be divided by 2. Th e
compu t a t ion is s imple a r it h met ic: s u bt r a ct
adjoin in g elevat ion s , mu lt iply by t h e dis -
t a n ce fr om t h e cen t er lin e, a dd t h e mu lt i-
plied r es u lt s an d lis t plu s an d min u s qu an -
t it ies , add t h es e qu an t it ies , an d divide by 2.
Figure 3-11. Cross-section area by the double-meridian method
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Th e s t eps for complet in g t h e pr ocedu r e for
t h e dou ble-mer idia n t r ia n gle met h od follow
(r efer t o Figu r e 3-11).
1. St a r t a t t h e cen t er lin e gr ou n d or gr a de
elevat ion , wh ich ever is lower (A). Wor k
fr om t h e cen t er lin e in a clockwis e dir ect ion
t o t h e left (A), (B), (C), (D), (E), (F); an d
cou n t er clockwis e t o t h e r igh t (A), (G), (H),
(I), (F), t o t h e cen t er lin e gr ou n d or gr a de
elevat ion , wh ich ever is h igh er (F).
2. Wor kin g fr om poin t t o poin t , mu lt iply
t h e differ en ce in elevat ion bet ween each ad-
ja cen t pa ir of poin t s by t h e s u m of t h eir dis -
t a n ce fr om t h e cen t er lin e. Poin t (F) t o
poin t (A) is n ot con s ider ed becau s e t h e s u m
of t h eir dis t a n ces fr om t h e cen t er lin e is
zer o. Goin g fr om a lower t o a h igh er eleva -
t ion gives a plu s qu a n t it y, wh ile goin g fr om
a h igh er t o a lower eleva t ion gives a min u s
qu a n t it y. Pla ce plu s qu a n t it ies in on e
colu mn a n d min u s qu a n t it ies in a n ot h er .
3. Divide t h e algebr aic s u m of t h e plu s
a n d min u s qu a n t it ies by 2 t o obt a in t h e
a r ea of t h e cr os s s ect ion in s qu a r e feet (s q
ft ). In s ect ion s h a vin g bot h cu t a n d fill,
t r ea t ea ch pa r t a s a s epa r a t e s ect ion .
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Pla n i me t e r Me t h od
A pola r pla n imet er is a n in s t r u men t u s ed t o
mea s u r e t h e a r ea of a plot t ed figu r e by t r a c-
in g it s per imet er . Th e pla n imet er , s h own in
Figu r e 3-12, t ou ch es t h e pa per a t t h r ee
poin t s : t h e a n ch or poin t , P; t h e t r a cin g
poin t , T; a n d t h e r oller , R. Th e a dju s t a ble
a r m, A, is gr a du a t ed t o per mit a dju s t men t
t o t h e s ca le of t h e plot . Th is a dju s t men t
pr ovides a dir ect r a t io bet ween t h e a r ea
t r a ced by t h e t r a cin g poin t a n d t h e r evolu -
t ion s of t h e r oller . As t h e t r a cin g poin t is
moved over t h e pa per , t h e dr u m, D, a n d t h e
dis k, F, r evolve. Th e dis k r ecor ds t h e
r evolu t ion s of t h e r oller in u n it s of t en t h s ;
t h e dr u m, in h u n dr edt h s ; a n d t h e ver n ier ,
V, in t h ou s a n dt h s .
NOTE: Alwa ys me a s u r e c u t a n d fi ll a r e a s
s e pa r a t e ly.
Ch eck t h e a ccu r a cy of t h e pla n imet er a s a
mea s u r in g device t o a void er r or s fr om
t emper a t u r e ch a n ges a n d ot h er n on compen -
s a t in g fa ct or s . A s imple met h od of t es t in g
it s con s is t en cy is t o t r a ce a n a r ea of 1
s qu a r e in ch wit h t h e a r m s et for a 1:1
r at io. Th e dis k, dr u m, an d ver n ier com-
bin ed s h ou ld r ead 1.000 for t h is ar ea.
Befor e meas u r in g a s pecific ar ea, det er min e
t h e s ca le of t h e plot a n d s et t h e a dju s t a ble
a r m of t h e pla n imet er a ccor din g t o t h e
ch a r t in t h e pla n imet er ca s e. Ch eck t h e s et -
t in g by ca r efu lly t r a cin g a kn own a r ea ,
s u ch as five lar ge s qu ar es on t h e cr os s -
s ect ion paper , an d ver ifyin g t h e r eadin g on
t h e dis k, dr u m, an d ver n ier . If t h e r eadin g
is in con s is t en t wit h t h e kn own a r ea , r ea d-
ju s t t h e a r m s et t in gs u n t il a s a t is fa ct or y
r eadin g is obt ain ed.
To mea s u r e a n a r ea , s et t h e a n ch or poin t of
t h e a dju s t ed pla n imet er a t a con ven ien t
pos it ion ou t s ide t h e plot t ed a r ea . Pla ce t h e
t r a cin g poin t on a s elect ed poin t on t h e
per imet er of t h e cr os s s ect ion . Take an in i-
t ia l r ea din g fr om t h e dis k, dr u m, a n d ver -
n ier . Con t in u e by t r a cin g t h e per imet er
clockwis e, keepin g t h e t r acin g poin t car efu l-
ly on t h e lin es bein g followed. Wh en t h e
t r a cin g poin t clos es on t h e in it ia l poin t ,
t a ke a r ea din g a ga in fr om t h e dis k, dr u m,
an d ver n ier . Th e differ en ce bet ween t h e in i-
t ial r eadin g an d t h e fin al r eadin g gives a
va lu e pr opor t ion a l t o t h e a r ea bein g
mea s u r ed.
Figure 3-12. Polar planimeter in use
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Ma ke t wo in depen den t mea s u r emen t s t o en -
s u r e a ccu r a t e r es u lt s . Th e fir s t is per -
for med as dis cu s s ed above. Th e s econ d
mea s u r emen t is ma de wit h t h e a n ch or
poin t a ga in pla ced ou t s ide t h e a r ea bein g
mea s u r ed bu t on t h e oppos it e s ide of t h e
a r ea fr om it s pos it ion in t h e fir s t mea s u r e-
men t . Th is pr ocedu r e gives t wo compen s a t -
in g r ea din gs t h e mea n of wh ich is mor e a c-
cu r a t e t h a n eit h er .
To mea s u r e plot t ed a r ea s la r ger t h a n t h e
ca pa cit y of t h e pla n imet er , divide t h e a r ea
in t o s ect ion s a n d mea s u r e ea ch s ect ion
s epa r a t ely, a s ou t lin ed a bove.
Compu t e r -Aide d De s ign (CAD)
Ver y a ccu r a t e mea s u r emen t s ca n be ma de if
cr os s s ect ion s ar c digit ized u s in g CAD.
Cr os s s ect ion s can be placed on a digit izin g
pa d, poin t s plot t ed in t o t h e compu t er a n d,
wit h on e comma n d, t h e a r ea ca lcu la t ed,
METHODS OF VOLUME DETERMINATION
An en gin eer can accomplis h t h e n eces s ar y
ea r t h wor k compu t a t ion s by u s in g t h e follow-
in g met h ods : aver age- en d-ar ea, pr is moidal
for mu la, aver age-dept h -of-cu t -or -fill, gr id,
or con t ou r .
wh er e
Ave r a ge -En d-Ar e a Me t h od
Th e a ver a ge-cn d-a r ea met h od is mos t com-
mon ly u s ed t o det er min e t h e volu me bou n d-
in g t wo cr os s s ect ion s or en d a r ea s . u s e
t h e for mu la :
wh er e
V is t h e volu me, in cu bic yar ds (cy) (1 cy =
27 cu bic feet (cf)), of t h e pr is moid bet ween
cr os s s ect ion s h a vin g a r ea s in s qu a r e feet
of A1 a n d A2, s epa r a t ed by a dis t a n ce of L
feet .
If cr os s s ect ion s a r e t a ken a t fu ll 100-foot
s t a t ion s , t h e volu me in cu bic ya r ds bet ween
s u cces s ive cr os s s ect ion s in s qu ar e
feet , ma y be fou n d by t h e for mu la :
In eit h er for m, t h e for mu la is on ly a ccu r a t e
wh en A1 a n d A2 a r e a ppr oxima t ely t h e
s ame s h ape. Th e gr eat er t h e differ en ce in
s h a pe bet ween t h e t wo en d s ect ion s , t h e
gr ea t er t h e pos s ibilit y of er r or . However ,
t h e met h od is con s is t en t wit h field met h ods
in gen er al. In mos t ca s es , t h e t ime r e-
qu ir ed for a mor e a ccu r a t e met h od is n ot
ju s t ified.
Pr is moida l-For mu la Me t h od
Th e pr is moidal met h od is u s ed wh er e eit h er
t h e en d ar eas differ widely in s h ape or a
mor e exa ct met h od of compu t in g volu me is
n eeded. It s u s e is ver y limit ed becau s e it
r equ ir es mor e t ime t h a n t h e a ver a ge-en d-
a r ea met h od a n d gives gr ea t er a ccu r a cy
t h a n is r equ ir ed for mos t r oa d a n d a ir field
con s t r u ct ion .
Th e pr is moida l for mu la is
Det er min e by aver agin g t h e cor r es pon d-
in g lin ear dimen s ion s of an d
t h en det er min in g it s a r ea , r a t h er t h a n
a ver a gin g t h e a r ea s of
Ave r a ge -De pt h -of-Cu t -or -Fi ll Me t h od
Wit h on ly t h e cen t er lin e pr ofile an d fin al
gr ade es t ablis h ed, ear t h wor k can be es -
t ima t ed wit h t h e a ver a ge-dept h -of-cu t -or -fill
met h od. Es t ima t e t h e a ver a ge dept h of cu t
or fill bet ween 100-foot s t a t ion s a n d obt a in
t h e volu me of ma t er ia l fr om Ta ble 3-1, pa ge
3-14, Th e accu r acy of t h is met h od depen ds
on t h e ca r e given t o es t a blis h in g t h e
cen t er lin e pr ofile, t h e in s t r u men t s u s ed,
an d t h e accu r acy of field r econ n ais s an ce.
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table 3-1. Earthwork average cut or fill
This table shows the number of cubic yards of earthwork that are in a 100-foot-long section of cut or fill having
a known average depth. To use this table you must know the following:
1. Width.
a . Cu t section - the width of the base of the cut, including ditches.
b. Fill section - the width of the top of the fill.
2. Average amount of cut or fill.
3. Slope ratio. Column 2 gives the correct amount of earthwork when the side slopes are 1:1. When the
slope ratio is other than 1:1, an adjustment must be made (see column 4).
NOTE: The final answer obtained from the table is for a section 100 feet long. If the actual length of
the cut or fill is not 100 feet, an adjustment must be made. (For an 85-foot section, multiply by 0.85;
for a 50-foot section, multiply by 0.50, and so on.)
However , t h e volu mes obt a in ed by t h is
met h od a r e gen er a lly a dequ a t e for mos t
milit a r y con s t r u ct ion .
Th e cen t er lin e pr ofile of a r oad is t ypical of
t h e en t ir e t r a n s ver s e s ect ion beca u s e of t h e
n a r r ow widt h s . Beca u s e of t h e gr ea t er
widt h r equ ir ed on a n a ir field r u n wa y, t h e
cen t er lin e pr ofile may be mis leadin g as t o
t h e t ypica l con dit ion s a cr os s t h e en t ir e
t r a n s ver s e widt h a t t h a t poin t . Th er efor e,
ea r t h wor k qu a n t it ies for a ir fields s h ou ld be
es t ima t ed ma in ly fr om cr os s s ect ion s . How-
ever , in t h e a bs en ce of s u fficien t t ime, t h e
a ver a ge-cu t -or -fill met h od is bet t er t h a n
n on e a t a ll.
Det er min e t h e followin g befor e u s in g Table
3 - 1 :
Aver a ge a mou n t of cu t or fill.
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Widt h of t h e ba s e of t h e cu t or t h e t op
of t h e fill in 2-foot in cr emen t s bet ween
26 feet an d 44 feet .
Qu a n t it y t o be a dded t o t h e figu r e in
colu mn 2, if t h e widt h of t h e ba s e or t op
of t h e fill is a n odd n u mber of feet .
Qu a n t it y t o be a dded if t h e s lope r a t io
on bot h s ides is 1.5:1 or 2:1.
NOTE: Th e t a ble i s ba s e d u pon a le n gt h
of 1 0 0 fe e t be t we e n c r os s s e c t ion s a n d a
s lope r a t io of 1 :1 .
Follow t h es e s t eps t o u s e t h e t a ble:
1. En t er colu mn 1 a n d r ea d down t o t h e
a ver a ge a mou n t of cu t or fill for t h e len gt h
con cer n ed.
2. Rea d h or izon t a lly t o t h e r igh t a n d ob-
t a in t h e figu r e u n der t h e a ppr opr ia t e ba s e
of t h e cu t or t op of t h e fill in colu mn 2.
3. Ma ke cor r ect ion s t o t h is figu r e fr om
colu mn s 3 an d 4, if t h ey apply.
4. If t h e len gt h is n ot 100 feet bet ween t h e
poin t s con s ider ed, adju s t t h e an s wer pr opor -
t ion a t ely,
Gr id Me t h od
Wh en t h e qu a n t it y of ma t er ia l wit h in t h e
limit s of t h e cu t s ect ion s is n ot en ou gh t o
ba la n ce t h e fill s ect ion s , ma t er ia l mu s t be
bor r owed. Th e mos t con ven ien t met h od is
t o widen t h e cu t s a dja cen t t o t h e fills wh er e
t h e ma t er ia l is n eeded. Compu t e t h e
volu me by ext en din g t h e cr os s s ect ion s .
However , wh er e t h is is n ot pos s ible, locat e
bor r ow pit s a t s ome ot h er a r ea . Th e gr id
met h od is a con ven ien t met h od of compu t -
in g t h e bor r ow ma t er ia l a va ila ble in a given
bor r ow pit .
In t h is met h od, fir s t s t a ke ou t over t h e a r ea
a s ys t em of s qu a r es r efer en ced t o poin t s
ou t s ide t h e limit s of wor k. Th e dimen s ion s
of t h es e s qu ar es depen d on t h e r ou gh n es s
of t h e or igin a l t er r a in , t h e a n t icipa t ed r ou gh -
n es s of t h e fin a l s u r fa ce, a n d t h e a ccu r a cy
des ir ed. Rou gh er t er r a in r equ ir es s ma ller
dimen s ion s t o get a ccu r a t e r es u lt s . Th e
s qu a r es mu s t be of s u ch s ize t h a t n o s ig-
n ifica n t br ea ks , eit h er in t h e or igin a l
gr ou n d s u r fa ce or in t h e pit floor , exis t be-
t ween t h e cor n er s of t h e s qu a r e or bet ween
t h e edges of t h e exca va t ion a n d t h e n ea r es t
in t er ior cor n er .
By t a kin g eleva t ion r ea din gs a t t h e s t a kes
befor e a n d a ft er exca va t ion , da t a is ob-
t a in ed t o compu t e t h e volu me of bor r ow
t a ken fr om t h e pit . Figu r e 3-13 s h ows a
bor r ow pit over wh ich 25 s qu ar es wer e
s t aked, To iden t ify t h e var iou s in t er s ect in g
poin t s , label lin es in on e dir ect ion by n u m-
ber s a n d in t h e ot h er dir ect ion by let t er s .
Th u s t h e in t er s ect ion of lin es C an d 3
wou ld be labeled C3.
Ou t lin e s qu a r es fa llin g complet ely wit h in
t h e exca va t ion wit h a h ea vy lin e, Wit h in
t h a t lin e, det er min e t h e volu me of exca va -
t ion for ea ch s qu a r e in t h e followin g ma n -
n er :
1. La bel t h e poin t s on on e s qu a r e, a s
s h own in Figu r e 3-14, page 3-16,
Figure 3-13. Computation grid system for a
borrow pit
2. Poin t s a , b, c, a n d d a r e on t h e or igin a l
gr ou n d lin e, wh ile an d ar e on
t h e fin a l gr ou n d lin e. Th e volu me of t h e
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1

an h q. (Refer t o Figu r e 3-13, page 3-15
an d Figu r e 3-14.) Th e t ot al bor r ow-pit
qu an t it y als o in clu des t h e wedge-s h aped
volu mes lyin g bet ween t h e complet e s olids
a n d t h e limit s of exca va t ion . For t h es e
volu mes , u s e pr opor t ion a l s u r fa ce a r ea s ,
Us e t h e for mu la :
A gr id is illu s t r at ed in Figu r e 3-15. Th e
len gt h of t h e s ides of ea ch s qu a r e is 5 0
feet . Th er efor e, given
Figure 3-14. Excavation volume for one square
r es u lt in g for m is t h e pr odu ct of t h e r igh t
cr os s -s ect ion a l a r ea A a n d t h e a ver a ge of
t h e fou r cor n er h eigh t s a n d
in cu bic yar ds .
3. Th e volu me r epr es en t ed by each s qu ar e
migh t be compu t ed by t h e pr ecedin g
met h od a n d a ll volu mes a dded. However ,
wh en a n u mber of s u ch volu mes a djoin on e
a n ot h er , it is qu icker t o u s e t h e followin g
r ela t ion wh ich gives t h e t ot a l volu me, r ep r e-
s en t ed by all complet e s qu ar es :
Th is cou ld be appr oximat ed by addin g all
cor n er cu t s a n d mu lt iplyin g by A, o r
In t h e pr ecedin g for mu la , A is t h e r igh t
cr os s -s ect ion a l a r ea of on e r ect a n gu la r
s olid, is a cor n er h eigh t fou n d in on e
s olid, is a cor n er h eigh t common to two
s olids , is a cor n er h eigh t common t o
t h r ee s olids , an d is a cor n er h eigh t com-
mon t o fou r s olids . As a n exa mple, is
An a lt er n a t ive met h od is t o compu t e t h e
t ot a l of a ll cu t s a t ea ch cor n er (123 feet ),
compu t e t h e a ver a ge cu t a cr os s a ll s qu a r es
(123/ 25 = 4.92), an d t h en mu lt iply by t h e
len gt h of t h e s ides of t h e figu r e.
Figure 3-15. Sample grid-system work sheet
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FACTORS INFLUENCING EARTHWORK
CALCULATIONS
On ma n y pr oject s , on e object ive of t h e
pa per loca t ion s t u dy is t o des ign t h e gr a de
lin e s o t h e t ot a l cu t wit h in t h e limit s of t h e
wor k equ a ls t h e t ot a l fill. Th e u n cer t a in
ch a n ge of volu me of t h e ma t er ia l ma ke t h is
difficu lt . It is u s u a lly mor e econ omica l t o
h a u l exca va t ed ma t er ia l t o t h e emba n kmen t
s ect ion s , t h er eby elimin a t in g bor r ow a n d
wa s t e.
Sh r i n k a ge
Sh r in kage h as occu r r ed wh en 1 cu bic yar d
of ear t h , as meas u r ed in place befor e ex-
cavat ion , occu pies les s t h an 1 cu bic yar d of
s pa ce wh en exca va t ed, h a u led t o a n em-
ban kmen t , an d compact ed. Th is differ en ce
is du e t o t h e combin ed effect s of t h e los s of
ma t er ia l du r in g h a u lin g a n d compa ct ion t o
a gr ea t er -t h a n -or igin a l den s it y by t h e h ea vy
equ ipmen t u s ed in ma kin g t h e emba n kmen t .
Sh r in ka ge is s ma ll in gr a n u la r ma t er ia ls
s u ch as s an d an d gr avel, an d is lar ge in or -
din ar y ear t h con t ain in g appr eciable per cen t -
a ges of s ilt , loa m, or cla y.
Sh r in kage is ver y h igh (pos s ibly 70 per cen t )
for s h a llow cu t s con t a in in g h u mu s , wh ich
is dis car ded as u n s u it able for emban kmen t s .
Th es e s h allow cu t s (u s u ally 4 t o 8 in ch es
deep) ar c called s tripping.
Loos e a n d s well r efer t o a con dit ion wh ich
is t h e r ever s e of s h r in kage. Th e ear t h as -
s u mes a la r ger volu me t h a n it s n a t u r a l
s t a t e wh en s t ockpiled or loa ded in t o a
t r u ck. Th is fa ct or r a n ges fr om 10 t o 40 per -
cen t s well a n d is u s u a lly u n ifor m for a
given ma t er ia l.
Sh r in kage, h owever , var ies wit h ch an ges in
t h e s oil con s t it u en t s a n d wit h ch a n ges in
mois t u r e con t en t a n d t h e t ype of equ ipmen t
u s ed. Con s equ en t ly, a per cen t age al-
lowa n ce a s s u med in des ign ma y even t u a lly
pr ove t o be 5 per cen t or mor e in er r or . A
common s h r in ka ge a llowa n ce is 10 t o 30
per cen t for or din a r y ea r t h .
Set t lemen t r efer s t o s u bs iden ce of t h e com-
plet ed emba n kmen t . It is du e t o s low addi-
t ion a l compa ct ion u n der t r a ffic a n d t o
gr a du a l pla s t ic flow of t h e fou n da t ion
ma t er ia l ben ea t h t h e emba n kmen t .
Ne t Volu me Ca lc u la t ion
Compu t e t h e volu me of cu t a n d fill a n d t h e
n et volu me bet ween a n y t wo poin t s on t h e
con s t r u ct ion pr oject . Th e n et volu me is t h e
differ en ce bet ween t h e volu me of cu t a n d
t h e volu me of fill bet ween an y t wo s pecified
s t a t ion s . Th e n et volu me ma y a pply t o t h e
en t ir e pr oject or t o a few s t a t ion s . Net
volu me may be des cr ibed in a compact ed,
place, or loos e s t at e. Table 3-2 pr ovides
con ver s ion fa ct or s u s ed t o fin d t h e n et
volu me. All ca lcu la t ion s a r e r ecor ded on
Table 3-2. Soil conversion factors
in -
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
t h e ea r t h wor k volu me s h eet s h own in Ta ble
3 - 3 .
Ea r t h wor k Volu me Sh e e t
Th e ea r t h wor k volu me s h eet s a llow you t o
s ys t ema t ica lly r ecor d t h is in for ma t ion a n d
make t h e n ecces s ar y calcu lat ion s . Th ey pr o-
vide a mea n s of t a bu la t in g ea r t h wor k qu a n -
t it ies for u s e in t h e ma s s dia gr a m dis -
cu s s ed la t er in t h is ch a pt er . Th e ea r t h wor k
volu me ca lcu la t ion s h eet , s h own in Ta ble
3-3, is divided in t o colu mn s for r ecor din g
a n d ca lcu la t in g in for ma t ion .
Stations (column 1). Lis t in colu mn 1 a ll
s t a t ion s a t wh ich cr os s -s ect ion a l a r ea s h a ve
been plot t ed. Nor ma lly, t h es e a r ea s a r e
t a ken a t a ll fu ll s t a t ion s a n d a t in t er -
media t e s t a t ion s t h a t a r e r equ ir ed t o fu lly
r epr es en t t h e a ct u a l gr ou n d con dit ion s a n d
ear t h wor k in volved.
Area of Cut (column 2). Recor d in colu mn 2
t h e compu t ed cr os s -s ect ion a l a r ea s of cu t
a t ea ch s t a t ion . Th es e a r ea s ma y be com-
pu t ed by on e of t h e common ly u s ed
met h ods , depen din g on t h e degr ee of ac-
cu r a cy r equ ir ed.
Area of Fill (column 3), Complet e colu mn 3
in t h e s a me ma n n er a s colu mn 2, except
s h ow cr os s -s ect ion al ar eas of fill.
Volume of Cut (column 4). Complet e t h e
volu me of cu t ma t er ia l bet ween a dja cen t s t a -
t ion s a n d r ecor d it in colu mn 4. Th e mos t
common met h od for compu t in g volu mes is
t h e a ver a ge-en d-a r ea met h od (or t h e
ea r t h wor k t a ble ba s ed on t h is met h od).
Th is volu me r epr es en t s on ly t h e volu me of
cu t bet ween t h e s t a t ion s a n d t h e volu mes
r eflect ed as in -place yar dage.
Volume of Fill (column 5). Comp let e colu mn
5 in t h e s a me ma n n er a s colu mn 4, except
s h ow fill volu mes . Fill volu mes r eflect com-
Th is layer var ies in dept h bu t is u s u ally 4
t o 6 in ch es deep. Th is ma t er ia l mu s t be
wa s t ed beca u s e it is n ot s a t is fa ct or y t o
pla ce in a n emba n kmen t , In dica t e in
colu mn 6 t h e volu me bet ween s t a t ion s of
t h is h u mu s ma t er ia l over s ect ion s of cu t .
Stripping Volume in Fill (column 7). Befor e
a n emba n kmen t ca n be con s t r u ct ed, t h e
s a me la yer of h u mu s mu s t be r emoved a n d
t h e volu me r epla ced wit h s a t is fa ct or y
ma t er ia l. In dica t e in colu mn 7 t h e volu me
of t h is ma t er ia l bet ween s t a t ion s over s ec-
t ion s of fill.
Net Volume of Cut (column 8). In dica t e in
colu mn 8 t h e volu me of cu t ma t er ia l be-
t ween s t a t ion s t h a t is a va ila ble for emba n k-
men t . Colu mn 8 is colu mn 4 min u s
colu mn 6, beca u s e t h e t ot a l cu t mu s t be
decr ea s ed by t h e a mou n t of ma t er ia l wa s t ed
in s t r ippin g, in clu din g t h e or ga n ic ma t er ia l.
Adjus ted Volume of Cut (column 9). On e
cu bic ya r d of ma t er ia l in it s n a t u r a l, u n dis -
t u r bed s t a t e occu pies a ppr oxima t ely 1.25
cu bic yar ds wh en r emoved an d placed in a
t r u ck or s t ockpile. Th e s ame 1 cu bic yar d,
wh en pla ced in a n emba n kmen t s ect ion a n d
compa ct ed, occu pies a volu me of a p-
pr oximat ely 0.9 cu bic yar ds . In plan n in g
oper a t ion s , con ver t t h es e va r iou s volu mes
t o t h e s a me s t a t e s o t h e compa r is on s ca n
be made, Ch a n ges in volu me of ea r t h wor k
ar e dis cu s s ed in t h is ch apt er , an d Table
3-1, page 3-14, pr ovides t h e n eces s ar y con -
ver s ion fa ct or s . Colu mn 9 is colu mn 8 mu l-
t iplied by t h e appr opr iat e con ver s ion fact or
(in t h is ca s e, 0.9) t o con ver t it fr om in -
pla ce ya r da ge t o compa ct ed ya r da ge.
Total Volume of Fill (column 10). In dica t e in
colu mn 10 t h e a mou n t of compa ct ed
ma t er ia l r equ ir ed bet ween s t a t ion s t o com-
plet e n eeded emban kmen t s , Colu mn 10 is
colu mn 5 plu s colu mn 7, plu s t h e a mou n t
n eces s a r y t o r epla ce t h e qu a n t it y r emoved
by s t r ippin g. Th is figu r e r epr es en t s t h e fill
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table 3-3. Earthwork volume calculation sheet
ma t er ia l t h a t is a va ila ble (plu s ) or r equ ir ed
t ion 0 + 00. Wh ile pa s s in g t h r ou gh a
(n ega t ive) wit h in t h e s t a t ion in cr emen t a ft er
s t r et ch wh er e cu t t in g pr edomin a t es , t h is
t h e in t r a s t a t ion ba la n cin g h a s been don e.
colu mn in cr eas es in valu e. Wh ile pas s in g
Mas s Ord inate (column 12). Colu mn 12 in di-
t h r ou gh a s t r et ch wh er e emba n kmen t is r e-
qu ir ed, t h is colu mn decr eas es .
ca t es t h e t ot a l of colu mn 11 s t a r t in g a t s t a -
THE MASS DIAGRAM
Th e fir s t s t ep in pla n n in g ea r t h movin g
plan s for econ omical an d efficien t comple-
oper a t ion s is t h e es t ima t ion of ea r t h wor k
t ion of t h e ea r t h movin g mis s ion .
qu an t it ies in volved in a pr oject . Th is can
be don e accu r at ely by on e of s ever al
Th e ma s s dia gr a m is on e met h od of a n a lyz-
met h ods , depen din g u pon t h e s t a n da r d of
in g ea r t h movin g oper a t ion s . Th is dia gr a m
con s t r u ct ion pr efer r ed. Wit h t h es e es -
ca n t ell t h e en gin eer wh er e t o u s e cer t a in
t ima t es , t h e en gin eer ca n pr epa r e det a iled
t ypes of equ ipmen t , t h e qu a n t it ies of
ma t er ia ls n eeded, t h e a ver a ge h a u l
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
dis t a n ccs a n d, wh en combin ed wit h a
gr ou n d pr ofile, t h e aver age s lope for each
oper a t ion . Th is per mit s t h e pr epa r a t ion of
det a iled ma n a gemen t pla n s for t h e en t ir e
pr oject . Th e ma s s dia gr a m is n ot t h e com-
plet e a n s wer t o job pla n n in g, a n d it h a s
limit a t ion s t h a t r es t r ict it s effect iven es s for
cer t a in t ypr es of pr oject s . However , it is on e
of t h e mos t effect ive en gin eer t ools a n d is
eas ily an d r apidly pr epar ed.
CONSTRUCTION OF THE MASS
DIAGRAM
Us in g colu mn 1 (s t a t ion ) a n d colu mn 12
(ma s s or din a t e, cu mu la t ive t ot a l) of a com-
plet ed ea r t h wor k volu me s h eet , a ma s s
dia gr a m ca n be plot t ed a s s h own in Figu r e
3-16.
Plot t h e ma s s dia gr a m on s ca led gr a ph
pa per wit h t h e s t a t ion s in dica t ed h or izon t a l-
ly an d t h e mas s in dices (colu mn 12)
den ot ed ver t ically. Con n ect all plot t ed
poin t s t o complet e t h e ma s s dia gr a m a s
s h own in Figu r e 3-16. Pos it ive n u mber s
a r c plot t ed a bove t h e zer o da t u m lin e, n ega -
t ive n u mber s below.
PROPERTIES OF THE MASS DIAGRAM
Figu r e 3-17 s h ows a t ypica l ma s s dia gr a m
wit h t h e a ct u a l gr ou n d pr ofile a n d fin a l
gr a de lin e of t h e pr oject plot t ed. Not e t h a t
bot h u s c t h e s a me h or izon t a l a xis (s t a -
t ion s ). Th e gr ou n d pr ofile is placed above
t h e ma s s dia gr a m t o fa cilit a t e t h e ca lcu la -
t ion of t h e a ver a ge gr a de over wh ich equ ip-
men t will wor k. Th e h or izon t a l a xis is t h e
on ly t h in g t h es e gr a ph s h a ve in common .
Th e ma s s dia gr a m is a r u n n in g t ot a l of t h e
qu a n t it y of ea r t h t h a t is in s u r plu s or defi-
cien t a lon g t h e con s t r u ct ion pr ofile. If a t
on e s t a t ion mor e ma t er ia l is bein g cu t t h a n
filled, you h a ve a cu t oper a t ion a t t h a t s t a -
t ion . Th e qu a n t it y or volume of s u r plu s
ma t er ia l will be in cr ea s in g a s cu t t in g oper a -
t ion s con t in u e t h r ou gh t h e s t a t ion , pr odu c-
in g a n a s cen din g ma s s dia gr a m cu r ve lin e.
Cu t t in g is occu r r in g fr om s t a t ion s A t o B
a n d s t a t ion s D t o E in Figu r e 3-17. Th e
t ot a l volu me for t h e cu t a t s t a t ion A t o B is
obt a in ed by pr oject in g t h e poin t s on t h e
cu r ve lin e a t s t a t ion s A a n d B t o t h e ver t i-
ca l a xis a n d r ea din g t h e volu me
Con ver s ely, if a t on e s t a t ion mor e ma t er ia l
is bein g filled t h a n cu t , you h a ve a fill
oper a t ion a t t h a t s t a t ion . Th e qu a n t it y or
volume of deficien t mat er ial will be in cr eas -
in g a s fillin g oper a t ion s con t in u e t h r ou gh
t h e s t a t ion , pr odu cin g a des cen din g ma s s -
diagr am cu r ve lin e. Fillin g is occu r r in g
fr om s t a t ion s B t o D in Figu r e 3-17. Th e
t ot a l volu me for t h e fill a t s t a t ion s B t o D is
obt a in ed by pr oject in g t h e poin t s on t h e
cu r ve lin e a t s t a t ion s B a n d C t o t h e ver t i-
cal axis an d r eadin g an d addin g t h e
volu mes a bove a n d below t h e zer o da t u m
lin e.
Th e ma ximu m or min imu m poin t on t h e
ma s s dia gr a m, wh er e t h e cu r ve ch a n ges
fr om r is in g t o fallin g or vice ver s a, in dicat es
a ch a n ge fr om cu t t o fill or vice ver s a . Th is
poin t is r efer r ed t o a s a t r a n s it ion poin t
(TP). On t h e gr ou n d pr ofile, t h e gr ade lin e
cr os s es t h e gr ou n d lin e at t h e TP, as il-
lu s t r a t ed a t s t a t ion s B a n d D.
Wh en t h e ma s s dia gr a m cr os s es t h e da t u m
lin e or zer o volu me, a s a t s t a t ion C, t h er e
is exa ct ly a s mu ch ma t er ia l filled a s t h er e
is ma t er ia l cu t , or zer o volu me exces s or
deficit a t t h a t poin t . Th e s ect ion of t h e
ma s s dia gr a m, fr om t h e s t a r t of t h e pr oject
a t s t a t ion A t o a poin t of cr os s in g t h e zer o
volu me lin e, is kn own a s a node. E a c h
cr os s in g poin t on t h e zer o volu me lin e in di-
ca t es a n ot h er n ode. Th e la s t n ode ma y or
ma y n ot r et u r n t o t h e zer o da t u m lin e.
Nodes a r e n u mber ed fr om left t o r igh t .
Th e fin a l pos it ion of t h e ma s s dia gr a m lin e,
a bove or below t h e da t u m lin e, in dica t es
wh et h er t h e pr oject wa s pr edomin a t ely cu t
or fill. In Figu r e 3-17, wh er e t h e mas s
dia gr a m en ds a t s t a t ion E, t h e oper a t ion
wa s cu t t in g; t h a t is , s u r plu s ma t er ia l wa s
gen er a t ed by cu t t in g a n d mu s t be h a u led
a wa y (wa s t e oper a t ion ). Bor r ow oper a t ion s
occu r wh en t h e fin a l pos it ion of t h e ma s s
dia gr a m is below t h e zer o volu me lin e.
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 3-16. Plotting the mass diagram
Figure 3-17. Properties of a mass diagram
Earthwork volume
sheet
s:-
o
2-
c:
Cl
0
1ii
. ~
I/)c:
1/).-
-
111'0
Cl)
::Eo
(1) (12)
0+00 0
0+75 675
1+50 975
s:-
o
2+25 960
2-
3+00 850
Cl
E
3+75 575
:J
~
"1+50
0
5+25 -300
6+00 -"lOO
6+75 -380
7+50 -200
. ~
Mass diagram
1000
500
0
-500
0+00 11-50 3+00 4+50 6tOO 1+50
Profile
j J - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ ~ - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - - ~
w
A
Station
B
a
--------------
Mass diagram
TP
I
I
lE
E
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
PROJECT ANALYSIS
On ce t h e ba s ic pr oper t ies of t h e ma s s
dia gr a m a r c u n der s t ood, t h e en gin eer ca n
con du ct a det ailed an alys is 10 det er min e
wh er e dozer s , s cr aper s , an d clu mp t r u cks
will oper at e Th is is accomplis h ed by u s in g
balance lines . A balan ce lin e is a lin e of
s pecific len gt h dr a wn h or izon t a lly, in t er s ect -
in g t h e ma s s dia gr a m in t wo pla ces . Th e
s pecific len gt h of t h e balan ce lin e is t h e
r ecommen ded wor kin g or ma ximu m h a u l
dis t an ce for differ en t pieces of equ ipmen t .
Th e t er m maximum haul d is tance is u s ed
beca u s e oper a t in g t h e equ ipmen t beyon d
t h is poin t wou ld n ot be efficien t . Th e ma xi-
mu m h a u l dis t a n ces (ba la n ce-lin e len gt h s )
a r e
Ma ximu m
Equ ipmen t Ha u l Dis t a n ce
Dozer Up to 300 feet
Scraper 301 to 5,000 feet
Dump Truck 5,001 feet to several
miles
Th es e len gt h s ar e meas u r ed u s in g t h e
h or izon t a l s ca le (s t a t ion s mea s u r ed in
h u n dr eds of feet ). Alwa ys u s e t h e ma xi-
mu m h a u l dis t a n ce (len gt h ) of ea ch piece of
equ ipmen t , pr ovided t h e pr oject or n ode is
a t lea s t t h a t len gt h . St a r t exca va t in g ea ch
n ode wit h t h e dozer followed by t h e s cr aper
a n d du mp t r u ck.
Figu r e 3-18 s h ows a balan ce lin e dr awn on
a por t ion of a ma s s dia gr a m. If t h is wa s a
dozer balan ce lin e, t h e dis t an ce bet ween s t a-
t ion s A an d C wou ld be 300 feet .
Cu t equ a ls fill bet ween t h e en ds of a
balan ce lin e. Th e mas s lin e r et u r n s t o ex-
a ct ly t h e s a me level, in dica t in g t h a t t h e
in pu t a n d t h e expen dit u r es of ea r t h h a ve
been equ al. In Figu r e 3-18, t h is occu r s be-
t ween s t a t ion s A a n d C. Th er e h a s been a n
exa ct ba la n ce of ea r t h wor k.
In Figu r e 3-18, t h e a mou n t of ma t er ia l
ma de a va ila ble by cu t t in g bet ween s t a t ion s
A an d B is meas u r ed by t h e ver t ical lin e
ma r ked Q. Th is is a ls o t h e a mou n t of em-
ba n kmen t ma t er ia l r equ ir ed bet ween s t a -
Fi gu re 3 -1 8 . Ma s s d i a gra m wi t h a ba l a n ce l i n e
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
t ion s B an d C. Th is is des cr ibed as t h e
ba la n ced qu a n t it y of ea r t h wor k.
If equ ipmen t wa s u s ed t o do t h e ba la n ced
ea r t h wor k bet ween s t a t ion s A a n d C, t h e
ma ximu m dis t a n ce t h a t ea r t h wou ld h a ve t o
be moved wou ld be t h e len gt h of t h e
balan ce lin e AC.
In a ccomplis h in g ba la n ced ea r t h wor k oper a -
t ion bet ween s t a t ion s A a n d C, s ome of t h e
h a u l dis t a n ce wou ld be s h or t , wh ile s ome
wou ld a ppr oa ch t h e ma ximu m h a u l dis -
t a n ce. Th e average haul dis tance (AHD) is
t h e len gt h of t h e h or izon t a l lin e pla ced mid-
wa y bet ween t h e ba la n ce lin e a n d t h e t op
or bot t om poin t (t r a n s it ion poin t ) of t h e
cu r ve (Figu r e 3-18) an d is fou n d by dividin g
t h e ver t ica l dis t a n ce of Q in h a lf.
If t h e cu r ve is above a balan ce lin e, t h e
dir ect ion of h a u l is fr om left t o r igh t . Th e
con ver s e is t r u e wh en t h e cu r ve is below a
balan ce lin e.
Figu r e 3-19 s h ows a pa r t of a ma s s
dia gr a m on wh ich t wo ba la n ce lin es h a ve
been dr awn . Th e s ame pr in ciples apply for
t h e a r ea bet ween t h e lin es a s wit h on ly on e
ba la n ce lin e. Th e qu a n t it y ba la n ced is t h e
ver t ical dis t an ce bet ween t h e balan ce lin e,
wh ile t h e h or izon t a l bis ect or is t h e a ver a ge
h a u l dis t a n ce. Th e lon ger balan ce lin e is
t h e ma ximu m h a u l dis t a n ce, a n d t h e
s h or t er ba la n ce lin e is t h e min imu m h a u l
dis t an ce. Th e h au l dis t an ce depen ds u pon
t h e pos it ion of t h e cu r ve wit h r es pect t o t h e
balan ce lin es .
Th e ma s s dia gr a m is a u s efu l in dica t or of
t h e a mou n t of wor k expen ded on a pr oject .
By defin it ion , w ork is t h e en er gy expen ded
in movin g a s pecified weigh t a given dis -
t a n ce. It is t h e pr odu ct of weigh t t imes dis -
t a n ce. Beca u s e t h e or din a t e of t h e ma s s
diagr am is in cu bic yar ds (wh ich r epr es en t s
weigh t ) a n d t h e a bs cis s a is in s t a t ion s or
dis t a n ce, a n a r ea on t h e ma s s dia gr a m r ep-
r es en t s wor k. In Figu r e 3-20, page 3-24, if
equ ipmen t is u s ed t o do t h e ba la n ced
ea r t h wor k bet ween t h e en ds of t h e ba la n ce
lin es as dr awn , t h e wor k expen ded is equ al
t o t h e a r ea bet ween t h e ma s s lin e a n d t h e
balan ce lin e.
Figure 3-19. Mass diagram with two balance lines
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 3-20. Work in earthmoving operations
An ot h er it em ca lcu la t ed fr om t h e ma s s
diagr am is aver age gr ade. Th is valu e is
u s ed wh en compu t in g equ ipmen t s ch edu l-
in g a n d u t iliza t ion . Figu r e 3-21 an d Figu r e
3-22, page 3-26, illu s t r at e a por t ion of t h e
ma s s dia gr a m on wh ich t h e a ver a ge gr a de
h as been det er min ed.
USE OF THE MASS DIAGRAM
Th e ma s s dia gr a m is u s ed t o fin d t h e cos t
of a pr oject in t er ms of h a u l dis t a n ce a n d
ya r da ge, t o loca t e t h e a r ea s for oper a t ion
for va r iou s t ypes of equ ipmen t , t o es t a blis h
t h e r equ ir emen t s for bor r ow pit s a n d wa s t e
a r ea s , a n d t o pr ovide a n over a ll con t r ol of
r equ ir ed ea r t h movin g oper a t ion s . However ,
t h e mea n s u s ed t o a n a lyze t h e ma s s
diagr am will follow t h e s ame pr in ciples
r egar dles s of t h e en d r es u lt des ir ed. Th e
a n a lys is of t h e ma s s dia gr a m is ba s ed u pon
t h e pr oper locat ion of balan ce lin es .
Becau s e t h e len gt h s of balan ce lin es on a
ma s s dia gr a m a r e equ a l t o t h e ma ximu m or
min imu m h a u l dis t a n ces for t h e ba la n ced
ea r t h movin g oper a t ion bet ween t h eir en d
poin t s , t h ey s h ou ld be dr a wn t o con for m t o
t h e ca pa bilit ies of t h e a va ila ble equ ipmen t .
Equ ipmen t pla n n ed a ccor din gly will oper a t e
a t h a u l dis t a n ces t h a t a r e wit h in it s bes t
r an ge of efficien cy. Figu r e 3-21 illu s t r at es
a por t ion of a ma s s dia gr a m on wh ich t wo
balan ce lin es h ave been dr awn : 300 feet t o
con for m t o dozer capabilit ies an d 5,000 feet
for t h e s cr a per .
Th e followin g job an alys is can be made
fr om t h e dia gr a m in Figu r e 3-21:
Us e dozer s bet ween s t a t ion s C a n d E. Th e
ma ximu m h a u l dis t a n ce is 300 feet ; t h e
a ver a ge h a u l dis t a n ce is t h e h or izon t a l
bis ect or s h own . Th e a mou n t t h a t will be
cu t bet ween s t a t ion s C a n d D a n d filled
bet ween s t a t ion s D a n d E is t h e len gt h of
t h e in dicat ed ver t ical lin es .
Us e s cr a per s for cu t t in g fr om s t a t ion s A t o
C a n d fillin g fr om s t a t ion s E t o G. Th e
min imu m a n d ma ximu m h a u l dis t a n ces a r e
301 an d 5,000 feet , r es pect ively. Th e
a ver a ge h a u l dis t a n ce is t h e h or izon t a l lin e
midway bet ween t h e balan ce lin es . Th e
a mou n t of ea r t h wor k is in dica t ed by t h e
ver t ical lin e.
To det er min e t h e a ver a ge gr a de for eit h er
t h e s cr a per or dozer wor k a r ea , u s e t h e fol-
lowin g pr ocedu r e:
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 3-21. Balance lines for equipment efficiency
1. Dr a w on t h e pr ofile a h or izon t a l lin e
t h r ou gh t h e wor k a r ea t h a t r ou gh ly divides
t h e a r ea in h a lf. Th is is a r ou gh es t ima -
t ion . (See Figu r e 3-22, page 3-26.)
2. Ext en d a ver t ica l lin e fr om t h e en d
poin t s of t h e pr eviou s ly det er min ed aver age
h a u l lin e u p t h r ou gh t h e pr oject pr ofile.
Th es e lin es ar e r efer r ed t o as t h e aver age
h au l ver t ical. (See Figu r e 3-23, page 3-26.)
3. Dr a w a fin a l lin e con n ect in g t h e in t er -
s ect in g poin t s of t h e lin es dr awn in s t eps 1
an d 2. Th is lin e r epr es en t s t h e aver age
gr ade.
4. Det er min e t h e a ver a ge ch a n ge in eleva -
t ion (t h e ver t ica l dis t a n ce bet ween t h e cu t
an d fill).
5. Ca lcu la t e t h e a ver a ge gr a de a s follows :
Average Grade % =
Average change in elevation x 100
Average haul dis tance
In t h e example s h own in Figu r e 3-23, t h e
a ver a ge gr a de for t h e dozer wou ld be
Aver a ge Gr a de % =
1 8
x 100 = -8.87%
203
Sin ce t h is is an operation which moves
earth d ow n h ill, the grade would be negative,
or - 8 . 8 7 % An uphill cut would have a posi-
tive grade.
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 3-22. Determining average grade, step 1
Figure 3-23. Determining average grade, step 2
Horizontal line divides area approximately in half. - - - - ~
I
I
A I - - - - - - - - - - ~ ~ ~ ~
Balance line
Average grade line
Average haul
Vertical---........
Balance line
a
Average haul
Maximum haul distance
B
a
Average haul = 203'
Maximum haul distance
.......... : ..... :: ::-/:::::-: ... ::::..:::;.":.:-....
Grade line
c
Mass Diagram
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
P la cemen t of Ba la n ce Li n es t o Mi n i mi ze
Wor k
Beca use t he a r ea bet ween t he a pex of t he
ma ss dia gr a m a nd t he ba la nce line is a
mea sur e of t he wor k involved in t he ba la nc-
ing oper a t ion, t he size of t hese a r ea s
should be decr ea sed whenever possible,
However , t he met hod used t o minimize t he
a r ea depends upon t he sha pe of t he ma ss
dia gr a m a nd t he number of a dja cent nodes
t ha t ca n be used.
If t wo nodes ar e adjacent , wor k is mini-
mized when t wo ba la nce lines a r e dr a wn a s
one cont inuous line, wit h t he ba la nce lines
equal in lengt h. Ea ch ba la nce line must be
wit hin t he ma ximum efficient ha ul dist a n-
ces for t he equipment . The best pla cement
of ba la nce lines on t he por t ion of a ma ss
dia gr a m shown in Figur e 3-24 would be
lines AE and EF, wit h AE = E F .
Only one ba la nce line, CH, ma y be needed
if it is wit hin efficient haul dist ance
specifica t ions. The qua nt it y involved would
be Q yar ds and t he wor k involved would be
t he ar ea above CH.
If t his one balance line was r eplaced by t wo
ba la nce lines, BD a nd DG, wit h BD less
t ha n DG. t he qua nt it y of ea r t hwor k
ba la nced would r ema in t he sa me. The
wor k would be decr ea sed by t he size of t he
a r ea bet ween CH a nd DG a nd incr ea sed by
t he size of t he ar ea bet ween BD and C.
This would r esult in a sa vings beca use t he
incr ea se is less t ha n t he decr ea se for t he
s a me a mou n t of ea r t h wor k ba l a n ced. Th i s
decr ea sing pr ocess will cont inue by r a ising
t he lines t o t he point wher e one equals t he
ot her , or unt il AE = EF is r eached.
If t her e is an even number of adjacent
nodes, a s shown in Figur e 3-25, wor k is
r educed when t he ba la nce lines a r e one con-
t inuous line and AB + CD + EF = BC + DE
+ FG. The lengt h of ea ch ba la nce line must
be wit hin equipment ma ximum ha ul
ca pa bilit ies a s defined ea r lier .
Figure 3-25. Minimizing work with an even
number of nodes
If t her e is an odd number of adjacent
nodes, a s shown in Figur e 3-26, wor k is
decr ea sed when t he ba la nce lines a r e one
cont inuous line and AB + CD + EF - (BC +
DE) equals t he limit of efficient haul, or ap-
pr oxima t ely 1,000 feet . All ba la nce lines
must be wit hin equipment limit s.
Figure 3-26. Minimizing work with an odd
number of nodes
Ca lcu la t i on of Ea r t h wor k n ot Wi t h i n
Ba la n ce Li n es
I t is usua lly impossible t o pla ce ba la nce
lines so t ha t t he ent ir e a mount of
ea r t hwor k on a pr oject ca n be ba la nced.
Some par t of t he mass line will be out side
t he ba la nce lines. This ma t er ia l must be
wa st ed or bor r owed. I f t he por t ion not
wit hin ba la nce lines is a scending (cut t ing),
t her e is wast e; if it is descending (filling),
t her e is bor r ow, This is shown in Figur e
3-27, pa ge 3-28. Concent r a t e a ll necessa r y
bor r ow a nd wa st e oper a t ions in one gener a l
ar ea.
Figure 3-24. Minimizing work with two nodes
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
LIMITATIONS OF THE MASS DIAGRAM
Figure 3-27. Waste and borrow on a mass
diagram
For ma t for An a lys is
Th e s imples t a n d mos t pr a ct ica l met h od of
Ta bu la t in g t h e r es u lt s of a ma s s dia gr a m is
t o wr it e a ll qu a n t it ies a n d dis t a n ces on t h e
diagr am, as s h own in Figu r e 3-28. It is
a ls o pos s ible t o ext r a ct in for ma t ion fr om
t h e ma s s dia gr a m a n d pu t it in a for ma t
t h a t effect ively con t r ols t h e oper a t ion . On e
met h od is t o pr epa r e a ma s s dia gr a m
an alys is s h eet as s h own in Figu r e 3-29.
Th e ma s s dia gr a m h a s ma n y limit a t ion s
t h a t pr eclu de it s u s e in a ll ea r t h movin g
oper a t ion s . At bes t , it is mer ely a gu ide in -
dica t in g t h e gen er a l ma n n er in wh ich t h e
oper a t ion s s h ou ld be con t r olled. An y a t -
t empt t o get exa ct qu a n t it ies a n d dis t a n ces
fr om it ma y be mis lea din g. However , it is a
good s t a r t in g poin t .
Th e ma s s dia gr a m is mos t effect ive wh en
u s ed t o pla n oper a t ion s a lon g a n elon ga t ed
pr oject s imila r t o a r oa d, a n a ir field
r u n wa y, or a t a xiwa y. Th e h a u l dis t a n ces
a r e a lon g t h e cen t er lin e or pa r a llel t o it .
However , if t h e pr oject becomes r elat ively
wide compa r ed t o it s len gt h , movemen t of
ea r t h ma y be t r a n s ver s e a s lon git u din a l,
r es u lt in g in lon ger , t r a n s ver s e h a u l dis t a n -
ces a n d in va lida t in g t h e ma s s dia gr a m
an alys is .
Th e ma s s dia gr a m is u s ed t o a n a lyze on ly
t h e pot en t ia lit y of ba la n cin g wit h in on e
Figure 3-28. Mass diagram showing analysis results
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
ph a s e of a pr oject . For in s t a n ce, t h e ma s s
dia gr a m ma y in dica t e t h a t t h e bes t ba la n c-
in g of a cer t a in por t ion of a r u n wa y will r e-
qu ir e a h a u l dis t a n ce of 2,200 feet a lon g
t h e s it e. However , it ma y be bet t er t o
ba la n ce ya r da ge wit h a n a dja cen t t a xiwa y
in wh ich t h e h au l dis t an ce will be on ly
1,200 feet . Th e mas s diagr am can deal
on ly wit h t h e r u n wa y or t h e t a xiwa y, n ot
wit h bot h s imu lt a n eou s ly.
Th e ma s s dia gr a m a s s u mes t h a t a ll
ma t er ia l exca va t ed in t h e cu t s ect ion s is a c-
cept able for u s e in t h e emban kmen t s ec-
t ion s . Th is is n ot n eces s ar ily t r u e. How-
ever , a ll u n a ccept a ble qu a n t it ies ca n be
elimin a t ed fr om t h e ea r t h wor k t a ble.
Th e mas s diagr am is applicable t o pr oject s
n eedin g ba la n ced ea r t h wor k. Ba la n cin g
elimin a t es t h e dou ble h a n dlin g of qu a n -
t it ies . If t h er e is a s h or t dis t a n ce bet ween
a n a ccept a ble bor r ow pit a n d a n emba n k-
men t s ect ion , it ma y be mor e econ omica l t o
u s e t h e bor r ow pit in s t ea d of a lon g ba la n c-
in g oper at ion , Th is can be det er min ed by a
w ork or econ omy. s t u dy.
Figure 3-29. Mass-diagram analysis sheet
4
Clearing, Grubbing, and Stripping Forest Types and Environmental Conditions Preparation Clearing Considerations Performance Techniques
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
CLEARING, GRUBBING,
AND STRIPPING
La n d cle a rin g is t h e re m ov a l a n d d is p os a l of a ll v e ge t a t ion ,
ru bbis h , a n d s u rf a ce bou ld e rs e mbe d d e d in t h e grou n d . In t h e
TO, la n d cle a rin g a ls o in clu d e s t h e re m ov a l a n d d is p os a l of
m in e s , b oob y t ra p s , a n d u n e x p lod e d b om b s . Gru b b in g is t h e
u p root in g a n d re m ov a l of root s a n d s t u m p s . S t rip p in g is t h e
re mov a l a n d d is pos a l of u n w a n t e d t ops oil a n d s od .
Cle a rin g, gru b b in g, a n d s t rip p in g a re a ccom p lis h e d b y u s in g
h e a v y e n gin e e rin g e qu ip m e n t . Ha n d - or p ow e r-f e llin g e qu ip -
ment, explos ives , and fire are als o us ed . Factors that d etermine
w h ich me t h od t o u s e a re : t h e a cre a ge t o be cle a re d t h e t y pe
a n d d e n s it y of v e ge t a t ion , t h e t e rra in s e f f e ct on t h e ope ra t ion
of e qu ipme n t , t h e a v a ila bilit y of e qu ipme n t a n d pe rs on n e l, a n d
t h e t ime a v a ila ble f or comple t ion . For be s t re s u lt s , a combin a -
t ion of me t h od s is u s e d in a s e qu e n ce of ope ra t ion s .
Cle a rin g, gru b b in g, a n d s t rip p in g a re t h e s a m e in roa d a n d
a irf ie ld con s t ru ct ion . In a irf ie ld con s t ru ct ion , t h e a re a s t o be
cleared are us ually larger than for road cons truction; the number
of pers onnel and amount of equipment us ed are corres pond ingly
gre a t e r; a n d t h e d is pos a l of u n s u it a ble ma t e ria ls re qu ire s more
d e t a ile d pla n n in g a n d lon ge r h a u ls .
FOREST TYPES AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
Clear in g, gr u bbin g, an d s t r ippin g oper at ion s
differ in ever y climat ic zon e becau s e each
zon e h a s differ en t for es t a n d veget a t ive
t ypes . For es t s a r e n ot u n ifor m in t ype,
gr owt h , a n d den s it y wit h in clima t ic zon es .
Soils , a lt it u des , wa t er t a bles , a n d ot h er fa c-
t or s va r y widely wit h in ea ch zon e.
Th e gen er a l n a t u r e of a for es t is det er min ed
fr om r ecor ds of t h e pr in cipa l clima t ic fa c-
t or s , pr ecipit a t ion , h u midit y, t emper a t u r e,
s u n ligh t , a n d t h e dir ect ion of t h e pr eva ilin g
win ds . Th e n a t u r e a n d a ct ion of clima t ic
fa ct or s du r in g t h e gr owin g s ea s on det er min e
t h e a mou n t a n d t ypes of for es t s . Fr om
t h es e r ecor ds , a gen er a l in t er pr et a t ion of
t h e for es t s in a n a r ea ca n gu ide det a iled r e-
con n ais s an ce.
Th e clima t e cla s s ifica t ion s of for es t s a r e t em-
per a t e, r a in , mon s oon , a n d dr y, Th e follow-
in g par agr aph s des cr ibe t h es e clas s ificat ion s .
TEMPERATE FORESTS
Temper a t e for es t s con t a in bot h s oft wood
a n d h a r dwood t r ees . Ha r dwoods a r e domin -
an t wh er e t h e s oils ar e old, deep, an d fer -
t ile. Soft woods a r e domin a n t wh er e t h e
s oils ar e you n g, s h allow, an d les s fer t ile.
Th e den s it y of gr owt h in t h es e for es t s
va r ies wit h t opogr a ph y a n d loca l clima t e
Clearing, Grubbing, and Stripping 4-1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
con dit ion s . Bogs a r e common in cold
r egion , s oft wood for es t s . Bogs pr es en t a
h a za r d t o con s t r u ct ion equ ipmen t du r in g
t h e clea r in g oper a t ion s . Root s ys t ems va r y
accor din g t o geologic con dit ion s an d
s pecies . Th e t ypes of r oot s ys t ems t ypical
of var iou s s pecies ar e lis t ed in Table 4-1.
RAIN FORESTS
Ra in for es t s occu r in t r opica l clima t es
wh er e r a in fa ll is h ea vy t h r ou gh ou t t h e yea r .
Th ey con s is t of t a ll, br oa d-lea ved t r ees t h a t
gr ow as h igh as 175 feet . Th e t r ees h ave
a n u mbr ella -like folia ge t h a t per mit s lit t le
s u n ligh t t o pen et r a t e. Th e u n der gr owt h con -
s is t s of t h ick vin es t h a t clin g t o t h e t r ees
for s u ppor t a n d gr ow t o gr ea t h eigh t s .
Wh er e s u n ligh t r ea ch es t h e for es t floor , t h e
u n der gr owt h is den s e an d var ied. Becau s e
of con t in u a l pr ecipit a t ion , t h e r oot s ys t ems
a r e on or n ea r t h e gr ou n d s u r fa ce a n d
s pr ea d in a la t er a l pa t t er n a r ou n d t h e ba s e
of t h e t r ees ,
MONSOON FORESTS
Mon s oon for es t s occu r in clima t es of h ea vy
s ea s on a l r a in s wit h s t r on g, wa r m win ds .
Th e for es t s ar e den s e, wit h var ied s pecies of
h a r dwoods wh ich a r e moder a t e-s ized, br oa d -
lea ved, a n d h a ve s h a llow r oot s ys t ems . Th e
u n der gr owt h is ver y den s e wit h s h r u bs ,
vin es , an d plan t s .
DRY FORESTS
Dr y for es t s occu r in a r id a n d t r opica l
r egion s wh er e t h er e is lit t le pr ecipit at ion .
Th e for es t s a r e eit h er s cr u b or s a va n n a .
Scr u b for es t s u s u ally con s is t of br oad-
leaved h ar dwoods wit h den s e t h icket s alon g
wa t er cou r s es . In open a r ea s t h er e a r e s ca t -
tered growths of low, thorny, stunted
s h r u bs a n d s t u n t ed t r ees t h a t u s u a lly h a ve
lon g, t ou gh t a pr oot s t h a t a r e difficu lt t o
r emove. Sa va n n a for es t s a r e in mor e
h u mid, dr y-for es t r egion s . Th es e for es t s
ar e par k-like, wit h lar ge t r ees widely an d
u n ifor mly s pa ced. Sa va n n a s u s u a lly h a ve
con t in u ou s cover in gs of s ma ll gr a s s es .
GEOLOGIC AND PERMAFROST
CONDITIONS
An in ves t iga t ion of t h e geologic con dit ion s
of a for es t ca n h elp wh en es t ima t in g t h e
den s it y a n d dept h of t h e r oot s ys t ems of
t h e t r ees . Th e in ves t igat ion s h ou ld be con -
cer n ed wit h h a r dpa n , ma r s h y, a n d per -
ma fr os t con dit ion s .
Ha r dpa n or Roc k
Wh er e a for es t is clos ely u n der laid by
h a r dpa n or r ock, t h e t r ee r oot s br a n ch a n d
r ema in n ea r t h e s u r fa ce. Th is gr owt h is
ea s y t o u pr oot . Wh er e t h e s oil is fir m an d
t h e h ar dpan or r ock is deep, t h e t r ees t en d
t o for m la r ge, deep t a pr oot s t h a t ma ke
u pr oot in g difficu lt .
In u n da t e d, Ma r s h y, a n d Boggy Ar e a s
In t h es e ar eas , t r ees h ave t h ick, wide-
s pr ea din g. a n d s h a llow r oot s ys t ems n ea r
t h e s u r fa ce of t h e gr ou n d.
Pe r m a fr os t
In n or t h er n r egion s wh er e per ma fr os t oc-
cu r s , t h e r oot s ys t ems of t r ees a r e s imila r
t o t h os e in h a r dpa n or r ock. Wh er e t h e per -
ma fr os t is n ea r t h e s u r fa ce, r oot s br a n ch
ou t a n d lie clos e t o t h e s u r fa ce. Wh er e per -
ma fr os t is fa r below
develop t a pr oot s .
PREPARATION
RECONNAISSANCE AND PLANNING
in t elligen ce r epor t s ,
t h e s u r fa ce, t r ees
a n d a er ia l a n d gr ou n d
r econ n a is s a n ce. (Refer t o Ch a pt er 2 of t h is
Th e t ypes of t r ees , veget a t ion , s oil, a n d t er -
ma n u a l for mor e det a iled in for ma t ion .)
r ain en cou n t er ed wh ile clear in g t h e lan d
Aft er s u ch in for mat ion h as been ver ified, es -
mu s t be det er min ed a s a ccu r a t ely a s pos -
t ima t e t h e qu a n t it y of wor k, s elect t h e a va il-
s ible fr om clima t ic a n d geologica l ma ps ,
a ble equ ipmen t , det er min e t h e n u mber of
4-2 Clearing, Grubbing, and Stripping
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table 4-1. Species of trees and their normal root systems
Species
Alder .
Ash ....
Aspen
Basswood
Birches:
.' ... : ...... .
Black, cherry, sweet
Paper, white
Yellow
Cedars
Cherry .
Chestnut
Cypress
Elm ...
Firs:
Balsam
Douglas
Lowland white
Noble
White ....
Gums
Red, sweet
Hackberry
Hemlock
Hickory
Juniper
Larch .
Laurel
Locust
Magnolia
Mahogany
Maple
Oak
Pine:
Eastern white
Jack ...
Loblolly
Lodgepole
Longleaf
Nut ... .
Pitch .. .
Ponderosa
Red, Norway
Shortleaf .. .
Slash .... .
Stone (Foxtall)
Sugar
Western white
Poplar .
Yellow .
Quassia .
Redwoods
Spruce ..
Sycamore
Tamarack
Willows
Normal Root System
Shallow, wide-spreading laterals
Deep in porous soils, shallow and spreading in rocky soils
Shallow laterals
Deep, wide-spreading laterals
Shallow laterals
Moderately deep, wide-spreading laterals
Taproot
Several descending roots and many shallow, wide-spreading laterals
Shallow, wide-spreading laterals; occasionally a taproot
Wide-spreading laterals
Shallow laterals
Deep taproot
Deep laterals
Deep, wide-spisading latsials
Deep taproot
Moderately deep; no taproot
Short taproot (young), laterals
Deep, wide-spreading laterals; always with taproot
Deep taproot; well-developed laterals
Shallow to moderately deep laterals
Taproot (young); later laterals
Strong taproot and laterals
Very deep taproot
Deep, strong taproot with laterals
Taproot supplemented by laterals
Taproot (seedlings), deep laterals
Taproot (seedlings); deep, wide-spreading laterals
Shallow laterals
Several descending and many shallow. wide-spreading
laterals
Shallow laterals
Shallow. wide-spreading laterals
Wide-spreading laterals
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-80137 Vol 1
per s on n el n eeded, an d plan a s equ en ce of
oper a t ion s t o complet e t h e clea r in g r a pidly
an d efficien t ly. In all clear in g oper at ion s ,
t h e decis ive fa ct or s con t r ollin g t h e met h od
of clea r in g a r e t h e t ype a n d a mou n t of
equ ipmen t a n d t h e t ime a va ila ble for com-
plet ion .
TIMBER CRUISING
Timber cr u is in g is per for med t o es t ima t e
t h e s ize, t h e h eigh t , a n d t h e n u mber of
each t r ee s pecies in a given ar ea. It is
u s ed eit h er t o det er min e t h e qu a n t it y of
u s a ble t imber or t o es t ima t e t h e a mou n t of
wor k r equ ir ed in clear in g. A s ample, u s u al-
ly 10 per cen t of t h e ar ea, is s t u died an d
t h e r es u lt is a pplied t o t h e en t ir e a r ea . Th e
s ample may be in cr eas ed or decr eas ed. In
s mall ar eas , a 100-per cen t cr u is e is u s u ally
ma de.
In t imber cr u is in g for la n d clea r in g on ly,
r ecor d t h e dia met er s of t h e t r ees a t br ea s t
h eigh t (DBH) t a ken a t 4 1/ 2 feet a bove t h e
gr ou n d, an d r ecor d t h e s pecies an d n u mber
of t r ees . Th is in for ma t ion is u s ed t o pla n
t h e clea r in g oper a t ion a n d s elect t h e t ype of
equ ipmen t mos t efficien t for t h e dia met er s
an d s pecies .
CLEARING CONSIDERATIONS
PERMAFROST
Clea r in g of gr ou n d cover over per ma fr os t
wh ich is n ea r t h e fr eezin g poin t ma y r es u lt
in t h a win g of ma t er ia l, ca u s in g con s ider a ble
gr ou n d-s u r face s u bs iden ce.
SAFETY
Ca r efu l con s ider a t ion mu s t be given t o t h e
s a fet y of per s on n el a n d equ ipmen t du r in g
clea r in g oper a t ion s . Pr ot ect ive, t r a ct or -
mou n t ed cabs s h ou ld be u s ed wh en ext en -
s ive clear in g oper at ion s ar e an t icipat ed.
Pr ot ect ive cabs per mit gr eat er flexibilit y in
clear in g oper at ion s an d in cr eas e oper at or ef-
ficien cy. Wit h t h is pr ot ect ion , da ma ge t o
t h e dozer is r edu ced an d con t in u ou s pr odu c-
t ion r es u lt s .
Pr oper s u per vis ion an d plan n in g can h elp
pr even t acciden t s cau s ed by fallin g t r ees ,
u pr oot ed s t u mps , s t u mp h oles , a n d r ou gh
or br oken t er r a in du r in g t h e clea r in g oper a -
t ion . All equ ipmen t u s ed in clea r in g
s h ou ld, if pr act icable, be equ ipped wit h
h eavy s t eel plat in g
der ca r r ia ges . Th is
logs , an d bou lder s
n er a ble equ ipmen t
for pr ot ect ion of t h e u n -
will pr even t s t u mps ,
fr om da ma gin g vu l-
pa r t s .
CAMOUFLAGE
To pr ovide cover an d con cealmen t
(ca mou fla ge) for t h e con s t r u ct ion s it e, do
n ot r emove s t a n din g t r ees a n d br u s h ou t -
s ide t h e des ign at ed clear ed ar ea u n les s
n eces s ar y. Wh en u pr oot in g t r ees wit h
bu lldozer s , t a ke ca r e t o con t r ol t h eir fa ll
an d avoid br eakin g s u r r ou n din g t r ees .
TIMBER SALVAGE
Tr im all t imber u s efu l for logs , piles , an d
lu mber , a n d s t ockpile it for fu t u r e u s e in
br idge, cu lver t , a n d ot h er con s t r u ct ion a p-
plicat ion s . Pu s h or s kid t h is t imber in t o a
s a lva ge a r ea wh er e it ca n be moved t o a
s a wmill wit h lit t le difficu lt y.
TEMPORARY DRAINAGE
Ph a s ed developmen t of t h e dr a in a ge s ys t em
in t h e ear ly s t ages of clear in g, gr u bbin g,
an d s t r ippin g is es s en t ial t o en s u r e u n in t er -
r u pt ed con s t r u ct ion . Dela ys ca u s ed by
floodin g, s u bgr ade failu r es , h eavy mu d con -
dit ion s , a n d t h e s u bs equ en t immobiliza t ion
of con s t r u ct ion equ ipmen t ca n be
elimin a t ed by ca r efu l developmen t of t h e
dr a in a ge s ys t em befor e, or con cu r r en t wit h ,
ot h er con s t r u ct ion . Us e t h e or igin a l
dr a in a ge fea t u r es a s mu ch a s pos s ible
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
wit h ou t dis t u r bin g n a t u r a l gr a des . Gr a de
dr ain age dit ch es down h ill.
Fill h oles left by u pr oot ed t r ees an d s t u mps
wit h a ccept a ble s oil, a n d compa ct t h e
gr ou n d t o pr even t t h e a ccu mu la t ion of s u r -
fa ce wa t er . Us e dozer s an d gr ader s for t h is
wor k. Slope t h e gr ou n d t owa r d dr a in a ge
dit ch es t o pr even t pen din g on t h e s u r face.
Backfill exis t in g dit ch es at t h e lat es t pos -
s ible t ime t o per mit t h e bes t u s e of t h e
or igin a l dr a in a ge.
DISPOSAL
Us e wa s t e a r ea s or bu r n in g t o dis pos e of
clea r ed ma t er ia ls . Th e ch oice of met h od
depen ds on t h e t ype of con s t r u ct ion , en -
vir on men t a l con cer n s , t h e loca t ion , t h e
t h r ea t , a n d t h e t ime a va ila ble. Gen er a lly,
t h e mat er ial is pu s h ed an d s kidded off t h e
con s t r u ct ion s it e a n d in t o t h e s u r r ou n din g
t imber t o s peed dis pos al an d keep t h e ar ea
clear ed for equ ipmen t oper at ion . To dis -
pos e of mat er ial as r apidly as pos s ible, as -
s ign s pecific u n it s of equ ipmen t t o a c-
complis h t h is con cu r r en t ly wit h t h e clea r in g
an d gr u bbin g. Th e dis pos al met h od s h ou ld
be con s is t en t wit h t h e met h ods of
ca mou fla ge, s a lva ge, a n d dr a in a ge
clear in g.
u s ed for
WASTE AREAS
In a ir field con s t r u ct ion , con s ider a t ion mu s t
be given t o t h e ar eas u s ed for dis pos al of
con s t r u ct ion wa s t e.
Du mps Adja c e n t t o Wor k Ar e a s
In for wa r d comba t a r ea s wh er e s a vin g t ime
is es s en t ia l, t h e qu ickes t a n d mos t con -
ven ien t met h od of ma t er ia l dis pos a l is t o
pile t h e ma t er ia ls a dja cen t t o t h e wor k
a r ea . St u dy t h e con s t r u ct ion pla n s t o det er -
min e wh er e t h e
in t er fer in g wit h
a r ea s .
Off-Si t e Ar e a s
In con s t r u ct in g
debr is can be piled wit h ou t
dr a in a ge or pot en t ia l wor k
t h e ma in pr oject , it ma y be
n eces s a r y t o clea r s ome a dja cen t la n d t o dis -
pos e of t h e clea r ed ma t er ia l. Loca t e t h is
clea r in g a s clos e t o t h e ma in pr oject a s
pos s ible t o s h or t en t h e h a u lin g dis t a n ce,
Us e t h e s a me met h ods t o clea r dis pos a l
a r ea s t h a t a r c u s ed in clea r in g wor k a r ea s .
Re ve t m e n t s
Clear ed mat er ial can be dis pos ed of by
u s in g it a s fill ma t er ia l in r evet men t s
a r ou n d h a r ds t a n ds wh en pr ot ect ive
meas u r es ar e n eeded.
Bu r n i n g
Do n ot u s e fir e for clear in g lan d u n les s
s u it able equ ipmen t an d s u fficien t per s on n el
a r e n ot a va ila ble for ot h er met h ods of clea r -
in g. Wh en bu r n in g is r equ ir ed, clos ely fol-
low r ecommen ded pr ocedu r es .
Un der fa vor a ble t a ct ica l con dit ion s , br u s h
an d t imber debr is may be bu r n ed. To limit
t h e likelih ood of det ect ion becau s e of
s moke, keep fir es bu r n in g as h ot as pos -
s ible a n d do n ot pu s h n ew ma t er ia l in t o t h e
fir e r a pidly. Do n ot per mit fir es t o bu r n a t
n igh t u n les s t a ct ica l con dit ion s a r e ext r eme-
ly favor able an d appr oval h as been obt ain ed
fr om h ea dqu a r t er s .
Fire Control. St r ip t h e a r ea a r ou n d a n y
debr is t o be bu r n ed befor e fir es ar e s t ar t ed
t o pr ovide a fir ebr ea k. If la r ge a r ea s a r e t o
be bu r n ed, es t ablis h fir ebr eaks on all s ides
a s a pr eca u t ion a ga in s t s h ift in g win ds .
Ma in t a in a fir e gu a r d over t h e fir es a s a n
a ddit ion a l s a fet y mea s u r e. In dr y wea t h er ,
h a n d s h ovels , wa t er bu cket s , a n d ot h er ex-
pedien t fir e-figh t in g equ ipmen t s h ou ld be
available t o ext in gu is h fir es cau s ed by
flyin g s par ks .
Burning Pits . Th e mos t s a t is fa ct or y met h od
for bu r n in g la r ge qu a n t it ies of br u s h a n d
t imber is t o bu r n t h em in a pit or t r en ch
du g by a bu lldozer or s cr aper . Th e s ides of
t h e pit will r eflect t h e h ea t ba ck in t o t h e
fir e, pr odu cin g a ver y h ot fir e, Bu r n in g will
be r a pid a n d complet e. Pu s h t h e ma t er ia l
in t o t h e pit wit h a bu lldozer . St a r t t h e fir e
wit h limbs a n d s ma ll br u s h t o get a good
bed of coals . Gr adu ally in cr eas e t h e s ize of
t h e ma t er ia l a s t h e in t en s it y of t h e fir e in -
cr eas es . Get as lit t le dir t as pos s ible in t h e
pit beca u s e it t en ds t o s mot h er t h e fir e a n d
fill t h e pit . A s oldier s h ou ld be det ailed t o
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
t en d t h e fir e a n d en s u r e t h a t t h e pile is
kept compa ct , Th is met h od ca n n ot be u s ed
in s wa mpy a r ea s wh er e gr ou n dwa t er will
s eep in t o t h e t r en ch .
Log Piles . If it is n ot des ir a ble t o con s t r u ct
bu r n in g pit s , bu r n piles of logs by loos ely
pilin g t h em s o t h a t t h e h ea t a n d fla mes ca n
pa s s t h r ou gh , It is a lwa ys bes t t o s t a r t t h e
fir e wit h br u s h . Aft er a la r ge bed of coa ls
is for med, a dd a few logs a t a t ime t o ob-
t a in a good bla ze.
To bu r n piles of gr een , wet logs , it may be
n eces s a r y t o u s e fu el oil t o fu r n is h en ou gh
h ea t t o dr y ou t t h e logs a n d s t a r t t h e bu r n -
in g pr oces s . Pile t h e logs par allel, on e on
t op of t h e ot h er . Th e fu el oil is car r ied t o
t h e cen t er of t h e pile by a pipe in wh ich
h oles h ave been dr illed or cu t . On ce t h e
pile is bu r n in g well, t h e fu el can be cu t off
a n d t h e pipe r emoved. Ca r e mu s t be t a ken
t o a void gr ou n d con t a min a t ion .
Fu el oil is als o a qu ick an d con ven ien t
mea n s of s t a r t in g br u s h fir es , pa r t icu la r ly if
t h e br u s h is gr een a n d wet . If ma t er ia l is
t o be pu s h ed on t o t h e pile wh ile t h e pipe is
bein g u s ed, it is bes t t o bu r y t h e por t ion of
t h e pipe ou t s ide t h e pile t o pr ot ect it fr om
da ma ge fr om t r a ct or gr ou s er s a n d bu lldozer
blades .
Clearing and Piling Stumps . In pr epa r in g
s t u mps for bu r n in g, r emove a s mu ch dir t
a s pos s ible fr om t h e r oot s . Dir t on t h e
r oot s will r et a r d combu s t ion a n d s mot h er
t h e fir e. Wh en t h e s t u mps a r e pu s h ed ou t ,
lea ve t h em wit h t h e r oot s expos ed t o s u n
an d win d s o t h e dir t t ill dr y qu ickly.
Scr u bbin g wit h t h e s ide of t h e bu lldozer
blade will kn ock off mu ch of t h e dr y dir t .
Pile t h e s t u mps a s clos e t oget h er a s pos -
s ible wit h t h e t r u n ks poin t in g t owa r d t h e
cen t er of t h e pile. Keep t h e s t u mps
t oget h er a ft er t h ey s t a r t t o bu r n . Th is pr o-
cedu r e will s peed u p t h e bu r n in g.
AIRFIELD APPROACH ZONES
Air field glide an gles an d appr oach zon es ar e
fu r t h er dis cu s s ed in Ch apt er 11 of
FM 5-430-00-2/ AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 2. Ob-
s t r u ct ion s ext en din g above t h e glide an gle
mu s t be r emoved. Alt h ou gh glide-an gle r e-
qu ir emen t s ma y be met by on ly t oppin g
t r ees , it is bes t t o fell or u pr oot t r ees t h a t
ext en d above t h e glide an gle. Dis pos al is
n o pr oblem in t h e a ppr oa ch zon e, beca u s e
all demolis h ed mat er ial is left in place.
PERFORMANCE TECHNIQUES
CLEARING WITH EQUIPMENT
Th e u s e of en gin eer equ ipmen t is t h e mos t
r apid an d efficien t met h od of clear in g. Th e
u s e of s u ch equ ipmen t is limit ed on ly by u n
u s u a lly la r ge t r ees , s t u mps , a n d t er r a in
t h a t decr ea s e t h e ma n eu ver a bilit y of t h e
equ ipmen t a n d in cr ea s e ma in t en a n ce r e-
qu ir emen t s . Th is t ype of equ ipmen t in -
clu des bu lldozer s ; t r ee-dozer , t r act or -
mou n t ed u n it s ; t r a ct or -mou n t ed clea r in g
u n it s ; win ch es ; power s aws ; r ipper s ; an d
mot or gr a der s . In a ddit ion , pion eer t ools
a r e u s ed for s ome clea r in g oper a t ion s .
Ta ble 4-2 s u mma r izes t h e limit a t ion s a n d
pr oper applicat ion s of en gin eer equ ipmen t
in clear in g oper at ion s . Us e pr odu ct ion
r a t es of equ ipmen t u n der n or ma l oper a t in g
con dit ion s for det er min in g t h e t ot a l t ime r e-
qu ir ed for t h e job. Clear in g r at es ar e dis -
cu s s ed in FM 5-434. Limit at ion s an d ap-
plica t ion s for ea ch t ype of equ ipmen t follow.
Bu l l d oz e r
Wh en clea r in g a n a r ea in dr y or t emper a t e
for es t s , t h e bu lldozer is t h e mos t efficien t
mech a n ica l equ ipmen t for r emovin g s ma ll
br u s h , t r ees , a n d s t u mps u p t o 6 in ch es in
dia met er . Alt h ou gh mor e t ime a n d effor t
ar e r equ ir ed, bu lldozer s can als o r emove
t r ees u p t o 30 in ch es in dia met er wh en t r a c-
t or -mou n t ed clea r in g u n it s a n d power s a ws
a r e n ot a va ila ble. Beca u s e of it s a bilit y t o
pu s h , move, an d s kid felled t r ees an d
br u s h , t h e bu lldozer is u s ed ext en s ively as
t h e pr ima r y u n it of equ ipmen t in a ll clea r -
in g oper a t ion s .
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table 4-2. Applications and limitations of engineer equipment in land clearing
Equipment
Bulldozer
Tree-dozer, tractor-mounted
unit (Rome Plow)
Tractor mounted
clearing unit
Winches (towing):
Tractor -mounted
Truck-mounted
Felling equipment:
Chain saw
Applications
Primary equipment for all land clearing.
-Excellent for removing brush, trees,
and stumps up to 6 inches in diameter.
Push, pull, or skid cleared material for disposal.
-Medium clearing of brush and trees at ground
level rather than uprooting.
For extensive clearing operations
requiring heavy pulling.
-Uproot trees and stumps of almost
unlimited diameters.
Skid cleared material for disposal.
Extrlcate mired equipment.
-Excellent for operation in jungles, swamps, and
bottom lands with heavy growth.
-For general light and medium pulling.
-Uproot trees and stumps up to 24 inches
in diameter.
Skid cleared material for disposal.
Extricate mired eqUipment.
-Expedient for light pulling of trees
up to 6 inches in diameter.
-Skid small trees and brush.
-Extricate mired eqUipment.
-Controlled felling of trees of almost
unlimited diameters.
-Saw timber for salvage.
-Rapid felling.
Limitations
-Trees over 6 inches in diameter require
special and slower methods of removal by
dozer.
-Maneuverability limited in muddy or
swampy terrain and in dense, heavy growth.:
-Skilled personnel required for cutting of
trees; other units required for completion
of clearing when burning is not permitted.
Skilled personnel required for rigging.
Slow in clearing an area; other units
required for speedy completion.
Not TOE.
.Pulling capacity limited by size of tractor.
Terrain affects maneuverability of tractor.
.Rigging personnel required.
-Terrain must be suitable for truck use.
.Pulling capacity too limited for most
operations.
-Other units required for uprooting
stumps and disposing 01 felled timber.
-Pneumatic saws are very dangerous
to use on steep, rugged ground.
Air hoses frequently are fouled and
broken by rolling logs and chunks.
Gasoline chain saws are far easier to
handle than the pneumatic ones
because there are no hoses 10 contend
with. They can be used in any type
of terrain with a reasonable degree of
safety if operated by skilled operators.
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table 4-2. Applications and limitations of engineer equipment in land clearing (continued)
Wh en clear in g wit h bu lldozer s , t h e s e-
qu en ce of oper at ion s depen ds on t h e t ype of
t r ees , t h e t er r a in , a n d pla n n ed con s t r u c-
t ion . Aft er es t a blis h in g t h e bou n da r ies of
t h e clear in g, s elect s poil ar eas for dis pos al
of a ll clea r ed ma t er ia l ba s ed on t h e s h or t es t
h au l, a down gr ade s lope, effect ive
camou flage, an d gen er al acces s ibilit y.
St a r t clea r in g a t t h e dis pos a l a r ea a n d
move in ea ch dir ect ion a wa y fr om it . Us e
on e or t wo dozer s t o clea r t h e s ma ll t r ees
a n d br u s h on ly. An ot h er pa ir of dozer s will
r emove t h e la r ger t r ees a n d s t u mps
bypas s ed by t h e pr eviou s u n it s . If n eces -
s a r y, a dd mor e dozer s for a t h ir d cycle of
oper a t ion t o t a ke ca r e of t h e h ea vies t
r emova ls .
Move t h e clea r ed ma t er ia l t o t h e s poil a r ea
by s kiddin g, pu s h in g, or pu llin g. Dis pos al
s h ou ld be don e wit h u pr oot in g a n d r emov-
in g. It is bes t t o h a ve a s epa r a t e cr ew a s -
s ign ed for dis pos al.
Mu lt iple oper at ion s ar e pos s ible wh en ot h er
t ypes of equ ipmen t a r e a va ila ble, u s in g
each t ype wh er e it is mos t effect ive. Us e
power s a ws , for exa mple, t o fell la r ge t r ees .
Us e clea r in g u n it s t o u pr oot la r ge s t u mps
an d wor k in ar eas in acces s ible t o dozer s .
Us e bu lldozer s t o clear , s t ockpile, an d dis -
pos e of ligh t ma t er ia l. Th e oper a t ion a l
met h ods u s ed by bu lldozer s in clear in g
depen d on t h e s ize of t h e t r ees . Th e
met h ods br iefly dis cu s s ed below ar e dis -
cu s s ed fu lly in FM 5-434.
Small Trees , 6 Inches or Les s in Diameter,
and Brus h. In clea r in g s ma ll t r ees a n d
br u s h , oper a t e t h e bu lldozer wit h t h e bla de
s t r a igh t a n d diggin g s ligh t ly. It ma y be
n eces s ar y t o back u p occas ion ally t o clear
t h e bla de. Th e clea r ed ma t er ia l ca n eit h er
be pu s h ed in t o win dr ows for la t er r emova l
or pu s h ed off t o on e s ide of t h e a r ea t o be
clear ed.
Medium Trees , 6 to 12 Inches in Diameter.
To pu s h over t r ees t h a t r a n ge fr om 6 t o 12
in ch es in dia met er , s et t h e bla de of t h e
bu lldozer as h igh as pos s ible t o gain added
lever age (Figu r e 4-1). As t h e t r ee falls , t h e
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
bu lldozer is backed u p qu ickly t o clear t h e
r oot s . Wit h t h e bla de lower ed, t h e dozer
t r a vels for wa r d a ga in a n d digs t h e r oot s
fr ee by lift in g t h e blade. Th e felled t r ee is
t h en r ea dy for r emova l t o t h e s poil a r ea s .
Large Trees . Removin g lar ge t r ees (over 12
in ch es in dia met er ) is mu ch s Iower a n d
mor e difficu lt t h a n clea r in g br u s h a n d
s ma ll t r ees . Fir s t , gen t ly a n d ca u t iou s ly
pr obe t h e t r ee for dea d limbs t h a t cou ld fa ll
an d in ju r e you . Th en , pos it ion t h e blade
h igh a n d cen t er it for ma ximu m lever a ge.
Det er min e t h e dir ect ion of fall befor e pu s h -
in g t h e t r ee over ; t h e dir ect ion of lea n , if
an y, is u s u ally t h e dir ect ion of fall, If pos -
s ible, pu s h t h e t r ee over t h e s a me a s you
wou ld a mediu m t r ee.
However , if t h e t r ee h as a lar ge, deeply em-
bedded r oot s ys t em, u s e t h e followin g
met h od (Figu r e 4-2, page 4-10):
St ep 1. Oppos it e t h e dir ect ion of fa ll, ma ke
a cu t deep en ou gh t o cu t s ome of t h e la r ge
r oot s . Us e a V-dit ch cu t a r ou n d t h e t r ee,
t ilt ed down wa r d la t er a lly t owa r d t h e t r ee
r oot s .
St ep 2. Cu t s ide t wo.
St ep 3. Cu t s ide t h r ee.
St ep 4. To obt ain gr eat er pu s h in g lever age,
bu ld a n ea r t h r a mp on t h e s a me s ide a s
t h e or igin a l cu t . Th en pu s h t h e t r ee over .
As t h e t r ee s t a r t s t o fa ll, r ever s e t h e t r a ct or
qu ickly t o get a wa y fr om t h e r is in g r oot
Figure 4-1. Bulldozer removing medium-sized trees, 6 to 12 inches in diameter
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 4-2. Four steps for removing large trees with a bulldozer
fellin g t h e t r ee, fill t h e s t u mp edge s h ear s t h em off at gr ou n d level. Th e
wa t er will n ot collect in it . oper a t or is pr ot ect ed by a s t eel ca n opy a n d
a gu ide ba r t h a t con t r ols t h e dir ect ion of
r oot s on t h e fou r t h s ide ma y fallin g t r ees .
ma s s . Aft er
h ole s o t h a t
NOTE: Th e
n e e d t o be c u t a ls o.
Th e t r ee-dozer is a s imple an d efficien t
Tr e e -Doze r , Tr a c t or -Mou n t e d Un i t piece of equ ipmen t u s ed for milit a r y la n d-
Th e t r ee-dozer , or Rome plow, is a t r a ct or
clea r in g oper a t ion s . It does n ot appr eciably
wit h a bla de t h a t s tings a n d s lices la r ge
dis t u r b t h e s oil. It pr ovides
t r ees . A s h a r p pr oject ion on t h e left s ide of
t h e bla de s plit s t h e t r ees , wh ile t h e cu t t in g
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Clear fields of fir e an d s ecu r it y ar ou n d
ca n t on men t s , a ir fields , a n d ot h er
facilit ies .
Righ t -of-wa y clea r a n ce t o des ir ed
dept h s a lon g r oa ds a n d r a ilr oa ds , t h er e-
by r edu cin g t h e en emys capabilit y of
a mbu s h .
Befor e commit t in g a t r a ct or equ ipped wit h
t h e t r ee-dozer mou n t in g, in ves t iga t e t h e s oil
con dit ion in t h e a r ea of oper a t ion t o det er -
min e if it will s u ppor t t h e equ ipmen t . Us e
t h e t r ee-dozer mou n t in g t o ma ke cu t s
t h r ou gh a n y kin d of for es t except h ea vy
s wa mpla n d. Sh ea r t r ees a t gr ou n d level,
s weep t h em in t o piles or win dr ows , an d dis -
pos e of t h em. On e t r a ct or equ ipped wit h a
t r ee-dozer mou n t in g ca n clea r a ppr oxima t e-
ly 1 t o 2 acr es per h ou r , depen din g on t h e
t r ee den s it y an d s ize. Us e on e of t h e follow-
in g clea r in g met h ods :
Wh en t h e t r a ct or ca n move for wa r d a l-
mos t con t in u ou s ly, it s h ea r s t o gr ou n d
level a n yt h in g in it s pa t h , Fa s t pr odu c-
t ion ca n be obt a in ed by la yin g ou t lon g
ar eas (200 t o 400 feet wide) t h at can be
cu t fr om t h e ou t s ide t owa r d t h e cen t er
in a cou n t er clockwis e dir ect ion . Th e
cu t ma t er ia l t h en s lides off t h e t r a ilin g
(r igh t ) en d of t h e t r ee-dozer mou n t in g
a n d lea ves t h e u n cu t a r ea fr ee of fa llen
debr is . Th e win dr ows ar e placed
len gt h wis e on t h e bor der s of t h e a r ea s .
Pilin g is don e by s weepin g wit h t h e t r ee-
dozer mou n t in g. Sweep a blade widt h
a t a t ime. Wor k fr om t h e cen t er of ea ch
a r ea , a t a r igh t a n gle t o t h e bor der (Fig-
u r e 4-3).
An ot h er met h od is s h own in Figu r e 4-4,
page 4-12. Again , lon g ar eas ar e laid
ou t in 200- t o 400-foot widt h s , bu t t h e
cu t t in g is don e fr om t h e cen t er t owa r d
t h e s ides in a clockwis e dir ect ion . Th is
a llows t h e cu t ma t er ia l t o fa ll t owa r d
t h e cen t er , wh ich becomes t h e win dr ow
s it e. Th e pilin g is don e wit h t h e t r ee-
dozer mou n t in g, followin g t h e pa t t er n
ou t lin ed on t h e r igh t s ide of Figu r e 4-4.
Wh en win dr owin g, t h e oper at or keeps
t h e cu t t in g edge on t h e gr ou n d wh ile
pu s h in g in t o t h e win dr ow a n d r a is es it
Figure 4-3. Cutting vegetation to ground level and piling cut material
using the counterclockwise method
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
4- 12
Figure 4-4. Cutting vegetation to ground level and piling cut material
using the clockwise method
wh en backin g away. Th is allows ac-
cu mu la t ed s oil t o s ift a wa y a n d les s en s
s oil depos it s in t h e win dr ow.
On ext r eme s lopes , r apid pr odu ct ion is
obt ain ed by wor kin g in a s emicir cu lar
pa t t er n , fr om left t o r igh t , a t a ppr oxi-
ma t ely r igh t a n gles t o t h e win dr ow (Fig-
u r e 4-5). If t h e t er r ain is s t eep, t h e
Clearing, Grubbing, and Stripping
win dr ows s h ou ld be on t h e con t ou r ,
a n d t h e t r a ct or s h ou ld wor k fr om t h e
u ph ill s ide an d pu s h down h ill t o t h e
win dr ow.
Wh er e t h e veget at ion is den s e an d
s ma ll, t h e h igh es t pr odu ct ion ca n be ob-
t a in ed by cu t t in g a n d win dr owin g s imu l-
t a n eou s ly. Wor k fr om left t o r igh t a t a
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 4-5. Clearing on steep slopes covered with large trees
90-degr ee an gle t o t h e win dr ow, wit h
t h e t r a ilin g edge of t h e t r ee-dozer wor k-
in g a ga in s t t h e u n cu t ma t er ia l. Th is
pr even t s cu t ma t er ia l fr om s lidin g off
t h e moldboa r d a n d a llows t h e cu t
ma t er ia l t o a ccu mu la t e on t h e
mold boa r d.
Wh en t h e moldboar d is filled, t h e oper at or
s h ou ld s t op t h e t r a ct or a n d depos it t h e cu t
ma t er ia l. Th e oper a t or s h ou ld t h en r ever s e
t o t h e s t a r t in g poin t a n d r epea t t h e oper a -
t ion t o t h e r igh t (Figu r e 4-6, page 4-14),
r edu cin g t h e t ime los t in backin g u p. Wh en
t h e t r a ct or r ea ch es t h e pr eviou s ly cu t
ma t er ia l, t h e oper a t or s h ou ld depos it cu t
ma t er ia l a n d for m a n ot h er win dr ow.
Th e a r ea of veget a t ion s h ou ld be la id ou t a s
s h own in Figu r e 4-6, wit h t h e oper a t or
wor kin g in pa t ch es , fr om in s ide t o ou t s ide
in a cou n t er clockwis e dir ect ion a n d a t r igh t
a n gles t o t h e win dr ows . Sweepin g a n d
pilin g t h e r es u lt in g debr is can be accom-
plis h ed mu ch fa s t er wh en t r a ct or s a r e u s ed
in t ea ms t r a velin g a br ea s t .
Wi n c h e s
Towin g win ch es mou n t ed on t r a ct or -dozer
u n it s or t r u cks a r e limit ed in u s e for clea r -
in g oper a t ion s beca u s e of t h eir s ma ll
ca pa cit ies in compa r is on wit h t h e t r ee- a n d
s t u mp-pu llin g u n it s .
Tractor-Mounted Winch. Us e t r a ct or -
mou n t ed win ch es for u pr oot in g t r ees a n d
s t u mps u p t o 24 in ch es in dia met er .
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 4-6. Cutting and piling dense growths of small-diameter vegetation on level terrain
h ois t in g an d s kiddin g felled t r ees , an d ex-
t r ica t in g mir ed equ ipmen t . On t h e t r a ct or -
dozer u n it , t h e win ch is mou n t ed in t h e
r ea r a n d is dir ect ly gea r ed t o t h e r ea r
power t a ke-off on t h e t r a ct or . Th e lin e pu ll
developed va r ies wit h t h e s ize of t h e t r a ct or ,
t h e s peed at wh ich t h e win ch is oper at ed,
a n d t h e n u mber of la yer s of r ope on t h e
dr u m. Th e lin e pu ll of a t r a ct or -mou n t ed
win ch is on ly a bou t on e-h a lf t h e pu ll of a
s t a n da r d t r ee- a n d s t u mp-pu llin g u n it .
Truck -Mounted Winch. As an expedien t ,
t r u ck-mou n t ed win ch es can be u s ed on
t r ees u p t o 6 in ch es in diamet er . Th eir
ca pa cit ies a r e t oo limit ed for h ea vy wor k.
Th eir bes t u s e is for s kiddin g felled t r ees
a n d logs t o a dis pos a l a r ea , if t h e h a u l r oa d
is s u fficien t ly clear ed for t r u cks t o oper at e.
Fe lli n g Equ i pme n t
Fellin g can be don e wit h h an d t ools or
power equ ipmen t . Axes , t wo-ma n s a ws ,
s h ovels , pick-ma t t ocks , a n d ma ch et es a r e
u s ed t o ch op or s a w down s t a n din g t imber ;
dig a n d u pr oot s t u mps : a n d s la s h gr a s s ,
vin es , an d u n der gr owt h . Clear in g by h an d
is u s u a lly t oo s low a n d difficu lt for milit a r y
r equ ir emen t s u n les s explos ives or mech an i-
cal met h ods ar e u s ed. Wh en labor is
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
plen t ifu l, for es t s ar e den s e, an d t er r ain is
r ou gh , t h is met h od of clea r in g ca n be u s ed
wit h good r es u lt s . Power equ ipmen t a n d
ch ain an d cir cu lar s aws ar e t h e pr in cipal
ways of fellin g limber .
Ri p p e r
In lan d clear in g, t h e r ipper is u s ed t o h elp
in t h e r emova l oper a t ion s of bu lldozer s a n d
t r ee- an d s t u mp-pu llin g u n it s . Th e r ipper
cu t s a n d br ea ks t r ee r oot s a n d loos en s
bou lder s fr om t h e gr ou n d. Th e s h or t dept h
of s h a n k pen et r a t ion limit s it s u s e t o s h a l-
low r oot s ys t ems . Pr ior t o s t r ippin g oper a -
t ion s , t h e r ipper is u s ed t o loos en an d
br ea k u p fr ozen s oil or or ga n ic ma t er ia l for
eas ier r emoval by gr ader s or s cr aper s .
Gr a de r
Th e gr ader is u s ed 10 cu t gr as s an d weeds ,
r emove s ma ll br u s h , a n d clea r t h e a r ea of
dea d veget a t ion . Th e t er r ain mu s t be level
an d fr ee fr om bou lder s an d t r ees . Us ed
wit h r ipper s an d bu lldozer s , gr ader s can
win dr ow t h e clea r ed ma t er ia l for la t er
r emova l by ot h er equ ipmen t . Th e gr a der is
ext r emely limit ed in mos t clea r in g oper a -
t ion s .
CLEARING WITH EXPLOSIVES
Explos ives may bc u s ed t o fell s t an din g
t r ees , u pr oot en t ir e t r ees a n d s t u mps , a n d
r emove an d dis pos e of lar ge bou lder s . Ex-
plos ives , h owever , h ave s ever al dis advan -
t ages . Th e s ou n d of t h e explos ive can
t r a vel fa r t h er t h a n t h e s ou n d of t h e con -
s t r u ct ion equ ipmen t . In loos e s oil, t h e in i-
t ia l ch a r ge ma y be en t ir ely a expen ded in com-
pa ct in g t h e s oil u n der a t r ee or s t u mp, a n d
a s econ d ch a r ge ma y be r equ ir ed t o r emove
it . Deep t a pr oot s oft en a r e on ly br oken by
explos ives an d h ave t o be r emoved by h an d.
Als o, explos ives gen er ally t ake t ime t o place
a n d t h ey cr ea t e la r ge cr a t er s , wh ich r equ ir e
bor r ow exca va t ion a n d compa ct ion t o ba ck-
fill. In s pit e of t h es e dis advan t ages , it is
s t ill s omet imes n eces s ar y t o u s e explos ives
t o clea r a n a r ea wh er e t h e t er r a in pr eclu des
or s er iou s ly impedes t h e oper at ion of h eavy
equ ipmen t . Refer t o FM 5-250 for t h e cor -
r ect applicat ion of explos ives an d demoli-
t ion s .
Tr e e s a n d St u mps
Met h ods of t r ee a n d s t u mp bla s t in g va r y
wit h t h e s ize a n d con dit ion of t h e t r ee, r oot
s t r u ct u r e, a n d gr ou n d con dit ion s , Figu r e
4-7, page 4-16, s h ows t h e met h ods of plac-
in g ch a r ges t o bla s t s t u mps wit h differ en t
r oot s t r u ct u r es . Table 4-1, page 4-3, s h ows
t h e t ype of r oot s ys t em for s ever a l t r ee
s pecies in t emper at e for es t s .
Th e s ize of t h e ch ar ge r equ ir ed depen ds on
t h e s t r en gt h of t h e explos ive a va ila ble; t h e
s ize, va r iet y, a n d a ge of t h e t r ee or s t u mp;
an d s oil con dit ion s .
Va r iou s t ypes of t ools (s u ch a s pin ch ba r s ,
ear t h au ger s , an d s poon s ) can be u s ed
wh en dr illin g h oles for t h e ch ar ge. Wood
augers can be used for taproots. For load-
ing a n d t a mpin g, a n y s moot h , wooden pole
abou t 5 feet lon g an d 1 1/ 2 in ch es in
dia met er ca n be u s ed. Th e h a n dle fr om a
lon g-h an dled s h ovel is excellen t becau s e t h e
cr ook of t h e blade en d pr ovides a good gr ip.
All h oles mu s t be t a mped fir mly wit h ea r t h
t o r et a in t h e fu ll for ce of t h e explos ion .
Bou ld e r s
Wh en bou lder s can n ot be u s ed in an em-
ba n kmen t or fill, t h ey mu s t be r emoved
fr om t h e con s t r u ct ion a r ea . Bla s t in g is a
qu ick an d eas y met h od of dis lodgin g
bou lder s . Mu dcappin g, blockh olin g, or
s n akeh olin g (des cr ibed in Ch apt er 3 of FM
5-250 or Ch apt er 6 of FM 5-34) may be
u s ed. Refer t o Ch apt er 3 of TM 5-332 for
qu a n t it ies a n d t ypes of explos ives t o be
u s ed an d det ails r egar din g blas t in g r ock.
REMOVAL OF SURFACE ROCKS
All s u r face r ocks mu s t be r emoved in cer -
t a in t ypes of con s t r u ct ion . Th er e a r e t h r ee
met h ods u s ed in t h is oper a t ion : h a n d,
bu lldozer s , an d cr an es or s coop loader s
wit h t r u cks . Th e ch oice of met h od depen ds
u pon t h e s it u a t ion .
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 4-7. Stump-blasting methods for different root structures
Ha n d
Wh en t h er e is s u fficien t t ime an d per s on -
n el, r ocks ar e picked u p an d loaded in t o
h a u lin g u n it s by h a n d. Th is s low met h od
is u s ed in milit a r y con s t r u ct ion on ly a s a n
expedien t .
Bu l l d oz e r
Th e bu lldozer is t h e mos t common ly u s ed
en gin eer equ ipmen t for movin g r ocks t o a
fill or dis pos al ar ea. Th e r ocks may be
win dr owed by dozer s for la t er r emova l by
s cr aper s or s h ovels an d t r u cks . If t h e dis -
t a n ce is s h or t , t h ey ma y be pu s h ed by
dozer s t o t h e des ign a t ed dis pos a l a r ea .
Cr a n e s or Sc oop Loa de r s wit h Tr u c k s
Clea r in g s u r fa ce r ock by t h is met h od a lon e
is pos s ible, bu t it is s low. If t h e r ocks ar e
fir s t win dr owed or moved in t o piles by
bu lldozer s or gr ader s , t h e s h ovel will load
t h e t r u cks qu ickly an d efficien t ly. Th e
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
r ocks can t h en be h au led lon g dis t an ces for
dis pos al.
STRIPPING
St r ippin g con s is t s of r emovin g an d dis pos -
in g of t h e t ops oil a n d s od t h a t ca n n ot be
u s ed a s a s u bgr a de, fou n da t ion u n der a fill,
or bor r ow ma t er ia l. Exa mples of t h is
ma t er ia l a r e or ga n ic s oils , h u mu s , pea t ,
a n d mu ck, Un s u it a ble s oil mu s t be
r emoved t o a dept h a t wh ich compa ct ion
a n d t h ickn es s r equ ir emen t s a r e s a t is fied.
St r ippin g is don e con cu r r en t ly wit h clear in g
an d gr u bbin g by u s in g bu lldozer s , gr ader s ,
s cr aper s , an d s omet imes s h ovels , Good t op-
s oil an d s od s h ou ld be s t ockpiled for lat er
u s e on ba r e a r ea s for du s t or er os ion con -
t r ol or for ca mou fla ge.
REMOVAL OF STRUCTURES
An a ir field con s t r u ct ion s it e ma y be a ccept -
a ble except for obs t r u ct ion s s u ch a s
h ou s es , r ailr oads , power lin es , an d ot h er
s t r u ct u r es on t h e pr opos ed s it e or n ea r t h e
oper a t ion of a ir cr a ft . Th e pr ima r y s elect ion
of a s it e always in volves compr omis es , Th e
s u r vey pa r t y oft en s elect s a s it e wh er e
limit ed clear in g of s t r u ct u r es will be n eces -
s ar y befor e fu ll-s cale oper at ion s can t ake
place.
Powe r Lin e s
Power lin es obs t r u ct in g for wa r d a r ea con -
s t r u ct ion or glide an gles s h ou ld be r emov-
ed. In r ar e in s t an ces , t h e lin es may be
n eeded in t a ct a n d a differ en t a ppr oa ch t o
t h e air field mu s t be u s ed. If t h e lin es cr os s
t h e r u n wa y, r eloca t e t h em a r ou n d t h e
n ea r es t en d of t h e r u n wa y. As a la s t
r es or t , u n der gr ou n d in s t a lla t ion ma y be
u s ed if ar mor ed u n der gr ou n d cable or con -
du it is a va ila ble t h a t will a dequ a t ely in s u -
la t e t h e lin es , In r ea r a r ea s , power lin es
t h a t a r e n ot in a n a ppr oa ch zon e or n ot
h igh en ou gh t o ext en d in t o t h e glide a n gle
wh en loca t ed in a n a ppr oa ch zon e ma y be
ma r ked wit h s u it a ble wa r n in g ligh t s .
Roa ds a n d Ra ilr oa ds
In gen er a l, r oa ds a n d r a ilr oa ds pr es en t n o
obs t r u ct ion s wh en locat ed n ear air fields , if
t h e t r a ffic does n ot in t er fer e wit h t h e a p-
pr oa ch or t a keoff of a ir cr a ft . Do n ot des -
t r oy ma in pa ved h igh wa ys a n d r a ilr oa d
lin es becau s e t h ey may be r equ ir ed for
gr ou n d oper a t ion s . It is des ir able t o h ave
t h e a ir field loca t ed n ea r a good r oa d or r a il-
r oad s o s u pplies may be r eadily t r an s por t ed
t o t h e s it e.
Bu i l d i n gs
Bu ildin gs may be complet ely r azed wit h ex-
plos ives or h eavy equ ipmen t , leavin g n o s al-
va ge. Th ey ma y be r a zed in a ma n n er t o
con s er ve u s a ble ma t er ia l, or t h ey ma y be
r elocat ed.
REMOVAL OF BURIED EXPLOSIVES
Min es , booby t r aps , u n exploded or dn an ce
(UXO), an d ot h er bu r ied explos ives mu s t be
loca t ed a n d r emoved or n eu t r a lized befor e
a n y con s t r u ct ion oper a t ion s begin . Ch eck
a ll r epor t s a n d da t a on a n a r ea t o loca t e
an d iden t ify explos ives .
Es t a blis h t h e bou n da r ies of t h e con s t r u c-
t ion a r ea fir s t , t h en ma ke a vis u a l s ea r ch of
t h e mos t likely places for explos ives . Th ey
a r e u s u a lly n ea r exis t in g s t r u ct u r es ,
h ou s es , an d r oads ; in dis t u r bed gr ou n d h ol-
lows wh er e t h e ear t h h as vis ibly s et t led;
an d u n der s t ockpiles , picket s , or s t akes
pla ced in u n n a t u r a l loca t ion s . If t ime a l-
lows , t h or ou gh ly in ves t iga t e t h e a r ea wit h
min e det ect or s or by pr obin g met h ods .
Th e s afet y of per s on n el an d equ ipmen t is
pr ima r y a t a ll t imes du r in g t h e r emova l of
min es . Th e s peed of clear an ce is s econ -
dar y, Wh en ever pos s ible, u s e t r ain ed ex-
plos ive or dn an ce dis pos al (EOD) det ach -
men t s , pa r t icu la r ly wh en t h e s ize of bombs
pr eclu des det on at ion in place.
Th e met h od of min e a n d UXO r emova l is a
comma n d decis ion . For min efield wit h
booby t r aps or ot h er an t ih an dlin g devices ,
it is bes t t o des t r oy t h e min es in place by
explos ives or mech an ical mean s . UXOs
may be dis ar med by or dn an ce per s on n el
a n d t h en ma n u a lly r emoved fr om t h e a r ea
an d dis pos ed. If or dn an ce per s on n el ar e
n ot available, des t r oy t h e device in place.
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Su r fa ce min es or bomblet s ma y be a ble t o be filled an d compact ed wit h accept able
be pu s h ed fr om a n a r ea by u s in g a dr a g ma t er ia l, u s in g dozer s or gr a der s . For a ddi-
ch ain or dozer . If devices ar e des t r oyed in t ion a l in for ma t ion , s ee FM 5-434.
pla ce, a ll r es u lt in g h oles a n d cr a t er s mu s t
5
Subgrades and Base Courses Design Considerations
Subgrades
Select Materials and Subbase Courses Base Course
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
SUBGRADES AND
BASE COURSES
Th is ch a pt e r d is cu s s e s t h e f u n ct ion s of t h e s u bgra d e , s u bba s e ,
a n d ba s e cou rs e s a n d cov e rs t h e s e le ct ion s of ma t e ria ls a n d
con s t ru ct ion p roce d u re s . Ch a p t e rs 8 a n d 9 of t h is m a n u a l
d is cus s the d etermination of the bas e- and s urface-cours e thick -
n e s s f or roa d s . Ch a pt e rs 1 1 a n d 1 2 of FM 5 -4 3 0 -0 0 -2 / AFPAM
3 2 -8 0 1 3 , Vol 2 , in clu d e s im ila r in f orm a t ion f or a ll cla s s e s of
a irf ie ld s a n d h e liport s a s w e ll a s a ll common ly u s e d t y pe s OJ
s u rf a ce ma t e ria ls . Ad d it ion a l in f orma t ion on s oils , compa ct ion ,
a n d Ca lif orn ia Be a rin g Ra t io (CBR) re qu ire m e n t s is con t a in e d
in Chapters 2, 6, and 10 of FM 5-410 and in Chapter 2 of FM
5 -5 3 0 .
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Pa vemen t s t r u ct u r es ma y be r igid or
flexible. In r igid pavemen t s , t h e wear in g
s u r fa ce is ma de of por t la n d cemen t con -
cr et e. A r igid pa vemen t ma de of con cr et e
will h a ve gr ea t flexu r a l s t r en gt h , per mit t in g
it t o a ct a s a bea m a n d a llowin g it t o br idge
over min or ir r egu la r it ies t h a t ma y occu r in
t h e ba s e or t h e s u bgr a de u pon wh ich it
r es t s .
All ot h er t ypes of pavemen t s ar e clas s ified
as flexible. In a flexible pavemen t , an y dis -
t or t ion or dis pla cemen t occu r r in g in t h e
s u bgr ade is r eflect ed in t h e bas e cou r s e
a n d con t in u es u pwa r d in t o t h e s u r fa ce
cou r s e. Flexible den ot es t h e t en den cy of all
cou r s es in ibis t ype of s t r u ct u r e t o con for m
t o t h e s a me s h a pe u n der t r a ffic.
Flexible pavemen t s ar e u s ed almos t ex-
clu s ively in t h e TO for r oa d a n d r ea r a r ea
a ir field con s t r u ct ion . Th ey a r e a da pt a ble t o
a lmos t a n y s it u a t ion , a n d t h ey fa ll wit h in
t h e con s t r u ct ion ca pa bilit ies of t h e comba t
h ea vy en gin eer ba t t a lion a n d it s s u ppor t
units. Rigid
s u it ed t o TO
pavements are generally not
con s t r u ct ion r equ ir emen t s (u n -
les s t h e ma t er ia ls a r e mor e r ea dily a va il-
able) an d ar e n ot dis cu s s ed in det ail in t h is
ch a pt er .
FLEXIBLE-PAVEMENT STRUCTURE
A t ypica l flexible-pa vemen t s t r u ct u r e is
s h own in Figu r e 5-1, page 5-2. It il-
lu s t r a t es t h e t er ms u s ed in t h is ma n u a l
t h a t r efer t o t h e va r iou s la yer s . All t h e
layer s s h own in Figu r e 5-1 ar e n ot pr es en t
in ever y flexible pavemen t . For example, a
flexible-pa vemen t s t r u ct u r e ma y con s is t
on ly of a n a s ph a lt ic-con cr et e s u r fa ce, a
bas e cou r s e, an d t h e s u bgr ade. Th e des ign
of flexible pa vemen t s mu s t in clu de a
t h or ou gh in ves t iga t ion of t h e s u bgr a de con -
dit ion s ; bor r ow ar eas ; an d s ou r ces of s elect ,
s u bba s e, a n d ba s e ma t er ia ls .
TESTS
En gin eer s s h ou ld clas s ify s oils accor din g t o
Ch apt er 2 of FM 5-410, an d t h en s elect r ep-
r es en t a t ive s a mples for det a iled t es t s .
Det a iled t es t s det er min e compa ct ion ch a r a c-
t er is t ics , CBR valu es , an d ot h er pr oper t ies
Subgrades and Base Courses 5-1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 5-1. Typical flexible-pavement section
n eeded for des ign in g t h e flexible-pavemen t DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS
s t r u ct u r e. Su bba s e-a n d ba s e-cou r s e
ma t er ia ls a r e t es t ed for complia n ce wit h
s pecifica t ion r equ ir emen t s for gr a da t ion , liq-
u id limit (LL), pla s t icit y in dex (PI). a n d CBR
valu es . Wh en t es t s a r c complet ed, limit in g
con dit ion s in t h e s u bgr ade an d s u bs oil
mu s t be det er min ed. Ma t er ia ls a r e s elect ed
for ea ch la yer ba s ed on t h eir ch a r a ct er is t ics
(gr a da t ion , LL, PI. a n d CBR va lu es ).
Flexible-pavemen t des ign is bas ed on t h e
pr in ciple t h a t t h e ma gn it u de of s t r es s in -
du ced by a wh eel load decr eas es wit h dept h
below t h e s u r fa ce. Con s equ en t ly, t h e s t r es -
s es in du ced on a given s u bgr ade mat er ial
can be decr eas ed by in cr eas in g t h e t h ick-
n es s of t h e over lyin g layer s (s u bbas e, bas e,
an d s u r face cou r s es ). Figu r e 5-2 s h ows t h e
dis t r ibu t ion of a s in gle-wh eel loa d on t wo
5-2 Subgrades and Base Courses
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 5-2. Distribution of pressures under single-wheel loads
s ect ion s of flexible pa vemen t . on e wit h a
t h ick a n d on e wit h a t h in flexible-pa vemen t
s t r u ct u r e. In bot h ca s es , t h e s u bgr a de is
t h e fou n d a t ion t h a t even t u a lly ca r r ies a n y
load applied at t h e s u r face. Figu r e 5-2
demon s t r a t es t h a t t h e ma gn it u de of t h e
s t r es s es on t h e s u bgr ade decr eas es as t h e
flexible-pavemen t s t r u ct u r e is t h icken ed. In
t h e left diagr am in Figu r e 5-2, t h e flexible-
pa vemen t s t r u ct u r e is t h ick, t h e loa d a t t h e
s u bgr ade level is s pr ead over a wide ar ea,
a n d t h e s t r es s es on t h e s u bgr a de a r c low.
In t h e r igh t dia gr a m t h e s t r u ct u r e is t h in ,
t h e load at t h e s u bgr ade level is con fin ed t o
a mu ch s ma ller a r ea , a n d t h e s t r es s es on
t h e s u bgr ade level ar e s ign ifican t ly h igh er .
Th e pat t er n of decr eas in g s t r es s es wit h in -
cr eas in g dept h is t h e bas is of t h e con ven -
t ion al flexible-pavemen t des ign in wh ich
s u bgr a de ma t er ia ls of low-bea r in g ca pa cit y
ar c cover ed wit h t h ick flexible-pavemen t
s t r u ct u r es .
Th e dis t r ibu t ion of pr es s u r es u n der a mu lt i-
ple-wh eel as s embly is s h own in Figu r e 5-3,
page 5-4. Mu lt iple-wh eel as s emblies ar e
ben eficial becau s e t h e s t r es s dis t r ibu t ion s
pr odu ced by t h e t ir es do n ot over la p t o a
lar ge degr ee at s h allow dept h s . Th is is il-
lu s t r at ed at lin e A-A in Figu r e 5-3. Th er e-
for e, mu lt iple-wh eel as s emblies ar e ben efi-
cia l on t h in , flexible- pa vemen t s t r u ct u r es
con s t r u ct ed on s u bgr ades wit h h igh -bear in g
ca pa cit y.
Th e in t en s it y of s t r es s a t a given poin t in a
flexible pavemen t is affect ed by t h e t ir e-con -
t a ct a r ea a n d t ir e pr es s u r e. Th e ma jor dif-
fer en ce in s t r es s in t en s it ies cau s ed by var ia-
t ion in t ir e pr es s u r e occu r s n ea r t h e s u r -
fa ce. Con s equ en t ly, t h e s u r fa ce cou r s e
(pavemen t or a well-gr aded cr u s h ed ag-
gr ega t e) a n d ba s e cou r s e a r c t h e mos t
s er iou s ly affect ed by h igh t ir e pr es s u r es .
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 5-3. Distribution of pressures produced by muitiple-wheel assemblies
SUBGRADES
Us in g in for ma t ion fr om a deliber a t e s oil s u r -
vey as ou t lin ed in Ch apt er 2 of FM 5-530,
con s ider t h e followin g fact or s wh en det er -
min in g t h e s u it a bilit y of a s u bgr a de:
Gen er a l ch a r a ct er is t ics of t h e s u bgr a de
s oils .
Dept h t o bedr ock.
Dept h t o t h e wa t er t a ble.
Compa ct ion t h a t ca n be a t t a in ed in t h e
s u bgr ade.
CBR va lu es of u n compa ct ed a n d com-
pact ed s u bgr ades .
Pr es en ce of weak or s oft layer s or or -
gan ics in t h e s u bs oil.
Su s cept ibilit y t o det r imen t a l fr os t a ct ion
or exces s ive s well.
GRADE LINE
Clas s ify t h e s u bgr ade s oil in accor dan ce
wit h t h e Un ified Soil Cla s s ifica t ion Sys t em
(USCS) (as des cr ibed in FM 5-410) an d con -
s ider t h e pr eviou s ly lis t ed fact or s t o det er -
min e t h e s u it a bilit y of a s u bgr a de ma t er ia l.
Wh en loca t in g t h e gr a de lin e of a r oa d or
air field, con s ider t h e s u it abilit y of t h e s u b-
gr a de, t h e dept h t o t h e wa t er t a ble, a n d t h e
dept h t o bedr ock. Gen er ally, t h e gr ade lin e
s h ou ld be es t ablis h ed t o obt ain t h e bes t
pos s ible s u bgr a de ma t er ia l con s is t en t wit h
t h e des ign pa r a met er s . However , s implicit y
of con s t r u ct ion mu s t a ls o be con s ider ed.
COMPACTION
Compa ct ion n or ma lly in cr ea s es t h e s t r en gt h
of s u bgr ade s oils , Th e n or mal pr ocedu r e is
t o s pecify compa ct ion a ccor din g t o t h e r e-
qu ir emen t s in Figu r e 5-4. A s pecificat ion
block s h ou ld be u s ed t o det er min e limit s
for den s it y a n d mois t u r e con t en t .
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 5-4. Recommended compaction requirements
for rear areas
Compact ion is r elat ively s imple in fill s ec-
Specific r equ ir emen t s for min imu m dept h of
t ion s becau s e all t h e layer s ar e s u bject ed t o
s u bgr a de compa ct ion for bot h coh es ive a n d
con s t r u ct ion pr oces s es an d can be com-
coh es ion les s s oils for r oad des ign s ar e de-
pa ct ed du r in g con s t r u ct ion . Compa ct ion is
s cr ibed in Ch apt er 9 of t h is FM. Th is s ame
mor e difficu lt in cu t s ect ion s . Compa ct ion in for mat ion for air field des ign s is des cr ibed
mu s t be obt a in ed du r in g con s t r u ct ion t o a
in Ch apt er 12 of FM 5-430-00-2/ AFPAM 32-
dept h a t wh ich t h e n a t u r a l den s it y of t h e
8013, Vol 2.
ma t er ia l will r es is t fu r t h er con s olida t ion u n -
der t r a ffic.
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
SUBGRADE COMPACTIONNORMAL
CASES
Coh es ion les s s oils (except s ilt s ) can be com-
pa ct ed fr om t h e s u r fa ce wit h h ea vy r oller s
or ver y h ea vy vibr a t or y compa ct or s . Coh e-
s ive s oils [in clu din g s ilt s ) can n ot be com-
pa ct ed in t h ick la yer s . In cu t a r ea s con s is t -
in g of coh es ive s oils , it may be n eces s ar y t o
r emove t h e s u bgr a de ma t er ia l a n d r epla ce it
wit h s equ en t ia l lift s ca pa ble of bein g com-
pa ct ed t o t h e r equ ir ed den s it y. As a r u le of
t h u mb, in it ia lly r epla ce ma t er ia l in 6-in ch
lift s , t h en a dju s t t h e lift t h ickn es s u p or
down , a s n eces s a r y, t o det er min e t h e min i-
mu m compa ct ive effor t . Compa ct ion of co-
h es ive s oil is bes t ach ieved wit h pen et r at in g
r oller s s u ch a s t a mpin g or s h eeps foot .
Compa r e t h e s u bs oil wit h compa ct ion r e-
qu ir emen t s for t h e s u bgr ade (as des cr ibed
in Ch a pt er 9 of t h is FM a n d Ch a pt er 12 of
FM 5-430-00-2/ AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 2) t o
det er min e if con s olidat ion of t h e s u bs oil is
likely t o occu r u n der t h e des ign t r affic load.
If s u ch con s olidat ion is likely t o occu r , pr o-
vide a mea n s for compa ct in g t h e s u bs oil or
des ign a t h icker flexible-pavemen t s t r u ct u r e
t o pr even t s u bs oil con s olidat ion .
Coh es ive mat er ials , in clu din g t h os e of r ela-
t ively low plas t icit y s h owin g lit t le s well,
s h ou ld be compa ct ed a t t h e opt imu m mois -
t u r e con t en t det er min ed fr om t h e den s it y-
mois t u r e cu r ves developed for t h at s oil u s -
in g t h e 55-blows -per -layer compact ive effor t
(CE 55) t es t . CE 55 may als o be des ig-
n a t ed for ASTM 1557, t h e Amer ica n Societ y
of Tes t in g an d Mat er ials code for den s it y-
moisture curves. Co h e s i o n l e s s , fr e e - d r a i n -
in g ma t er ia ls s h ou ld be compa ct ed a t mois -
t u r e con t en t s a ppr oa ch in g s a t u r a t ion .
SUBGRADE COMPACTIONSPECIAL
CASES
Alt h ou gh compa ct ion n or ma lly in cr ea s es
t h e s t r en gt h of s oils , s ome s oils los e s t abil-
it y wh en s car ified an d r olled. Some s oils
s h r in k exces s ively du r in g dr y per iods an d
expan d exces s ively wh en t h ey abs or b mois -
t u r e. Specia l t r ea t men t is r equ ir ed wh en
t h es e s oils ar e en cou n t er ed. Th e followin g
par agr aph s des cr ibe t h e s oils in wh ich
t h es e con dit ion s ma y occu r a n d s u gges t ed
met h ods of t r ea t men t .
Soils Th a t Los e St r e n gt h
Th e t ypes of s oils t h a t decr ea s e in s t r en gt h
wh en r emolded ar e gen er ally in t h e USCS
CH, MH, a n d OH gr ou ps . Th ey a r e s oils
t h a t h a ve been con s olida t ed t o a ver y h igh
degr ee, eit h er u n der an over bu r den ed load
by a lt er n a t e cycles of wet t in g a n d dr yin g or
by ot h er mean s , an d t h ey h ave developed a
defin it e s t r u ct u r e. Th ey h a ve a t t a in ed a
h igh s t r en gt h in t h e u n dis t u r bed s t a t e.
Scar ifyin g, r ewor kin g, an d r ollin g t h es e
s oils in cu t ar eas may r edu ce t h e s oils load-
bea r in g ca pa cit y.
Wh en t h es e s oils ar e en cou n t er ed, obt ain
CBR va lu es for t h e s oil in bot h t h e u n dis -
t u r bed a n d dis t u r bed con dit ion s . Compa ct
t h e s oil t h a t is r emoved t o t h e des ign den -
s it y a t t h e des ign mois t u r e con t en t . Ot h er
s amples s h ou ld be compact ed t o t h e des ign
den s it y acr os s t h e r an ge of s pecified mois -
t u r e con t en t s . If t h e u n dis t u r bed va lu e is
h igh er t h a n t h e la bor a t or y t es t r es u lt s , n o
compa ct ion s h ou ld be a t t empt ed a n d con -
s t r u ct ion oper a t ion s s h ou ld be con du ct ed t o
pr odu ce t h e leas t pos s ible s oil dis t u r ban ce.
Sin ce compact ion s h ou ld be avoided in
t h es e cas es , t h e t ot al t h ickn es s des ign
above t h e s u bgr ade may be gover n ed by t h e
r equ ir ed dept h of compa ct ion r a t h er t h a n
t h e CBR met h od. (See Ch a pt er 3 of TM 5-
825-2. )
Si lt s
Th e bear in g capacit y of s ilt s , ver y fin e
s a n ds , a n d r ock flou r (pr edomin a n t ly USCS
ML an d SC gr ou ps ) is r eas on ably good if
pr oper ly compact ed wit h in t h e s pecified
mois t u r e r a n ge. Compa ct ion of depos it s of
s ilt , ver y fin e s an d, an d r ock flou r locat ed
in a r ea s wit h a h igh wa t er t a ble ca n pu mp
wa t er t o t h e s u r fa ce. Th e ma t er ia l becomes
qu ick or s pon gy an d pr act ically los es all
load-bear in g capacit y. Th is con dit ion can
als o develop wh en s ilt s an d poor ly dr ain in g,
ver y fin e s a n ds a r e compa ct ed a t a h igh
mois t u r e con t en t . Compa ct ion r edu ces t h e
a ir voids s o t h a t t h e a va ila ble wa t er fills t h e
void s pace. Th er efor e, it is difficu lt t o
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
obt a in t h e des ir ed compa ct ion in t h es e s ilt s
a n d ver y fin e s a n ds a t mois t u r e con t en t s
gr ea t er t h a n opt imu m.
Wa t er fr om a wet , s pon gy s ilt s u bgr a de
oft en en t er s t h e s u bbas e an d bas e du r in g
compa ct ion t h r ou gh ca pilla r y a ct ion . Th is
a ddit ion a l mois t u r e ma y h a ve det r imen t a l ef-
fect s on bear in g capacit y an d fr os t s u s cept i-
bilit y. If t h e s ou r ce of wa t er ca n be r e-
moved, it is u s u a lly n ot difficu lt t o dr y
t h es e depos it s . Th es e s oils u s u ally cr u mble
eas ily an d s car ify r eadily. If t h e s oils can
be dr ied, n or ma l compa ct ion effor t s h ou ld
be applied. However , r emovin g t h e s ou r ce
of t h e wa t er is oft en ver y difficu lt a n d, in
s ome cas es , impos s ible in t h e allot t ed con -
s t r u ct ion per iod.
In a r ea s wit h a h igh wa t er t a ble, dr yin g is
n ot pos s ible u n t il t h e wa t er t a ble is s u ffi-
cien t ly lower ed. Compa ct ion oper a t ion s will
con t in u e t o ca u s e wa t er t o be pu mped t o
t h e s u r fa ce. Ar ea s of t h is n a t u r e a r e bes t
t r eat ed by r eplacin g t h e s oil wit h s u bbas e
a n d ba s e ma t er ia ls or wit h a dr y s oil t h a t
is n ot adver s ely affect ed by wat er .
Do n ot dis t u r b t h e s u bgr a de wh er e dr a in -
a ge is n ot fea s ible or a h igh wa t er t a ble ca n -
n ot be lower ed. Als o, do n ot dis t u r b t h e
s u bgr ade in cas es wh er e s oils become s at u -
r a t ed fr om s ou r ces ot h er t h a n h igh wa t er t a -
bles an d can n ot be dr ied (as in con s t r u c-
t ion du r in g wet s ea s on s ). Compa ct ion of
lift s du r in g wet per iods can cau s e fin es
fr om t h e s u bgr a de t o con t a min a t e u pper la y-
er s of t h e flexible-pa vemen t s t r u ct u r e.
Th e pu mpin g a n d det r imen t a l a ct ion s pr e-
viou s ly des cr ibed s h ou ld be an t icipat ed
wh en ever s ilt s or ver y-fin e-s an d s u bgr ades
a r e loca t ed in a r ea s wit h a h igh wa t er t a -
ble. Pu mpin g a ct ion limit s t h e a bilit y t o ob-
t a in t h e des ir ed compa ct ion in t h e immedi-
a t e over lyin g ma t er ia l.
Swe llin g s oils
Soils ar e ch ar act er ized as s wellin g if t h ey
dis play a s ign ifican t in cr eas e in volu me
wit h t h e a ddit ion of mois t u r e. Th es e s oils
ca n ca u s e t r ou ble in a n y r egion wh er e con -
s t r u ct ion is accomplis h ed du r in g a dr y s ea-
s on a n d t h e s oils a bs or b mois t u r e du r in g a
s u bs equ en t wet s ea s on . If t h e mois t u r e con -
t en t of t h e compa ct ed s oil in cr ea s es a ft er
compact ion , t h e s oil will s well an d pr odu ce
lar ge, u plift pr es s u r es . Th is act ion may r e-
s u lt in u n accept able differ en t ial h eavin g of
flexible pavemen t s . For milit a r y con s t r u c-
t ion , s wellin g s oils a r e pla ced a t mois t u r e
con t en t s t h a t will n ot r es u lt in mor e t h a n a
3-per cen t ch an ge in volu me if s oil mois t u r e
is lat er in cr eas ed.
Pr es wellin g is a common met h od for t r ea t -
in g s u bgr ade s oils wit h expan s ive ch ar ac-
t er is t ics . Th e s oil s h ou ld be compact ed at
a mois t u r e con t en t a t wh ich a 3-per cen t or
gr eat er s wellin g h as alr eady occu r r ed. Th is
r edu ces t h e impa ct of fu t u r e expa n s ion .
Pr oper con t r ol of mois t u r e con t en t is t h e
mos t impor t a n t it em t o r emember for s wel-
lin g s oils .
SELECTION OF SUBGRADE AND
SUBSOIL DESIGN CBR VALUES
Th e CBR t es t des cr ibed in FM 5-530 in -
clu des pr ocedu r es for con du ct in g t es t s on
s amples compact ed in t es t molds (des ign
den s it y an d s oaked for fou r days ) an d for
t akin g in -place CBR t es t s on u n dis t u r bed
s amples . Th es e t es t s a r e u s ed t o es t ima t e
t h e CBR t h a t will develop in t h e pr ot ot ype
s t r u ct u r e. Wh er e t h e des ign CBR is above
20, t h e s u bgr a de mu s t a ls o meet t h e gr a da -
t ion a n d At t er ber g limit r equ ir emen t s for a
s u bbas e given in Table 5-1.
SUBGRADE STABILIZATION
Su bgr ades can be s t abilized mech an ically
(by a ddin g gr a n u la r ma t er ia ls ), ch emica lly
(by a ddin g ch emica l a dmixt u r es ), or wit h a
s t a biliza t ion expedien t (s a n d-gr id, ma t t in g,
or geos yt h et ics ). St a biliza t ion wit h ch emi-
ca l a dmixt u r es (lime, por t -la n d cemen t , fly
a s h , a n d s u ch ) is gen er a lly cos t ly bu t ma y
pr ove t o be econ omically feas ible, depen din g
on t h e a va ila bilit y of t h e ch emica l s t a biliza -
t ion a gen t in compa r is on wit h t h e a va ila bil-
it y of gr a n u la r ma t er ia l. Ch emica lly s t a bi-
lized layer s s h ou ld be des ign ed accor din g t o
t h e cr it er ia pr es en t ed in Ch a pt er 9 of FM
5-410.
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table 5-1. Recommended maximum permissible value of gradation and Atterberg limit
requirements in subbases and select materials for roads and airfields
If mech a n ica l s t a biliza t ion is u s ed a n d t h e
s t a bilized ma t er ia l meet s t h e gr a da t ion a n d
At t er ber g limit r equ ir emen t s in Ta ble 5-1, it
can be as s ign ed a s u bbas e CBR r at in g. If
it does n ot meet t h e r equ ir emen t s for a s u b-
ba s e, t h e ma t er ia l mu s t be con s ider ed a s e-
lect ma t er ia l.
A s t abilizat ion expedien t may pr ovide s ign ific-
a n t t ime a n d cos t s a vin gs a s a s u bs t it u t e
t o ot h er mea n s of s t a biliza t ion or low
s t r en gt h fill. Th e mos t popu la r of t h e ma n -
ma de s t a bilizer s a r e s a n d gr id, r oll-ma t t in g,
an d var iou s t ypes of geos yn t h et ics , es pe-
cia lly geot ext iles . Ma t t in g a n d s a n d gr id
ar e expedien t met h ods of s t abilizin g coh e-
s ion les s s oils s u ch as s an d for u n s u r faced
r oa d con s t r u ct ion . Geot ext iles a n d ot h er
geos yn t h et ics a r e pr ima r ily u s ed t o r ein for ce
wea k s u bgr a des , ma in t a in t h e s epa r a t ion of
s oil la yer s , a n d con t r ol dr a in a ge t h r ou gh
t h e r oad or air field des ign . Th e
SELECT MATERIALS
When designing flexible pavements, loca lly
a va ila bilit y of t h es e ma t er ia ls mu s t be
weigh ed wit h t h e con s ider able t ime s avin gs
for u s e of expedien t s in comba t
con s t r u ct ion .
FROST SUSCEPTIBILITY OF SUBGRADE
In a r ea s s u bject ed t o s ea s on a l fr eezin g a n d
t h a win g, s u bgr a de ma t er ia ls ma y exh ibit
fr os t h ea ve a n d t h a w wea ken in g. Ta ble
5-2 lis t s t h e fr os t -s u s cept ibilit y r at in gs of
s oils . Th os e ma t er ia ls wit h t h e F3 a n d F4
clas s ificat ion s ar e ext r emely fr os t -s u s cept i-
ble, es pecially if t h e wat er t able is les s t h an
5 feet below t h e t op of t h e s u bgr a de. Silt y
s oils ar e par t icu lar ly s u s cept ible an d t h eir
CBR va lu e ma y be les s t h a n 1 du r in g t h a w-
in g per iods . Th e t h aw per iod an d r es u lt in g
degr a ded s oil s t r en gt h ma y la s t fr om on e t o
fou r weeks . Emph as is mu s t be placed on r e-
du cin g t r affic loads du r in g t h is per iod t o
h elp r edu ce t h e pos s ibilit y of damage.
AND SUBBASE COURSES
equ a l t o 20 a r e ca lled s elect ma t er ia ls , a n d
a va ila ble or ot h er in expen s ive ma t er ia ls ma y t h os e wit h CBR va lu es gr ea t er t h a n 20 a r e
be u s ed bet ween t h e s u bgr ade an d bas e called s u bbas es .
cou r s e. Th es e layer s ar e des ign at ed in t h is
ma n u a l a s s elect ma t er ia ls or s u bba s es . Wh er e t h e CBR va lu e of t h e s u bgr a de, wit h -
Th os e wit h des ign CBR valu es les s t h an or ou t pr oces s in g, is in t h e r an ge of 20 t o 50,
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table 5-2. Frost-design soil classification
s elect ma t er ia ls a n d s u bba s es ma y n ot be a n d CL gr ou ps ma y be u s ed in cer t a in
n eeded. However , t h e s u bgr ade can n ot be
a s s ign ed a des ign CBR va lu e gr ea t er t h a n
20 u n les s it meet s t h e gr a da t ion a n d pla s t ic-
it y r equ ir emen t s for s u bba s es .
Wh er e s u bgr a de ma t er ia ls meet pla s t icit y r e-
qu ir emen t s bu t a r e deficien t in gr a din g r e-
qu ir emen t s , it ma y be pos s ible t o t r ea t a n
exis t in g s u bgr ade by blen din g in s t on e, lime
r ock, s a n d, or s imila r ma t er ia ls t o pr odu ce
an accept able s u bbas e an d r ais e t h e des ign
CBR va lu e.
MATERIALS
Se le c t Ma t e r i a ls
Select ma t er ia ls will n or ma lly be loca lly
available, coar s e-gr ain ed s oils (clas s ified G
or S), a lt h ou gh fin e-gr a in ed s oils in t h e ML
cas es . Con s ider lime r ock, cor al, s h ell,
as h es , cin der s , calich e, an d dis in t egr at ed
gr a n it e wh en eva lu a t in g s ou r ces of s elect
ma t er ia l. To qu a lify a s a s elect ma t er ia l, a
ma t er ia l mu s t meet t h e gr a da t ion a n d At t er -
ber g limit r equ ir emen t s es t ablis h ed in Table
5-1. A m a xi m u m a ggr ega t e s ize of 3
in ch es will a id in meet in g a ggr ega t e gr a da -
t ion s .
Su bba s e Ma t e r i a ls
Su bba s e ma t er ia ls ma y con s is t of n a t u r a lly
occu r r in g, coar s e-gr ain ed s oils or blen ded
an d pr oces s ed s oils . Lime r ock, cor al,
s h ell, as h es , cin der s , calich e, an d dis in t e-
gr a t ed gr a n it e ma y be u s ed a s s u bba s es
wh en t h ey meet t h e r equ ir emen t s in Ta ble
5-1, page 5-8. Th e exis t in g s u bgr ade may
meet t h e r equ ir emen t s for a s u bba s e
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
cou r s e, or it ma y be pos s ible t o t r ea t t h e ex-
is t in g s u bgr ade t o pr odu ce a s u bbas e. Do
n ot a dmix n a t ive or pr oces s ed ma t er ia ls u n -
les s t h e u n mixed s u bgr a de meet s t h e LL
a n d PI r equ ir emen t s for s u bba s es .
A s u it a ble s u bba s e ma y be for med u s in g
ma t er ia l s t a bilized wit h commer cia l a dmix-
t u r es . Por t la n d cemen t . h ydr a t ed lime, fly
a s h , a n d bit u min ou s ma t er ia ls a r e com-
mon ly u s ed for t h is pu r pos e. Th e plas t icit y
of s ome mat er ials can be decr eas ed by add-
in g lime or por t la n d cemen t , en a blin g t h em
t o be u s ed as s u bbas es .
COMPACTION
Select an d s u bbas e mat er ials can be pr oc-
es s ed a n d compa ct ed u s in g n or ma l compa c-
t ion pr ocedu r es . Specify compact ion accor d-
in g t o t h e cr it er ia des cr ibed in Figu r e
5-4, page 5-5.
SELECTION OF DESIGN CBR
CBR t es t s a r e u s u a lly con du ct ed on r e-
molded s amples . However , wh er e exis t in g
s imila r con s t r u ct ion is a va ila ble, con du ct
CBR t es t s on ma t er ia l in pla ce wh en it h a s
a t t a in ed it s ma ximu m expect ed wa t er con -
t en t or on u n dis t u r bed, s oa ked s a mples .
Th e pr ocedu r es for s elect in g t es t valu es de-
s cr ibed in t h e s ect ion on s u bgr ades als o ap-
plies t o s elect an d s u bbas e mat er ials . In or -
der t o be u s ed as a s elect or s u bbas e, t h e
ma t er ia l mu s t comply wit h t h e r equ ir e-
men t s in dicat ed in Table 5-1, in clu din g
CBR va lu e, gr a da t ion , a n d At t er ber g limit s .
If a ma t er ia l meet s t h e r equ ir emen t s for gr a -
da t ion a n d At t er ber g limit s for t h e n ext
h igh er des ign CBR ca t egor y, bu t t h e ma t e-
r ia ls CBR va lu e does n ot meet t h e ma xi-
mu m des ign CBR for t h a t ca t egor y, a s s ign
t h e ma t er ia l des ign a CBR va lu e equ a l t o
t h e mea s u r ed CBR r es u lt s . For exa mple, a
ma t er ia l wit h a mea s u r ed CBR va lu e of 37,
wh ich meet s t h e gr a da t ion a n d At t er ber g
limit r equ ir emen t s for a CBR 40 s u bba s e,
s h ou ld be u s ed as a CBR 37 s u bbas e. Con -
ver s ely, if t h e ma t er ia l fa iled t o meet t h e
CBR 40 s u bba s e r equ ir emen t s (gr a da t ion
a n d At t er ber g limit s ) bu t met t h e CBR 30
s u bbas e r equ ir emen t s , it wou ld be u s ed as
a CBR 30 s u bba s e r a t h er t h a n a CBR 37.
Some n a t u r a l ma t er ia ls develop s a t is fa ct or y
CBR va lu es bu t do n ot meet t h e gr a da t ion
r equ ir emen t s in Table 5-1. Th es e mat er ials
ma y be u s ed a s s elect or s u bba s e ma t er ia ls ,
a s a ppr opr ia t e, if s u ppor t ed by a dequ a t e in -
pla ce CBR t es t s on con s t r u ct ion pr oject s u s -
in g t h e ma t er ia ls t h a t h a ve been in s er vice
for s ever al year s .
Th e CBR t es t is n ot applicable for u s e in
eva lu a t in g ma t er ia ls s t a bilized wit h ch emi-
ca l a dmixt u r es . Th es e ch emically s t abilized
s oils mu s t be a s s ign ed a n equ ipmen t CBR
va lu e ba s ed on t h e t ype of a dmixt u r e a n d
met h od of a pplica t ion . (See Ch a pt er 9 of
FM 5-410.) Rat in gs as h igh as 100 can be
a s s ign ed t o t h es e ma t er ia ls wh en pr oper
con s t r u ct ion pr ocedu r es ar e followed.
POTENTIAL FOR FROST ACTION
Select an d s u bbas e mat er ials wh ich ar e s u b-
ject ed t o fr eezin g a n d t h a win g ma y exh ibit
det r imen t a l fr os t effect s . Alt h ou gh t h es e
ma t er ia ls gen er a lly a r e n ot a ffect ed by exces -
s ive fr os t h eave, t h ey may los e u p t o 50 per -
cen t of t h eir s t r en gt h du r in g t h a win g con di-
t ion s . Th is is es pecially t r u e of mat er ials
wh ich h ave mor e t h an 20 per cen t fin es (par -
t icles pas s in g t h e Nu mber (No.) 200 s ieve).
If pos s ible, mat er ials lis t ed in Table 5-2,
page 5-9, as NFS, S1, S2, F1, or F2 s h ou ld
be u s ed as s u bbas e an d s elect mat er ials in
s ea s on a l fr os t a n d per ma fr os t a r ea s .
BASE COURSE
Th e pu r pos e of a bas e cou r s e is t o dis t r ib-
s h ows t h e dis t r ibu t ion of s t r es s t h r ou gh
u t e t h e in du ced s t r es s es fr om t h e wh eel
t wo ba s e cou r s es . Wh en t h e s u bgr ade
loa d s o t h a t it will n ot exceed t h e s t r en gt h
s t r en gt h is low, t h e s t r es s mu s t be r edu ced
of t h e u n der lyin g s oil layer s . Figu r e 5-5
t o a low valu e an d a t h ick bas e is n eeded.
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Fjgure 5-5. Distribution of stress in base courses and affects of subgrade strength
on basecourse thickness
Wh en t h e s u bgr a de s t r en gt h is h igh er , a
t h in n er bas e cou r s e will pr ovide adequ at e
s t r es s dis t r ibu t ion . Becau s e t h e s t r es s es in
t h e ba s e cou r s e a r e a lwa ys h igh er t h a n in
t h e s u bgr ade (Figu r e 5-5), t h e bas e cou r s e
mu s t h a ve h igh er s t r en gt h .
Th e bas e cou r s e is n or mally t h e h igh es t -
qu a lit y s t r u ct u r a l ma t er ia l u s ed in a flexible-
pa vemen t s t r u ct u r e, h a vin g CBR va lu es
n ea r t h e CBR s t a n da r d ma t er ia l (cr u s h ed
limes t on e). Bas e cou r s es ar e always coh e-
s ion les s ma t er ia ls a n d a r e n or ma lly pr oc-
es s ed t o obt a in t h e pr oper gr a da t ion .
REQUIREMENTS
Give ca r efu l a t t en t ion t o t h e s elect ion of ma -
t er ia ls for ba s e cou r s es . Th e ma t er ia ls
s h ou ld be den s e an d u n ifor mly gr aded s o
t h a t n o differ en t ia l s et t lemen t occu r s . For
con t in u ou s s t a bilit y, ba s e cou r s es mu s t
meet gr a da t ion a n d pla s t icit y r equ ir emen t s .
Gr a da t ion
Nor ma lly, a ma t er ia l u s ed a s a ba s e cou r s e
mu s t meet t h e gr a da t ion r equ ir emen t s ou t -
lin ed in Tables 5-3, 5-4 an d 5-5, page 5-12
(depen din g on t h e t ype of ma t er ia l). Det er -
min e gr a da t ion
in g mech a n ica l
of t h e pr opos ed ma t er ia l u s -
an alys is . If s t r ict a dh er -
en ce t o gr a da t ion r equ ir emen t s is n ot fea s i-
ble, a s a fe r u le of t h u mb is t o a void u s in g
ma t er ia ls wh ich h a ve mor e t h a n 15 per cen t
fin es (par t icles pas s in g t h e No. 200 s ieve).
Pla s t ic it y In de x a n d Liqu id Limit
In a ddit ion t o t h e gr a da t ion r equ ir emen t , a
ba s e-cou r s e ma t er ia l mu s t meet t h e s a me PI
a n d LL r equ ir emen t s for a s u bba s e ma t er ia l
as in dicat ed in Table 5-1, page 5-8. Mat e-
r ia l wit h a LL gr ea t er t h a n 25 or a PI
gr ea t er t h a n 5 s h ou ld n ot be u s ed a s a
bas e cou r s e.
Com p a c t i on
Bas e-cou r s e mat er ial mu s t be capable of be-
in g compa ct ed t o meet t h e r equ ir emen t s
given in Figu r e 5-4, page 5-5. Wh en con -
s t r u ct in g a ba s e cou r s e, lift t h ickn es s mu s t
be ba s ed on t h e a bilit y t o a t t a in t h e r e-
qu ir ed den s it y. Lift t h ickn es s is depen den t
on t h e t ype of ma t er ia l, t h e compa ct ion
equ ipmen t u s ed, a n d t h e met h od of con -
s t r u ct ion .
Th e CBR of t h e fin is h ed bas e cou r s e mu s t
con for m t o t h a t u s ed in t h e des ign . Th e t o-
t a l compa ct ed t h ickn es s mu s t equ a l t h a t ob-
t ain ed fr om t h e flexible-pavemen t des ign
cu r ves , Table 5-6, page 5-13 lis t s n in e
t ypes of ma t er ia ls common ly u s ed a s ba s e
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table 5-3. Generally suitable base course materials
Table 5-4. Desirable gradation for crushed
rock or slag, and uncrushed sand and gravel
aggregates for nonmacadam base courses
Table 5-5. Desirable gradation for crushed
rock, gravel, or slag aggregates
for macadam base courses
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table 5-6. Assigned CBR ratings for
base-course materials
cou r s es for r oads an d air fields . A t ypica l
des ign CBR is given for each t ype of
ma t er ia l. La bor a t or y CBR t es t s t o det er -
min e des ign CBR ar e n ot n eces s ar y.
MATERIALS
Na t u r a l, pr oces s ed, a n d ot h er ma t er ia ls a r e
u s ed for bas e cou r s es . Des cr ipt ion s of
t h es e ma t er ia ls follow.
Na t u r a l Ma t e r i a ls
A wide var iet y of gr avels ; s an ds : gr avelly
a n d s a n dy s oils ; a n d ot h er n a t u r a l
ma t er ia ls s u ch a s lime r ock, cor a l, s h ells ,
an d s ome calich es can be u s ed alon e or
blen ded as a s u it able bas e cou r s e. Some-
t imes n a t u r a l ma t er ia ls r equ ir e cr u s h in g or
r emova l of over s ize ma t er ia l t o ma in t a in
gr a da t ion limit s . Some n a t u r a l ma t er ia ls
ma y be s u it a ble for u s e a s a ba s e cou r s e by
mixin g or blen din g t h em wit h ot h er
ma t er ia ls .
Sand and Gravel. Ma n y n a t u r a l depos it s of
s a n dy a n d gr a velly ma t er ia ls ma ke s a t is fa c-
t or y ba s e-cou r s e ma t er ia ls , Gr a vel depos it s
differ widely in t h e r elat ive pr opor t ion s of
coa r s e- a n d fin e-gr a in ed ma t er ia l a n d in t h e
ch a r a ct er of t h e r ock fr a gmen t s . Sa t is fa c-
t or y ba s e ma t er ia ls ca n oft en be pr odu ced
by blen din g ma t er ia ls fr om t wo or mor e
depos it s . Un cr u s h ed, clean , was h ed gr avel
is n or ma lly n ot s u it a ble for a ba s e cou r s e
becau s e n ot en ou gh fin es ar e pr es en t .
Fin es act as a bin der an d fill t h e voids be-
t ween coar s er par t icles .
Sand and Clay . Na t u r a l mixt u r es of s a n d
a n d cla y a r e oft en loca t ed in a llu via l
depos it s of var yin g t h ickn es s es . Oft en
t h er e a r e gr ea t va r ia t ion s in t h e pr opor t ion s
of s a n d a n d cla y fr om t h e t op t o t h e bot t om
of t h e depos it . Depen din g on t h e pr opor -
t ion s of s a n d a n d cla y, t h es e depos it s ma y
als o pr ovide s u it able bas e-cou r s e mat er ials .
Wit h pr oper pr opor t ion in g a n d con s t r u ct ion
met h ods , s a t is fa ct or y r es u lt s ca n be ob-
t ain ed wit h s an d-clay s oils .
Depos it s of pa r t ly dis in t egr a t ed r ock t h a t
con s is t of fr a gmen t s of r ock, cla y, a n d mica
flakes s h ou ld n ot be con fu s ed wit h s an d-
clay s oils . Th e mica fla kes ma ke t h e
depos it u n s u it able for u s e as a bas e cou r s e.
Mis t akin g t h es e depos it s for a s an d-clay
s oil may r es u lt in bas e-cou r s e failu r e.
Pr oc e s s e d Ma t e r ia ls
Pr oces s ed mat er ials ar e made by cr u s h in g
an d s cr een in g r ock, gr avel, or s lag. A
pr oper ly gr aded, cr u s h ed r ock bas e-cou r s e
ma t er ia l pr odu ced fr om s ou n d, du r a ble r ock
ma kes t h e h igh es t -qu a lit y ba s e ma t er ia l.
Exis t in g qu ar r ies ; ledge r ock; cobbles an d
gr a vel: t a lu s depos it s ; coa r s e min e t a ilin gs ;
a n d s imila r h a r d, du r a ble r ock fr a gmen t s
a r e t h e s ou r ces of pr oces s ed ma t er ia ls .
Table 5-3 s h ows t h e common r ock t ypes
t h a t a r e gen er a lly s u it a ble for ba s e-cou r s e
ma t er ia l. Gen er a lly, r ock wh ich is h a r d
en ou gh t o r equ ir e bla s t in g du r in g exca va -
t ion ma kes s u it a ble ba s e-cou r s e ma t er ia l.
Bas e cou r s es made fr om pr oces s ed
mat er ials can be divided in t o t h r ee gen er al
t ypes : s t a bilized, coa r s e-gr a ded, a n d
ma ca da m.
S tabiliz ed . In a s t abilized bas e cou r s e,
ma t er ia l r a n gin g fr om coa r s e t o fin e is
mixed t o meet t h e gr a da t ion r equ ir emen t
given in Table 5-4. Th e mixin g pr oces s
be accomplis h ed in advan ce (at a
Subgrades and Base Courses
ca n
5-13
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
pr oces s in g plan t ) or du r in g t h e placin g
oper a t ion . Beca u s e t h e a ggr ega t es
pr odu ced in cr u s h in g oper at ion s or ob-
t a in ed fr om depos it s a r e oft en deficien t in
fin es , it may be n eces s ar y t o blen d in
s elect ed fin es t o get a s u it a ble gr a da t ion .
Scr een in gs , cr u s h er -r u n fin es , or n a t u r a l
clav-fr ee s oil may be added for t h is pu r pos e.
Coars e-Grad ed . A coar s e-gr aded t ype of
bas e cou r s e is compos ed of cr u s h ed r ock,
gr avel, or s lag, Wh en gr avel is u s ed.
50 per cen t of t h e ma t er ia l by weigh t mu s t
h a ve t wo or mor e fr es h ly fr a ct u r ed fa ces ,
wit h t h e a r ea of ea ch fa ce equ a l t o a t lea s t
75 per cen t of t h e s ma lles t mids ect ion a l a r ea
of t h e piece.
Macad am. Th e t er m macad am is u s u ally
a pplied t o con s t r u ct ion in wh ich a coa r s e,
cr u s h ed aggr egat e is placed in a r elat ively
t h in layer an d r olled in t o place. Fin e ag-
gr egat e or s cr een in gs ar e placed on t h e s u r -
fa ce of t h e coa r s e-a ggr ega t e la yer a n d r olled
a n d br oomed in t o t h e coa r s e r ock u n t il it is
t h or ou gh ly keyed in pla ce. Wa t er ma y be
Us ed in t h e compact in g an d keyin g pr oces s .
Wh en wa t er is u s ed, t h e ba s e is t er med a
w ater-bound macad am. Th e cr u s h ed r ock
u s ed for ma ca da m ba s e cou r s es s h ou ld con -
s is t of clean , an gu lar , du r able par t icles fr ee
of cla y, or ga n ic ma t t er . a n d ot h er u n wa n t ed
ma t er ia l or coa t in g, An y h a r d, du r a ble,
cr u s h ed aggr egat e can be u s ed, pr ovided
t h e coa r s e a ggr ega t e is on e s ize a n d t h e
fin e a ggr ega t e will key in t o t h e coa r s e a g-
gr ega t e. Aggr ega t es for ma ca da m-t ype con -
s t r u ct ion s h ou ld meet t h e gr a da t ion r equ ir e-
men t s given in Table 5-5, page 5-12.
Ot h e r Ma t e r i a ls
In s ome TO a r ea s , depos it s of n a t u r a l s a n d
an d gr avel an d s ou r ces of cr u s h ed r ock ar e
n ot available. Th is h as led t o t h e develop-
men t of ba s e cou r s es fr om ma t er ia ls t h a t
n or mally wou ld n ot be con s ider ed. Th es e
in clu de calich e, lime r ock, s h ells , cin der s ,
cor a l, ir on or e, r u bble, a n d ot h er s imila r
ma t er ia ls . Some of t h es e ma t er ia ls a r c
wea k r ock t h a t cr u s h or degr a de u n der con -
s t r u ct ion t r a ffice t o pr odu ce compos it e ba s e
ma t er ia ls s imila r t o t h os e des cr ibed in t h e
pr ecedin g par agr aph s . Ot h er s develop a
cemen t in g a ct ion t h a t r es u lt s in a s a t is fa c-
t or y ba s e.
Th es e ma t er ia ls ca n n ot be ju dged on t h e
ba s is of t h e gr a da t ion limit s u s ed for ot h er
ma t er ia ls . Ra t h er , t h ey a r c ju dged on t h e
bas is of s er vice beh avior . St r en gt h t es t s on
la bor a t or y s a mples a r c n ot s a t is fa ct or y be-
ca u s e t h e met h od of pr epa r in g t h e s a mple
s eldom r eplica t es t h e ch a r a ct er is t ics of t h e
mat er ial in place. Th e PI is a r eas on ably
good cr it er ion for det er min in g t h e s u it a -
bilit y of t h es e ma t er ia ls a s ba s e cou r s es .
As a gen er al r u le, a low PI is a n eces -
s it y. However , obs er va t ion of t h es e t ypes of
bas e mat er ials in exis t in g r oads an d pave-
men t s is t h e mos t r elia ble in dica t or of
wh et h er or n ot t h ey will be s a t is fa ct or y.
Coral. Cor a l is common ly fou n d a lon g t h e
coa s t lin es of t h e Pa cific Ocea n a n d t h e
Ca r ibbea n Sea . Cor a l is n or ma lly ver y a n -
gu la r a n d, a s s u ch , it s gr ea t es t a s s et s a s a
con s t r u ct ion ma t er ia l a r e it s bon din g pr oper -
t ies . Th es e pr oper t ies var y, bas ed on t h e
a mou n t of volca n ic impu r it ies , t h e pr opor -
t ion of fin e a n d coa r s e ma t er ia l, a n d t h e
a ge a n d len gt h of expos u r e t o t h e elemen t s .
Pr oper mois t u r e con t r ol, dr a in a ge, a n d com-
pa ct ion a r c es s en t ia l t o obt a in s a t is fa ct or y
r es u lt s . Avoid va r ia t ion s of mor e t h a n 1
per cen t fr om opt imu m mois t u r e con t en t .
Un compact ed an d poor ly dr ain ed cor al is
s u s cept ible t o h igh capillar y r is e, r es u lt in g
in t oo mu ch mois t u r e a n d los s of s t a bilit y.
Spr in klin g wit h s ea wa t er or s odiu m
ch lor ide in s olu t ion pr omot es bon din g wh en
r oller s a r e u s ed. As a r u le of t h u mb, cor a l
s h ou ld cu r e for a min imu m of 72 h ou r s
a ft er compa ct ion is complet ed.
Caliche. Calich e is a by-pr odu ct of ch emi-
cal weat h er in g pr oces s es . It is compos ed of
limes t on es , s ilt s , an d clays cemen t ed
t oget h er by lime, ir on oxide, or s a lt .
Calich e h as been u s ed ext en s ively in ar id
r egion s a s a ba s e ma t er ia l beca u s e of it s
a bilit y t o r ecemen t wh en s a t u r a t ed wit h
wa t er , compa ct ed, a n d given a s et t in g
per iod. Calich e var ies in con t en t (lime-
s t on e, s ilt , an d clay) an d in degr ee of cemen -
t a t ion . It is impor t a n t t h a t ca lich e of good,
u n ifor m qu a lit y be obt a in ed fr om depos it s
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
a n d t h a t it be compa ct ed wit h in a s pecified
mois t u r e r a n ge.
Aft er calich es h ave been air -dr ied for 72
h ou r s , t h e LL of t h e ma t er ia l pa s s in g t h e
No. 40 s ieve s h ou ld n ot exceed 35, an d t h e
PI s h ou ld n ot exceed 10. For bas e-cou r s e
mat er ial, calich es s h ou ld be cr u s h ed t o
meet t h e followin g gr a da t ion s :
Percent passing 2-inch sieve
100
Percent passing No. 40 sieve
15-35
Percent passing No. 200 sieve
0-20
St r ippin g s h ou ld be u s ed t o r emove u n de-
s ir a ble ma t er ia l fr om s u r fa ce depos it s of
calich e.
Tuff. Tu ff a n d ot h er cemen t -like ma t er ia ls
of volcan ic or igin may be u s ed for bas e
cou r s es . Tu ff bas es ar e con s t r u ct ed in t h e
s a me ma n n er a s ot h er ba s e cou r s es except
t h a t t h e over s ize pieces a r e br oken a n d t h e
bas e is compact ed wit h s h eeps foot r oller s af-
t er t h e t u ff is du mped an d s pr ead. Th e s u r -
fa ce is t h en gr a ded a n d fin a l compa ct ion
an d fin is h in g ar e accomplis h ed.
Rubble. Th e debr is or r u bble of des t r oyed
bu ildin gs may be u s ed in con s t r u ct in g bas e
cou r s es . J agged pieces of met al an d s imi-
lar object s mu s t be r emoved: lar ge pieces of
r u bble s h ou ld be br oken in t o 3-in ch pieces
or s maller . Cau t ion s h ou ld be exer cis ed
wh en u s in g r u bble in a t a ct ica l
en vir on men t t o a void min es or booby t r a ps .
Bituminous Bas e. In gen er a l, a bit u min ou s
bas e cou r s e may be con s ider ed equ al, on
a n in ch -for -in ch ba s is , t o ot h er t ypes of
h igh -qu a lit y ba s e cou r s es . Bit u min ou s mix-
t u r es a r e fr equ en t ly u s ed a s ba s e cou r s es
ben ea t h h igh -u s e bit u min ou s pa vemen t s ,
pa r t icu la r ly for r ea r -a r ea a ir fields ca r r yin g
h ea vy t r a ffic, Bit u min ou s ba s es ma y be a d-
va n t a geou s wh en loca lly a va ila ble a ggr e-
ga t es a r e r ela t ively wea k a n d of poor qu a l-
it y, wh en mixin g-pla n t a n d bit u min ou s ma -
t er ials ar e r eadily available, or wh en a r ela-
t ively t h ick s t r u ct u r e is r equ ir ed for t h e t r a f-
f i c .
Wh en a bit u min ou s bas e cou r s e is u s ed, it
is placed in lift s n o mor e t h an 3 1/ 2 in ch es
t h ick. If a bit u min ou s ba s e is u s ed, t h e
bin der an d levelin g cou r s es may be omit t ed
an d t h e s u r face cou r s e may be laid dir ect ly
on t h e ba s e cou r s e.
SELECTION OF BASE COURSE
Select ion of t h e t ype of bas e-cou r s e con -
s t r u ct ion depen ds on t h e ma t er ia ls a n d
equ ipmen t a va ila ble a n d t h e a n t icipa t ed
wea t h er con dit ion s du r in g con s t r u ct ion . A
complet e in ves t iga t ion s h ou ld be ma de t o
det er min e t h e loca t ion a n d ch a r a ct er is t ics
of a ll n a t u r a l ma t er ia ls s u it a ble for ba s e-
cou r s e con s t r u ct ion . Ba s e cou r s es of u n -
t r ea t ed n a t u r a l ma t er ia ls a r e les s a ffect ed
by a dver s e wea t h er a n d n or ma lly r equ ir e
les s t ech n ica l con t r ol. Un t r ea t ed ba s es a r e
r ela t ively ea s y a n d fa s t t o bu ild a n d a r e
pr efer a ble t o bit u min ou s or cemen t -s t a bi-
lized t ypes . Th is is t r u e even wh er e s u it -
a ble a dmixt u r e ma t er ia ls for s u ch con s t r u c-
t ion a r e r ea dily a va ila ble, wh ich is n ot t r u e
in ma n y a r ea s of t h e wor ld.
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR
SEASONAL FROST AND PERMAFROST
CONDITIONS
Sin ce ba s e-cou r s e ma t er ia ls a r e n ea r t h e
s u r fa ce of t h e r oa d or a ir field, t h e a mou n t
of s t r en gt h los s du r in g t h awin g per iods will
h a ve a s t r on g in flu en ce on t h e life of t h e fa -
cilit y. If pos s ible, mat er ials lis t ed in Table
5-2, page 5-9, as n on fr os t s u s cept ible
(NFS), or pos s ibly fr os t s u s cept ible (S1 or
S2) s h ou ld be u s ed as bas e cou r s es in s ea-
s on a l fr os t a n d per ma fr os t a r ea s .
CONSTRUCTION OPERATIONS
Con s t r u ct ion oper a t ion s for r oa ds a n d a ir -
fields in clu de t h e followin g t as ks wh ich ar e
or ga n ized a ccor din g t o t h e con s t r u ct ion
s ch edu le a n d qu a lit y con t r ol pla n for t h e
pr oject .
Fi n e Gr a d i n g
Th e s u bgr ade is fin e gr aded t o ach ieve t h e
des ir ed cr os s s ect ion es t ablis h ed by fin al
gr ade s t akes . Befor e placin g s elect
ma t er ia l, s u bba s e, a n d ba s e cou r s e, t h e
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
s u bgr a de s h ou ld be compa ct ed t o a t t a in t h e
r equ ir ed den s it y, a n d r u t s a n d ot h er s oft
s pot s s h ou ld be cor r ect ed.
Ha u li n g, Pla c i n g, a n d Spr e a di n g
Pla cin g a n d s pr ea din g ma t er ia l on t h e
pr epa r ed s u bgr a de ma y begin a t t h e poin t
n ea r es t t h e bor r ow s ou r ce or a t t h e poin t
fa r t h es t fr om t h e s ou r ce. Th e a dva n t a ge of
wor kin g fr om t h e poin t n ea r es t t h e s ou r ce
is t h a t t h e h a u l veh icles ca n be r ou t ed over
t h e s pr ea d ma t er ia l, wh ich compa ct s t h e
ba s e a n d a voids da ma ge t o t h e s u bgr a de.
An a dva n t a ge of wor kin g fr om t h e poin t fa r -
t h es t fr om t h e s ou r ce is t h a t h a u lin g equ ip-
men t will fu r t h er compa ct t h e s u bgr a de.
Als o, t h is pr a ct ice will n ot over wor k t h e
ba s e cou r s e, wh ich ca n ca u s e u n wa n t ed
s egr ega t ion . Th is met h od a ls o r evea ls a n y
wea k s pot s in t h e s u bgr a de s o t h a t t h ey
ca n be cor r ect ed pr ior t o pla cemen t of t h e
bas e cou r s es , an d in t er fer es les s wit h
s pr ea din g a n d compa ct ion equ ipmen t .
Th e s elf-pr opelled aggr egat e s pr eader is t h e
pr efer r ed piece of equ ipmen t for placin g a
bas e cou r s e. If a s elf-pr opelled s pr eader is
n ot a va ila ble, ba s e-cou r s e ma t er ia l ca n be
s pr ead u s in g t owed s pr eader s , s cr aper s , or
du mp t r u cks . If equ ipmen t ca pa ble of
s pr ea din g t h e a ggr ega t e in even lift s is n ot
a va ila ble, t h e ma t er ia l ca n be in it ia lly
du mped in lon g win dr ows an d s u bs equ en t ly
s pr ead wit h gr ader s , dozer s , or fr on t -en d
loader s .
Lift t h ickn es s s h ou ld be bas ed on t h e
a bilit y t o compa ct t h e ma t er ia l t o t h e r e-
qu ir ed den s it y. A good r u le of t h u mb is t o
in it ially place t h e bas e cou r s e in 6-in ch
lift s . Aft er t es t in g t h e compa ct ed den s it y,
in cr eas e or decr eas e t h e lift t h ickn es s as
n eces s a r y t o meet t h e pr oject r equ ir emen t s .
Ble n di n g a n d Mi xi n g
Mat er ials t o be blen ded an d mixed s h ou ld
be s pr ea d on t h e r oa d, r u n wa y, or t a xiwa y
in cor r ect pr opor t ion s , wit h t h e fin er
ma t er ia l on t op. Fold t h e fin e ma t er ia l in t o
t h e coa r s er a ggr ega t e wit h t h e gr a der bla de.
If a va ila ble, dr y-mix t h e ma t er ia l u s in g
blades , dis ks , h ar r ows , or r ot ot iller s , leav-
in g t h e ma t er ia l in win dr ows . Wh en a
gr a der is u s ed, t h or ou gh ly mix t h e
ma t er ia ls by bla din g t h e win dr ows of
ma t er ia ls fr om on e s ide of t h e a r ea t o t h e
ot h er , wit h t h e bla de of t h e gr a der s et t o
give a r ollin g a ct ion t o t h e ma t er ia l. Th e
coa r s e a n d fin e a ggr ega t es ca n a ls o be
mixed in mech a n ica l pla n t s (mobile or s t a -
t ion a r y) or on a pa ved a r ea wit h gr a der s
an d bu cket loader s . Pr opor t ion ally dis -
t r ibu t e t h e coa r s e a n d fin e a ggr ega t es by
weigh t or volu me in qu a n t it ies s o t h a t t h e
s pecified gr a da t ion , LL, a n d PI r equ ir emen t s
a r e a t t a in ed a ft er t h e ba s e h a s been pla ced
a n d compa ct ed. Mixin g oper a t ion s s h ou ld
pr odu ce u n ifor m blen din g.
Wh en mech an ical mixin g is u s ed, place t h e
coa r s e a n d fin e a ggr ega t es in s epa r a t e s t ock-
piles or a dja cen t win dr ows t o per mit ea s y
pr opor t ion in g. Wh en bu cket loader s ar e
u s ed, place t h e fin e- an d coar s e-aggr egat e
por t ion s in a dja cen t win dr ows on a pa ved
a r ea . Bla de t h e win dr ows t oget h er t o meet
t h e r equ ir emen t s s pecified for t h e pr oject .
Wa t e r i n g Ba s e Ma t e r i a ls
As in s u bgr a de-compa ct ion oper a t ion s , ob-
t ain in g t h e s pecified compact ed den s it y r e-
qu ir es t h a t t h e ma t er ia l be pla ced a n d com-
pa ct ed a t a mois t u r e con t en t in s ide t h e
s pecificat ion block. Th e mois t u r e con t en t
of t h e ba s e ma t er ia l a t t h e s it e ca n be ob-
t a in ed by a n u cIea r den s omet er , a s peedy
mois t u r e t es t er , or by expedien t met h ods .
Given t h e on -s it e mois t u r e con t en t , t h e en -
gin eer in ch a r ge ca n ca lcu la t e exa ct ly h ow
mu ch wa t er is t o be a dded or if t h e ba s e
n eeds t o be aer at ed t o ach ieve t h e s pecified
mois t u r e con t en t r a n ge.
Con t r olled wa t er in g ca n be don e wit h a
t r u ck-mou n t ed wa ler dis t r ibu t or . As ph a lt
dis t r ibu t or s s h ou ld n ot be u s ed becau s e t h e
pu mp lu br ica t ion s ys t em is n ot des ign ed for
wa t er . An y con t a in er ca pa ble of movemen t
a n d gr a vit y dis ch a r ge of wa t er ma y be u s ed
a s a n expedien t wa t er dis t r ibu t or .
Com p a c t i n g
Ba s e-cou r s e compa ct in g mu s t pr odu ce a
u n ifor mly den s e la yer t h a t con for ms t o t h e
s pecifica t ion block. Compa ct ba s e-cou r s e
ma t er ia l wit h vibr a t or y or h ea vy.
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
r u bber -t ir ed r oller s . Ma in t a in mois t u r e con -
t en t du r in g t h e compa ct ion pr ocedu r e
wit h in t h e s pecified mois t u r e-con t en t r a n ge.
Compa ct ea ch Ia yer t h r ou gh t h e fu ll dept h
t o t h e r equ ir ed den s it y. Meas u r e field den -
s it ies on t h e t ot a l s a mple. Us e a tes t s trip
t o det er min e wh ich r oller s a r e mos t effec-
t ive an d h ow man y r oller pas s es ar e n eces -
s a r y t o a ch ieve t h e des ir ed compa ct ion .
Th e car e an d ju dgmen t u s ed wh en con -
s t r u ct in g t h e bas e cou r s e will dir ect ly
r eflect on t h e qu alit y of t h e fin is h ed flexible
pa vemen t . Ba s e-cou r s e la yer s t h a t con t a in
gr a vel a n d s oil-bin der ma t er ia l ma y be com-
pa ct ed in it ia lly wit h a s h eeps foot r oller a n d
r u bber -t ir ed r oller s . Ru bber -t ir ed r oller s
a r e pa r t icu la r ly effect ive in compa ct in g ba s e
ma t er ia ls if a kn ea din g mot ion is r equ ir ed
t o a dju s t a n d pa ck t h e pa r t icles . Ba s e cou r -
s es of cr u s h ed r ock, lime r ock, an d s h ell
a r e compa ct ed wit h vibr a t or y, s t eel-wh eeled,
or r u bber -t ir ed r oller s . Select t h e equ ip-
men t a n d met h ods on ea ch job t o s u it t h e
ch a r a ct er is t ics of t h e ba s e ma t er ia l. Wh en
u s in g r oller s , begin compa ct ion on t h e ou t -
s ide edges an d wor k in war d, over lappin g
pas s es by on e-h alf of a r oller widt h .
Fi n i s h i n g
Fin is h in g oper at ion s mu s t clos ely follow
compa ct ion t o fu r n is h a cr own ed, ligh t ,
wa t er -s h eddin g s u r fa ce fr ee of r u t s a n d
depr es s ion s t h at wou ld in h ibit r u n off. Us e
t h e gr a der for fin is h in g compa ct ed a g-
gr ega t e ba s es . Bla de t h e ma t er ia l fr om on e
s ide of t h e r u n wa y, t a xiwa y, or r oa d t o t h e
middle an d back t o t h e edge u n t il t h e r e-
qu ir ed lin es an d gr ades ar e obt ain ed.
Befor e fin al r ollin g, t h e bladed mat er ial
mu s t be wit h in t h e s pecified mois t u r e-con -
t en t r a n ge s o it will con s olida t e wit h t h e u n -
der lyin g ma t er ia l t o for m a den s e, u n yield-
in g ma s s . If t h is is n ot don e, t h in la yer s of
t h e ma t er ia l will n ot be bou n d t o t h e ba s e,
an d peelin g an d s cabbin g may r es u lt . Fin al
r ollin g is don e wit h r u bber -t ir ed an d s t eel-
wh eeled r oller s .
SPECIAL PROCEDURE FOR MACADAM
BASES
Con s t r u ct ion of ma ca da m ba s e cou r s es r e-
qu ir es t h e pr ocedu r es t h a t follow.
Pr e pa r i n g Su bgr a de
If a ma ca da m ba s e cou r s e is con s t r u ct ed on
a ma t er ia l wit h h igh pla s t icit y, t h er e ma y
be ba s e in filt r a t ion . Th is can be pr even t ed
wit h a bla n ket cou r s e of fin e ma t er ia l s u ch
as cr u s h er s cr een in gs or 3 t o 4 in ch es of
s an d. Th e blan ket cou r s e s h ou ld be ligh t ly
mois t en ed a n d r olled t o a s moot h s u r fa ce
befor e s pr ea din g t h e coa r s e ma ca da m a g-
gr ega t e. A membr a n e or a geot ext ile fa br ic
may be u s ed in lieu of t h e blan ket cou r s e.
Sp r e a d i n g
Ma ca da m a ggr ega t e mu s t be pla ced a n d
s pr ea d ca r efu lly t o en s u r e t h a t h a u lin g
veh icles do n ot add object ion able mat er ial
t o t h e a ggr ega t e. Car e is par t icu lar ly n eces -
s a r y wh en pla cin g t h e a ggr ega t e a t t h e
poin t n ea r es t t o t h e s ou r ce a n d r ou t in g
h au lin g veh icles over t h e s pr ead mat er ial.
If t h e compact ed t h ickn es s of t h e lift is 4 in -
ch es or les s , s pr ea d t h e loos e ma ca da m a g-
gr ega t e in a u n ifor m la yer of s u fficien t
dept h t o meet r equ ir emen t s . For gr ea t er
compa ct ed t h ickn es s , a pply t h e a ggr ega t e
s u cces s ively in t wo or mor e layer s . Spr ead-
in g s h ou ld be fr om du mp boa r ds , t owed a g-
gr ega t e s pr ea der s , or movin g veh icles t h a t
dis t r ibu t e t h e ma t er ia l in a u n ifor m la yer .
Wh en mor e t h a n on e la yer is r equ ir ed, con -
s t r u ct ion pr ocedu r es a r e iden t ica l for a ll
layer s .
Com p a c t i n g
Immedia t ely followin g s pr ea din g, compa ct
t h e coa r s e a ggr ega t e t h e fu ll widt h of t h e
s t r ip by r ollin g it wit h a s t eel-wh eeled
r oller . Rollin g s h ou ld pr ogr es s gr adu ally
fr om t h e s ides t o t h e middle of ea ch s t r ip
in a cr own s ect ion , a n d fr om t h e low s ide
t o t h e h igh s ide wh er e t h er e is a t r a n s ver s e
s lope a cr os s t h e r oa d, r u n wa y, or t a xiwa y.
Con t in u e r ollin g u n t il t h e abs en ce of cr eep
or wa ve movemen t of t h e a ggr ega t e a h ea d
of t h e r oller in dica t es t h a t t h e a ggr ega t e is
s t able. Do n ot a t t empt r ollin g wh en t h e
s u bgr ade is s oft en ed by r ain .
Applyi n g Sc r e e n i n gs
Aft er t h e coa r s e a ggr ega t e h a s been
t h or ou gh ly s t abilized an d s et by r ollin g, dis -
t r ibu t e s u fficien t s cr een in gs (fin e
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
a ggr ega t es ) t o fill t h e voids in t h e s u r fa ce.
Roll con t in u ou s ly wh ile s cr een in gs ar e
bein g s pr ead, s o t h e jar r in g effect of t h e
r oller will ca u s e t h em t o s et t le in t o s u r fa ce
voids . Spr ead s cr een in gs in t h in layer s by
u s in g h an d s h ovels , mech an ical s pr eader s ,
or movin g t r u cks . Do n ot du mp t h em in
piles on t h e coar s e aggr egat e. If n eces s ar y
u s e h a n d or dr a g br ooms t o dis t r ibu t e
s cr een in gs du r in g r ollin g.
Do n ot apply s cr een in gs 100 t h ick becau s e
t h ey will br idge over t h e voids an d pr even t
t h e dir ect bea r in g of t h e r oller on t h e
coa r s e a ggr ega t e. Con t in u e s pr ea din g,
s weepin g, an d r ollin g u n t il n o mor e s cr een -
in gs ca n be for ced in t o t h e voids . St a r t
s pr in klin g t h e s u r fa ce wit h wa t er a ft er t h e
s cr een in gs h ave been s pr ead. Th e s pr in -
klin g cau s es t h e s cr een in gs t o be flu s h ed
down in t o t h e voids of t h e a ggr ega t e. Th e
s u r fa ce is t h en r olled. Do n ot s a t u r a t e a n d
s oft en t h e s u bgr a de.
Con t in u e s pr in klin g a n d r ollin g u n t il a mix-
t u r e of s cr een in gs a n d wa t er for ms , fills a ll
voids , an d gat h er s in a s mall wave befor e
ea ch r oller . Wh en a s ect ion of a s t r ip h a s
been gr ou t ed t h or ou gh ly, a llow it t o dr y
complet ely befor e per for min g addit ion al
wor k.
FINISHED SURFACES
Th e bas e-cou r s e s u r face det er min es t h e
s moot h n es s of t h e fin is h ed pa vemen t . If
t h e fin is h ed ba s e dot s n ot con for m t o t h e
s pecified gr ade wh en t es t ed wit h a 12-foot
s t r a igh t edge, t h e fin is h ed pa vemen t a ls o
will n ot con for m. Th e ba s e s u r fa ce s h ou ld
be s moot h an d con for m t o s pecified des ign
r equ ir emen t s .
Wh en t es t ed wit h a 12-foot s t r a igh t edge a p-
plied par allel an d per pen dicu lar t o t h e cen -
t er lin e of t h e pa ved a r ea , t h e s u r fa ce of t h e
ba s e cou r s e s h ou ld n ot s h ow a n y devia t ion
in exces s of 3/ 4 in ch for r oads an d air fields
[for pr opeller -t ype air cr aft ) or 1/ 8 in ch for
jet a ir cr a ft . Cor r ect a n y devia t ion in exces s
of t h es e figu r es , a n d r emove ma t er ia l t o t h e
t ot a l dept h of t h e lift , r epla cin g wit h n ew
ma t er ia l a n d compa ct in g a s s pecified a bove.
SLUSH ROLLING
Th e pu r pos e of s lu s h r ollin g (r ollin g wit h
en ou gh wa t er t o pr odu ce a s lu s h y s u r fa ce)
is t o a ch ieve compa ct ion wh en con ven t ion a l
met h ods fa il. Slu s h r ollin g s h ou ld be per -
mit t ed on ly on a fr ee-dr ain in g, cu r ed bas e
cou r s e. Slu s h in g r equ ir es a con s ider able
a mou n t of wa t er on t h e s u r fa ce. Th e qu a n -
t it y va r ies gr ea t ly wit h t h e t ype of ma t er ia l,
t h e t emper a t u r e, a n d t h e h u midit y. If t h e
s u r fa ce is gen er a lly s a t is fa ct or y bu t h a s
s ome la r ge a r ea s r equ ir in g s lu s h in g, s lu s h
on ly t h e r ou gh ar eas . Slu s h in g br in gs fin es
t o t h e t op a n d cr ea t es voids . In gen er a l,
s lu s h r ollin g s h ou ld n ot be u s ed on a h igh -
qu a lit y ba s e-cou r s e ma t er ia l. It s h ou ld be
u s ed on ly wh en r equ ir ed by t h e s pecifica-
t ion s or wh en con ven t ion a l compa ct ion
met h ods h a ve fa iled.
Applyi n g Wa t e r
En gin eer s mu s t ca lcu la t e a wa t er a pplica -
t ion r a t e in t er ms of ga llon s per s qu a r e
ya r d in or der t o a llow t h e wa t er dis t r ibu t or
oper a t or t o a ccu r a t ely a pply wa t er . A
r ea s on a ble es t ima t e for a pplyin g wa t er t o a
6-in ch lift is 0.5 t o 1.0 gallon per s qu ar e
ya r d. Th e r oller s mu s t follow immedia t ely
beh in d t h e wa t er t r u ck t o a ch ieve t h e
des ir ed r es u lt s becau s e t h e r oller s h ou ld
ca r r y a wa ve of wa t er a h ea d of it a s it pa s -
s es over t h e bas e cou r s e.
Rollin g Equ ipme n t
Us e pn eu ma t ic-t ir ed, vibr a t or y, or s t eel-
wh eeled r oller s t o obt a in a s moot h fin is h on
t h e ba s e cou r s e. Con t in u e r ollin g u n t il com-
pact ion h as been obt ain ed.
Fi n i s h i n g
Th er e ar e u s u ally s mall r ivu let s or r idges of
fin es left on t h e s u r fa ce a ft er s lu s h in g is
complet ed. Wh er e t h es e ar e exces s ive or
wh en t h e t h ickn es s of t h e blan ket of fin es
is exces s ive, s pr in kle t h e s u r face wit h wat er
an d h on e (dr es s ligh t ly) wit h a gr ader
blade. Th is delicat e oper at ion r equ ir es a
good oper a t or a n d a s h a r p, t r u e bla de. Fol-
low t h e gr a der immedia t ely wit h a
pn eu ma t ic r oller t o r es et t h e s u r fa ce.
WET ROLLING
All bas e cou r s es r equ ir e a fin al s u r face
fin is h . Th e fin al fin is h s h ou ld be obt ain ed
immedia t ely a ft er fin a l compa ct ion or pr oof
r ollin g. For les s cr it ical bas e cou r s es or
wh er e deemed n eces s ar y by t h e pr oject en -
gin eer , wet r ollin g an d s lu s h r ollin g may be
u s ed t o obt a in t h e fin a l fin is h . Bot h
met h ods h a ve s t r on g poin t s a n d, in s ome
ca s es , a job ma y r equ ir e a combin a t ion of
t h e t wo.
Applyi n g Wa t e r
Wet r ollin g does n ot r equ ir e t h e la r ge
a mou n t of wa t er dema n ded for s lu s h r oll-
in g, an d t h e bas e cou r s e does n ot n eed t o
go t h r ou gh t h e cu r in g per iod r equ ir ed by
t h e s lu s h -r ollin g met h od. Apply en ou gh
wa t er t o t h e ba s e cou r s e t o r a is e t h e mois -
t u r e con t en t of t h e u pper 1 t o 2 in ch es of
t h e ba s e cou r s e t o a ppr oxima t ely 2 per cen t -
a ge poin t s a bove t h e min imu m mois t u r e
con t en t . Th e per cen t of mois t u r e will va r y
wit h t h e t ype of ma t er ia l a n d is a ma t t er of
ju dgemen t by t h e pr oject s qu a lit y con t r ol
ma n a ger .
Fi n i s h i n g
Fin is h t h e s u r face by h avin g t h e gr ader
blade ligh t ly cu t t h e fin al s u r face. Th e
ligh t bladin g will loos en t h e fin es ; t h e coar -
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
s er par t icles of t h e bas e cou r s e will be car -
r ied a lon g by t h e bla de t o for m a win dr ow
at t h e edge of t h e s ect ion bein g fin is h ed.
Th is coar s e aggr egat e can be even ly dis -
t r ibu t ed over t h e a r ea a n d in cor por a t ed in t o
t h e s u r face of t h e bas e by a s t eel-wh eeled
r oller clos ely followin g t h e gr ader . Addit ion -
a l wa t er ma y be r equ ir ed, a n d r ollin g by
t h e s t eel-wh eeled an d pn eu mat ic-t ir ed
r oller s mu s t be con t in u ed u n t il a s moot h ,
den s e s u r face is obt ain ed. Th is met h od
ca n a ls o be u s ed for cor r ect in g min or s u r -
face ir r egu lar it ies in t h e bas e cou r s e.
QUALITY CONTROL
Qu a lit y con t r ol is es s en t ia l t o a n y pr oject s
s u cces s . Alt h ou gh vis u a l in s pect ion is im-
por t a n t , it is n ot , by it s elf, s u fficien t t o con -
t r ol t h e con s t r u ct ion of a ll cou r s es
des cr ibed in t h is ch apt er , par t icu lar ly t h os e
wh ich con t a in con s ider a ble fin e ma t er ia l.
Depen din g on t h e t ype of ba s e, con t r ol t es t s
will in clu de det er min a t ion s of gr a da t ion ,
mixin g pr opor t ion s , pla s t icit y ch a r a ct er -
is t ics , mois t u r e con t en t , field den s it y, lift
t h ickn es s , an d CBR valu es . Th es e t es t s ar e
des cr ibed in det ail in FM 5-530. Pr ior t o
s t a r t in g con s t r u ct ion , a det a iled qu a lit y con -
t r ol plan s h ou ld be developed wh ich addr es -
s es t es t in g pr ocedu r es , fr equ en cy, locat ion
a n d, mos t impor t a n t ly, r emedia l a ct ion s .
Drainage
Section I. Construction Drainage
Preliminary Measures
Drainage Hydrology
The Hydrograph
Drainage-System Design
Design Procedures
Estimating Runoff Using the Rational Method
Section II. Open-Channel Design
Design Factors
Design Considerations
Design Techniques
Section III. Culverts
Culvert Types and Designs
Ponding Areas
Drop Inlets and Gratings
Subsurface Drainage
Section IV. Surface Drainage Design in Arctic and Subarctic Regions Fords, Dips, Causeways, and Bridges Erosion Control Nonuse Areas and Open Channels Culvert Outlets
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
DRAINAGE
Inadequate drainage is the most common cause of road and
airfield failure. Therefore, drainage is a vital consideration in
planning, designing, and building military roads and airfields.
It is important during both construction and use.
SECTION I. CONSTRUCTION DRAINAGE
Comma n der s a n d con s t r u ct ion s u per vis or s con t in u ou s ly emph a s ized by t h e comma n d.
mu s t en s u r e con t in u ou s ma in t en a n ce of t h e Con s t r u ct ion dr a in a ge mu s t be complet ed
dr a in a ge s ys t em du r in g con s t r u ct ion of a befor e n eeded; wh en a s t or m begin s it is
milit a r y r oa d or a ir field. Th e con s t r u ct ion t oo la t e t o s t a r t dr a in a ge wor k. Con s t r u c-
dr a in a ge s ys t em is t empor a r ily es t a blis h ed t ion -dr ain age meas u r es u s ed du r in g dif-
t o pr even t con s t r u ct ion dela ys a n d s t r u c- fer en t ph as es of con s t r u ct ion ar e dis cu s s ed
t u r a l fa ilu r e befor e complet ion . Gen er a lly, below.
lon g delays will r es u lt if dr ain age is n ot
PRELIMINARY MEASURES
RECONNAISSANCE
Pr ior t o t h e s t a r t of con s t r u ct ion , pr elimi-
n ar y r econ n ais s an ce of an ar ea s h ou ld dis -
clos e fea t u r es t h a t r equ ir e a dva n ce dr a in a ge
plan n in g an d oper at ion s . Th es e feat u r es in -
clu de
Spr in gs an d s eepage on h ills ides wh ich
ma y in dica t e per ch ed or h igh wa t er
t a bles det r imen t a l t o cu t s .
Tr ees a dja cen t t o dr y or low-flow
s t r ea ms t h a t cou ld r eceive t h eir r oot
wa t er fr om a gr ou n dwa t er t a ble flowin g
n ea r t h e s u r fa ce. Compa ct ed fills
a cr os s s u ch a r ea s cou ld ch a n ge t h e
movemen t of t h e flow.
Veget a t ion or cover t h a t , if r emoved
du r in g t h e clear in g an d gr u bbin g ph as e
of con s t r u ct ion , cou ld in cr ea s e s u r fa ce
r u n off.
Th e pr es en ce of level ar eas wh ich h ave
good veget a t ion a n d a dja cen t s lopes .
Th es e a r ea s ma y in dica t e a s h a llow
gr ou n dwa t er t a ble wit h ca pilla r y wa t er
movemen t a n d ma y r equ ir e in t er cept in g
s u bs u r face dr ain age.
St r ea ms t h a t s h ou ld be ch ecked for n or -
ma l h igh -wa t er a n d flood in dica t or s .
PROTECTIVE MEASURES
Controlling runoff during construction can
be costly, The following measures can h e l p
Drainage 6-1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
ma in t a in s a t is fa ct or y dr a in a ge du r in g con -
s t r u ct ion :
Ma ke ma ximu m u s e of exis t in g dit ch es
an d dr ain age feat u r es . Wh er e pos s ible,
gr a de down h ill t o a llow econ omica l gr a d-
in g a n d t o t a ke a dva n t a ge of n a t u r a l
d r a in a ge
Us e t empor a r y dit ch es t o h elp con s t r u c-
t ion dr a in a ge. En s u r e effor t s a r e ma de
t o dr a in pa vemen t s u bgr a de exca va t ion s
a n d ba s e cou r s es t o pr even t det r imen t a l
s a t u r a t ion . Ca r efu lly con s ider t h e
dr a in a ge of a ll con s t r u ct ion r oa ds ,
equ ipmen t a r ea s , bor r ow pit s , a n d
wa s t e a r ea s .
Be a wa r e of a r ea s wh er e open exca va -
t ion can lead t o exces s ive er os ion . Th e
dis ch a r ge of t u r bid wa t er t o loca l
s t r ea ms will r equ ir e t empor a r y r et en -
t ion s t r u ct u r es .
Hold r a n dom exca va t ion t o a min imu m,
an d s od or s eed fin is h ed s u r faces imme-
diat ely.
Pla n t imely in s t a lla t ion of fin a l s t or m-
dr ain facilit ies an d backfillin g oper a-
t ion s t o a llow ma ximu m u s e du r in g con -
s t r u ct ion .
AREA CLEARING
Th e followin g con s t r ain t s s h ou ld be con -
s ider ed:
Exi s t i n g Dr a i n a ge
Clea r exces s veget a t ion fr om s t r ea ms . Th is
in cr ea s es t h e velocit y a n d qu a n t it y of flow.
Widen in g t h e s t r ea m ca n a ls o in cr ea s e t h e
flow. Ben ds a n d mea n der s ca n be cu t t o
s t r a igh t en t h e s t r ea m. Us e ca r e in ma kin g
ma jor a lign men t ch a n ges beca u s e t h ey ca n
ch a n ge t h e h ydr a u lic ch a r a ct er is t ics of t h e
s t r eam. Th is ch an ge cou ld adver s ely affect
ot h er pa r t s of t h e s t r ea m.
Ve ge t a t i on Re mova l
Milit a r y pr oject s ma y r equ ir e t h e r emova l of
a ll veget a t ion fr om la r ge a r ea s . Con s ider
t h e followin g fa ct or s wit h r ega r d t o con s t r u c-
t ion s t r ippin g:
Select a dis pos a l a r ea t h a t will n ot in t er -
fer e wit h or diver t t h e dr a in a ge pa t t er n
of s u r fa ce r u n off. If t h e dr a in a ge pa t -
t er n is dis t u r bed, t h e s t r ipped ma t er ia l
ma y for m a ba r r ier r es u lt in g in pen din g
a n d ma y ot h er wis e a ffect a dja cen t a r ea s .
Be a wa r e t h a t r emovin g t h e veget a t ion
fr om a n a r ea ca n lea d t o exces s ive s u r -
face r u n off an d er os ion . Th is cou ld
lea d, in t u r n , t o s ilt in g of ch a n n els a n d
floodin g of low a r ea s .
Con s ider t h at s er iou s ban k er os ion du e
t o s u r fa ce r u n off ma y occu r if veget a -
t ion a dja cen t t o t h e ba n ks of s t r ea ms or
dit ch es is r emoved. To avoid t h is , it
ma y be n eces s a r y t o lea ve t h e veget a -
t ion or t o pr ovide a ber m wit h a ch u t e.
In la r ge, clea r ed a r ea s , con t r ol r u n off
s edimen t s t o pr even t fa ilu r e of ot h er
s t r u ct u r es an d pos s ible adver s e en vir on -
men t a l effect s . Th is is mor e of a con -
t er n in per ma n en t con s t r u ct ion t h a n in
wa r t ime TO con s t r u ct ion .
Cle a r i n g, Gr u bbi n g, a n d St r i ppi n g
An y clea r in g, gr u bbin g, a n d s t r ippin g mu s t
in clu de fillin g h oles an d back dr aggin g or
gr adin g t o a s ligh t s lope. Th is will en s u r e
pr oper r u n off a n d pr even t wa t er fr om col-
lect in g a n d s a t u r a t in g t h e s u bgr a de. If fill-
in g a n d gr a din g is n ot don e, t h e a dven t of
r a in will ma ke it n eces s a r y t o s t r ip off a n y
wet s oil u n t il dr y s oil is r ea ch ed t o s t a r t
t h e fill. Some dit ch in g ma y be r equ ir ed t o
dir ect t h e s u r fa ce flow t o a n ou t let poin t .
Fi ll
Wh en placin g fill, exer cis e fir m con t r ol over
t h e pr oject t o pr even t a dver s e effect s fr om
impr oper dr a in a ge pr ocedu r es . Some of t h e
fa ct or s r equ ir in g a t t en t ion a r e
Th e fill s ect ion mu s t be r olled s moot h a t
t h e en d of ea ch wor kin g da y t o s ea l t h e
s u r fa ce. No a r ea s s h ou ld be left t h a t
ca n h old s t a n din g wa t er .
6-2 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Th e fill s u r fa ce mu s t be kept fr ee of r u t s
ca u s ed by t r u cks a n d ot h er equ ipmen t .
Th es e depr es s ion s collect r ain an d
s a t u r a t e t h e s u bgr a de. Als o, t h e s u r -
fa ce mu s t be cr own ed t o dis ch a r ge
r u n off qu ickly.
Wh en t h e fill a r ea is la r ge, it ma y be
n eces s ar y t o cr eat e s wales (depr es s ed
a r ea s ) t o con du ct s u r fa ce r u n off t o dis -
ch a r ge ou t let s .
To allow fill t o pr oceed, it may be n eces -
s a r y t o in s t a ll t empor a r y cu lver t s in t h e
fill a r ea in pla ces ot h er t h a n fin a l
des ign locat ion s . Aft er t h e fill a r ea h a s
r each ed des ign dept h , t h e des ign cu l-
ver t s can be pr oper ly t r en ch ed in place.
Di t c h i n g
Us e in t er cept ion dit ch es du r in g con s t r u c-
t ion t o collect a n d diver t s u r fa ce r u n off
befor e bu ildin g t h e des ign ed s ys t em. Pr ior
t o con s t r u ct ion , con du ct a s it e in ves t iga t ion
of t h e gen er a l la you t , con s is t en t wit h t h e
wor k plan . Wh en in t er cept ion dit ch es can -
n ot be ma de pa r t of t h e des ign dr a in a ge.
con s ider r emovin g t h e dit ch es by backfillin g
a n d compa ct in g.
Locat e in t er cept or dit ch es on h ills ides an d
a t t h e foot of s lopes t o in t er cept a n d diver t
r u n off fr om t h e con s t r u ct ion s it e. Ma ke
t h es e dit ch es par t of t h e fin al dr ain age s ys -
t em wh er ever pos s ible. Roads ide dit ch es , r e-
qu ir ed du r in g a ll con s t r u ct ion s t a ges ,
s h ou ld be placed at des ign locat ion s .
Du r in g con s t r u ct ion , u s e deep dit ch es for
s u bs u r fa ce dr a in a ge. Th ey in t er cept
gr ou n dwa t er flow, a s s h own in Figu r e 6-1.
If gr ou n dwa t er flow mu s t be in t er cept ed bu t
dit ch in g is n ot pos s ible, modify t h e dit ch
in t o a s u bs u r fa ce dr a in pipe s ys t em.
Dit ch in g ma y be r equ ir ed in s wa mp a r ea s
t o eit h er con t in u e dr a in a ge dit ch es t o a n
ou t let poin t or dr a in t h e a r ea .
En gin eer s may u s e explos ives in s u ch
cas es , s in ce t h e s oil may n ot be capable of
s u ppor t in g con s t r u ct ion equ ipmen t .
Dr aglin es s h ou ld als o be con s ider ed.
Figure 6-1. Deep interceptor ditch
Drainage 6-3
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM
Timber or s t eel ma t s ca n
32-8013, Vol 1
be u s ed t o pr ovide
a fir m fou n da t ion a n d s u ppor t equ ipmen t
du r in g t h e oper a t ion .
Cu l ve r t s
Cu lver t s a r e r equ ir ed du r in g con s t r u ct ion t o
a llow s u r fa ce r u n off. If s t r ea ms mu s t be
diver t ed t o a llow t h e con s t r u ct ion of
DRAINAGE HYDROLOGY
Th e h ydr ologic cycle is t h e con t in u ou s
pr oces s wh ich ca r r ies wa t er fr om t h e ocea n
t o t h e a t mos ph er e, t o t h e la n d, a n d ba ck t o
t h e s ea. A n u mber of differ en t s u bcycles
ca n t a ke pla ce con cu r r en t ly in t h e over a ll
cycle an d ar e dis cu s s ed below.
PRECIPITATION
Ra in fa ll is t h e mois t u r e-deliver y mech a n is m
of pr ima r y con cer n t o mos t milit a r y
dr ain age des ign er s . Sn owmelt ma y be of
gr ea t er con cer n in colder clima t es or in t h e
des ign of r es er voir s in milder r egion s .
Th es e con cer n s ar e beyon d t h e s cope of t h is
man u al, bu t t h ey ar e in clu ded in TM 5-852-7.
Th e a mou n t of r a in fa ll t h a t eva por a t es
depen ds on t h e s u r fa ce t emper a t u r e of
gr ou n d fea t u r es , t h e a ir t emper a t u r e, t h e
win d s peed, an d t h e r elat ive h u midit y.
Eva por a t ion occu r s wh ile r a in is fa llin g t o
t h e gr ou n d a n d a ft er it la n ds on veget a t ion
a n d ot h er gr ou n d cover .
INTERCEPTION
Ra in fa ll comin g t o r es t on veget a t ion is s a id
t o h a ve been in t er cept ed. La r ge qu a n t it ies
of wa t er ca n be t r a pped in t h e lea f ca n opy
of t r ees a n d pla n t s . Ra in does n ot r ea ch
t h e s oil u n t il t h e h oldin g ca pa cit y of t h e
veget at ion can opy is exceeded.
INFILTRATION
A s ign ifica n t por t ion of t h e wa t er t h a t a c-
t u a lly s t r ikes t h e s oil s oa ks in t o t h e
gr ou n d. Th is pr oces s is call in filt r at ion .
Th e r a t e of a bs or pt ion a n d t h e qu a n t it y of
per ma n en t cu lver t s , u s e t empor a r y cu lver t s
in t h e con s t r u ct ion a r ea . Never clos e
n a t u r a l dr a in a ge ch a n n els , even if t h ey a r e
cu r r en t ly dr y. If t h es e ch an n els ar e clos ed,
s u r fa ce r u n off fr om s u dden s t or ms cou ld
cau s e a s er iou s pr oblem. Th es e con dit ion s
mu s t be a n t icipa t ed. Con s t r u ct ion dr a in a ge
mu s t keep pa ce wit h t h e con s t r u ct ion
pr oject .
wat er abs or bed depen ds on t h e s oil t ype,
t h e veget a t ion , t h e t er r a in s lope, a n d t h e
s oil mois t n es s pr ior t o t h e r a in . St or m-
wa t er r u n off begin s t o a ccu mu la t e on ly
wh en t h e r a t e of r a in fa ll exceeds t h e r a t e of
in filt r a t ion .
DETENTION
Befor e over lan d wat er flow can begin it s
down h ill mot ion , it mu s t be deep en ou gh t o
over come a n y obs t a cles t o it s movemen t .
Det en t ion is t h e a mou n t of wa t er r equ ir ed
t o fill depr es s ion s of an y s ize in t h e ear t h s
s u r fa ce. Except by in filt r a t ion or eva por a -
t ion , n o wa t er ca n lea ve a depr es s ion u n t il
t h e h oldin g capacit y of t h e depr es s ion h as
been exceeded.
TRANSPIRATION
On a lon g-t er m ba s is , veget a t ion r et u r n s
wa t er t o t h e a t mos ph er e t h r ou gh a pr oces s
ca lled t r a n s pir a t ion . Beca u s e of t h e t ime in -
volved, t r a n s pir a t ion h a s n o immedia t e ef-
fect on wa t er r u n off in a n a r ea .
RUNOFF
Eva por a t ion , in t er cept ion , in filt r a t ion , det en -
t ion , a n d t r a n s pir a t ion a r e a ll mois t u r e los -
s es , Ru n off is pr ecipit a t ion min u s t h es e
mois t u r e los s es .
STORMS
St or ms ca n deliver a la r ge qu a n t it y of wa t er
t o t h e ea r t h in a s h or t per iod of t ime. For
6-4 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol
t h a t r ea s on , t h e s t u dy of s t or ms is a n im-
por t a n t pa r t of t h e s t u dy of dr a in a ge h ydr ol-
ogy. Th is s ect ion dis cu s s es s t or ms in
t er ms of du r a t ion , fr equ en cy, a n d in t en s it y.
It des cr ibes pr ocedu r es for det er min in g max-
imu m s t or ms a n d in t r odu ces t h e s u bject of
r u n off.
Du r a t i on
Du r a t ion is t h e len gt h of t ime a s t or m
la s t s , Aft er ma n y yea r s of obs er va t ion ,
h ydr ologis t s h a ve det er min ed t h a t a s t or m
of lon g du r a t ion u s u a lly h a s low in t en s it y.
In con t r a s t . a h igh -in t en s it y s t or m u s u a lly
h a s a s h or t du r a t ion . Figu r e 6-2 s h ows
t ypical s t or m h ydr ogr aph y developed by t h e
Na t ion a l Wea t h er Ser vice. Time, u s u a lly
mea s u r ed in h ou r s , is depict ed h or izon t a lly.
Th e a mou n t of r a in for ea ch u n it of t ime is
mea s u r ed ver t ica lly in in ch es . Th e t ot a l
a mou n t of pr ecipit a t ion is t h e a r ea of t h e
gr a ph . Th e five ma in t ypes of s t or ms a r e
des cr ibed below.
Th u n d e r s t or m s
Th u n der s t or ms , r epr es en t ed by Figu r e
6-2(a), ar e local at mos ph er ic dis t u r ban ces
of s h or t du r a t ion a n d h igh a ver a ge r a t e of
r a in fa ll (in t en s it y). Th ey a r e ch a r a ct er ized
by t h u n der , ligh t n in g, t or r en t ia l r a in , a n d
s omet imes h a il, Th u n der s t or ms t en d t o
gover n t h e des ign of dr a in a ge for s ma ll
a r ea s .
Mode r a t e St or ms
Moder a t e s t or ms , r epr es en t ed by Figu r e
6-2(b), cover lar ger ar eas for s ever al h ou r s
wit h moder a t e in t en s it y. Th es e s t or ms
Figure 6-2. Typical storm hyetographs
Drainage 6-5
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
develop gr ea t er t ot a l pr ecipit a t ion t h a n
t h u n der s t or ms . Th e moder a t e s t or m n or -
ma lly con t r ols t h e des ign of dr a in a ge s t r u c-
t u r es for mediu m-s ized ba s in s .
Lon g-Du r a t ion St or ms
Lon g-du r a t ion s t or ms , r epr es en t ed by Fig-
u r e 6-2(c), page 6-5, oft en h ave s ever al
pea ks of h igh r a in fa ll. Du r a t ion s ma y be
u p t o s ever al days , developin g ver y lar ge
a mou n t s of pr ecipit a t ion a t r ela t ively low
a ver a ge r a t es of r a in fa ll. Wit h a low
a ver a ge r a t e of r a in fa ll, s u ch s t or ms h a ve
lit t le or n o impa ct on s ma ll- or mediu m-
s ized dr a in a ge ba s in s , bu t t h ey n or ma lly
con t r ol t h e des ign of dr a in a ge s t r u ct u r es for
lar ge bas in s .
Mon s oon s
Mon s oon s a r c s ea s on a l win ds of t h e In dia n
Ocean an d s ou t h er n As ia. Th es e win ds
blow fr om t h e s ou t h du r in g Apr il t o Oct ober
a n d fr om t h e n or t h du r in g t h e r es t of t h e
yea r . Hea vy r a in s u s u a lly ch a r a ct er ize t h e
Apr il-t o-Oct ober s ea s on . Th is r a in is n ot
n or ma lly con t in u ou s ; it r is es t o a pea k a n d
t h en s u bs ides in a cyclic fas h ion .
Tr opic a l Cyc lon e s
Hu r r ica n es a n d t yph oon s a r e s t or ms ca u s ed
by s ever e cyclon ic dis t u r ban ces over a wide
a r ea . Pr ecipit a t ion is n or ma lly h ea vy a n d
lon g.
De s i gn Li fe Ve r s u s Ac t u a l Li fe of a St r u c -
t u r e
Th e des ign s t or m is a n idea lized s t or m t h a t
is expect ed 10 be equ alled or exceeded at
leas t on ce du r in g t h e des ign life of a
dr a in a ge s ys t em. For exa mple, if a dr a in -
age s ys t em h as been des ign ed for an es -
t ima t ed life of five yea r s , t h en t h e des ign
s t or m will h ave a five-year fr equ en cy. Th e
fr equ en cy of a des ign s t or m is t h e a ver a ge
r et u r n per iod of a s t or m. For exa mple, if a
t wo-yea r fr equ en cy s t or m h a s a n in t en s it y
of 1.5 in ch es of r ain fall per h ou r , it can be
expect ed t h a t a s t or m of t h a t in t en s it y or
gr eat er will r ecu r an aver age of on ce ever y
t wo yea r s . Two yea r s is a ls o ca lled t h e
r et u r n per iod. Th e r ecipr oca l of t h e r et u r n
per iod is t h e pr oba bilit y of h a vin g a s t or m
of t h a t va lu e or gr ea t er in a n y on e yea r .
For t h e t wo-yea r -fr equ en cy s t or m, t h e pr ob-
a bilit y of h a vin g a s t or m equ a llin g or ex-
ceedin g t h e valu e in an y on e year is 0.5
(t wo ou t of fou r t imes ).
Th e des ign -s t or m fr equ en cy for TO con s t r u c-
t ion is n or ma lly t wo yea r s . If con s t r u ct ion
wit h a lon ger es t imat ed life is des ir ed, t h e
a ppr opr ia t e de s ign s t or m s h ou ld be
s pe c i fi e d i n t h e a u t h or i zi n g di r e c t i ve .
As wit h a n y s t a t is t ica l met h od of des cr ibin g
es s en t ia lly r a n dom, n a t u r a l even t s s u ch a s
wea t h er , t h er e is a degr ee of u n cer t a in t y.
Th e t wo-yea r des ign s t or m occu r s on t h e
a ver a ge ever y t wo yea r s ; it is n ot gu a r a n -
t eed t o occu r ever y t wo yea r s . St a t is t ica lly,
t h e pr oba bilit y of a s t or m equ a l t o or
gr ea t er t h a n t h e t wo-yea r des ign s t or m oc-
cu r r in g in a n y t wo yea r s is 0.75 (t h r ee ou t
of fou r t imes ). Det a ils of t h e s t a t is t ics in -
volved can be fou n d in h ydr ology t ext books .
WEATHER DATA
If t h er e a r e ext en s ive r a in fa ll a n d r a in -r a t e
r ecor ds for t h e loca t ion of in t er es t , a n d if
h ydr ologis t s h ave examin ed t h os e r ecor ds
s t a t is t ica lly t o for mu la t e in t en s it y-du r a t ion
t a bles , t h en t h os e t a bles ca n be obt a in ed
t h r ou gh t h e Air For ce s t a ff wea t h er officer .
Th e s t a ff wea t h er officer is n or ma lly loca t ed
at divis ion level.
Wit h in t h e Un it ed St a t es , t h e da t a will
gen er a lly come fr om t h e Na t ion a l Wea t h er
Ser vice, eit h er dir ect ly or t h r ou gh t h e Air
For ce. Over s ea s , t h e s t a ff wea t h er officer
ma y be a ble t o obt a in da t a fr om loca l
gover n men t s ou r ces , bu t it ma y t a ke con s id-
er a ble t ime t o obt a in . However , it is u n like-
ly t h a t s u ch pin poin t da t a is a va ila ble in
ma n y over s ea s TO loca t ion s . Wh en wea t h er
da t a is n ot a va ila ble, u s e r a in fa ll is oh yet a l
ma ps . Is oh yet a l ma ps h a ve con t ou r s of
equ a l r a in fa ll in t en s it y ju s t a s t opogr a ph ic
ma ps h a ve con t ou r s of equ a l eleva t ion . Fig-
u r e 6-3 is a n is oh yet a l ma p of t h e wor ld, in
t h is cas e s h owin g t h e is o-in t en s it y lin es for
a 60-min u t e, 2-yea r s t or m.
6-6 Drainage
F
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6
-
3
.

W
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d

i
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F
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4
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3
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8
0
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6
-
7
40 40
ATLANTIC OCEAN
20
PACIFIC OCEAN 20
o
o
INDIAN OCEAN
20
20
PACIFIC OCEAN
40
\/ "-',
40
120 100 80 60 40 20 o 20 40 60 80
Figure 6-3. World isohyetal map
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
To pr oper ly r ea d a va lu e on t h e is oh yet a l
ma p, fin d t h e pr oject loca t ion a n d r ea d t h e
va lu e of t h e a ppr opr ia t e is oh yet (s ).
Do n ot in t er pola t e. If a pr oject loca t ion
fa lls
On a n is oh yet a l lin e, r ea d t h e va lu e of
t h a t is oh yet .
Bet ween t wo is oh yet s , r ea d t h e la r ger
valu e.
Wit h in an en cir clin g is oh yet al lin e, r ead
t h e valu e of t h e en cir clin g is oh yet .
Examples (in in ch es per h ou r (in / h r )):
Sou t h er n Au s t r a lia 1. 0
Nor t h Da kot a 1.5
Flor ida 2.5
Wa s h in gt on , DC 1. 5
Viet n a m 2.5
Cu ba 2.5
Ne w Or l e a n s , Lou i s i a n a 2 . 5
Not e t h a t t h e in t en s it ies ju s t fou n d a r e for
a 60-min u t e s t or m. Th is mu s t n ow be a d-
ju s t ed t o t h e cr it ica l du r a t ion of t h e pr oject
u n der con s t r u ct ion . On ce t h e cr it ica l du r a -
t ion h a s been det er min ed, ma ke t h e a dju s t -
men t u s in g t h e s t a n da r d r a in fa ll in t en s it y-
du r at ion cu r ves in Figu r e 6-4.
Th e s t an dar d cu r ves ar e n u mber ed 1.0, 2.0,
3.0, an d 4.0, wit h in t er mediat e valu es r eadi-
ly in t er pola t ed. Not e t h a t cu r ve n u mber 1
pa s s es t h r ou gh 1 in ch per h ou r a t 60
min u t es , cu r ve n u mber 2 pa s s es t h r ou gh 2
in ch es per h ou r a t 60 min u t es , a n d s o on .
Wh er e in t en s it y is kn own for a n y n on a r ct ic
loca t ion (t a ken fr om t h e is oh yet a l ma p, Fig-
u r e 6-3, page 6-7) an d cr it ical du r at ion is
calcu lat ed, t h e in t en s it y (1) can eas ily be
det er min ed. (Th e s t a n da r d in t en s it y-du r a -
t ion cu r ves a r e a pplica ble t o a n y fr equ en cy,
n ot ju s t a 2-yea r fr equ en cy.)
To u s e Figu r e 6-4, en t er t h e gr aph u s in g
t h e Du r a t ion in Min u t es (Tc). Follow t h e
lin e ver t ica lly u n t il it in t er s ect s t h e cu r ve
wh os e n u mber cor r es pon ds t o t h e 60-
min u t e in t en s it y det er min ed fr om t h e
is oh yet a l ma p (or fr om pin poin t da t a , if YOU
ch oos e n ot t o dr a w you r own in t en s it y-du r a -
t ion cu r ve). Rea d h or izon t a lly t o t h e left t o
det er min e t h e r a in fa ll in t en s it y (I) in in ch es
per h ou r . Th e followin g is an example:
2-yr Critical
Intensity Duration

(in/hr) (min) (in/hr)
1.0 5 0 1.2
1.5 3 0 2.4
2.0 10 5.2
RUNOFF
Pr ecipit a t ion s u pplies wa t er t o t h e s u r fa ce,
bu t eva por a t ion , in t er cept ion , a n d in filt r a -
t ion begin t o dr a w wa t er a t t h e s t a r t of t h e
s t or m. Even t u a lly, if t h e s t or m is s t r on g
en ou gh , veget a t ion a n d ot h er s u r fa ce ch a r -
act er is t ics , s u ch as depr es s ion s an d s oil,
will become s a t u r a t ed, a llowin g wa t er t o
flow fr eely over t h e s u r face. Th is con dit ion
is called r u n off an d is u s u ally meas u r ed in
cu bic feet per s econ d (cfs ). Ru n off begin s
s omet ime a ft er t h e begin n in g of pr ecipit a -
t ion a n d ma y con t in u e lon g a ft er pr ecipit a -
t ion en ds .
Th e t ot a l qu a n t it y of r u n off fr om a given
a r ea , a ft er it is collect ed in ch a n n els a n d
s t r ea ms , is t h e flow es t ima t e u s ed t o des ign
a n a r ea s dr a in a ge s t r u ct u r es .
Tr a n s pir a t ion a n d eva por a t ion a ls o dr a w
fr om t h e wa t er s u pplied by pr ecipit a t ion .
However , t h es e ar e r elat ively s mall los s es
a n d will n ot u s u a lly a ffect milit a r y dr a in a ge
des ign . Es t imat in g r u n off will be dis cu s s ed
la t er in t h is ch a pt er . On ce t h e r u n off h a s
been det er min ed, n eces s ar y dit ch es an d cu l-
ver t s can be des ign ed.
6-8 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 6-4. Standard rainfall intensity-duration curves
THE HYDROGRAPH
St r ea m-wa t er flow ma y or igin a t e fr om s u r -
fa ce r u n off, gr ou n dwa t er , or bot h . Ru n off
r ea ch es t h e s t r ea m a s over la n d flow.
Gr ou n dwa t er flow r es u lt s fr om s ide-ba n k
s eepage an d s pr in gs . Th e h ydr ogr aph y
depict s t h e flu ct u a t ion s of flow wit h r ega r d
t o t ime.
Th e elemen t s of a h ydr ogr a ph a r e ba s e
flow, la g t ime, pea k flow, lime of con cen t r a -
t ion (TOC), a n d flow volu me. Ea ch s t r ea m
will h a ve it s own ch a r a ct er is t ic h ydr ogr a ph y
wit h widely va r yin g va lu es for t h e elemen t s .
A t ypica l s t r ea m-flow h ydr ogr a ph y is s h own
in Figu r e 6-5, page 6-10.
BASE FLOW
Th e bas e flow of a s t r eam depen ds u pon
t h e a mou n t of gr ou n dwa t er t h a t s eeps in t o
t h e s t r ea m a n d it s t r ibu t a r ies fr om t h eir
ba n ks a n d t h e flow fr om per ma n en t s pr in gs
a n d s wa mps . Depen din g on t h e a r ea ,
clima t e, a n d gr ou n dwa t er level, it ma y flow
a t a fa ir ly con s t a n t r a t e. Con ver s ely, t h e
flow ma y flu ct u a t e widely or even cea s e com-
plet ely for s ome per iods of t ime.
LAG TIMES
Wh en pr ecipit at ion begin s over an ar ea,
t h er e is an in it ial per iod du r in g wh ich t h e
los s fact or s in du ced by in t er cept ion , in filt r a-
t ion , a n d det en t ion t a ke effect befor e a n y
s u r fa ce r u n off t a kes pla ce. St r ea m flow will
in cr eas e on ly wh en t h es e in it ial los s es h ave
been s at is fied an d s u r face r u n off begin s .
Th is is kn own as in it ial lag t ime. Th e
len gt h of t h is lag t ime is in flu en ced by
Drainage 6-9
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 6-5. Typical hydrograph
veget a t ion a n d ot h er t er r a in ch a r a ct er is t ics . t h e h ydr ogr a ph y pea ks a t t h a t poin t . TOC
For example, a gr as s -cover ed par kin g ar ea
will h a ve a lon ger in it ia l la g per iod t h a n a n
a s ph a lt pa r kin g lot of t h e s a me s ize.
A s econ d la g t ime occu r s bet ween t h e t ime
t h e s t er n ] r each es it s peak pecipit at ion
r a t e a n d t h e t ime t h e s t r ea m r ea ch es it s
ma ximu m flow. Th e len gt h of t h is s econ -
dar y lag t ime is in flu en ced by t h e s ize of
t h e a r ea dr a in ed. In s ma ll- a n d moder a t ely -
s ized dr ain age ar eas , t h er e will be on ly
s ligh t differ en ces bet ween s t or m peak an d
s t r ea m pea k.
PEAK FLOW
Th e pea k of t h e h ydr ogr a ph y is t h e ma xi-
mu m s t r ea m flow t h a t will occu r du r in g a
pa r t icu la r s t or m. In gen er a l, pea k flow is
gen er a t ed wh en t h e en t ir e dr a in ed a r ea is
dis ch ar gin g it s r u n off. Peak flow is r ead
dir ect ly fr om t h e ma ximu m or din a t e of t h e
h ydr ogr aph Th is flow det er min es t h e s ize
of t h e dr a in a ge s t r u ct u r es r equ ir ed a t t h e
ba s in ou t let .
TIME OF CONCENTRATION
is critical to the drainage engineer, since it
determines the duration of the storm that
will demand the most from the drainage sys-
tem; that is, the storms critical duration.
VOLUME OF FLOW
Th e a r ea u n der t h e cu r ve of t h e h ydr ogr a ph y
in dica t es t h e t ot a l flow, in cu bic feet , r es u lt -
in g fr om a n y pa r t icu la r s t or m. It is u s ed in
dr ain age des ign for det er min in g pen din g
t imes wh en it is pr a ct ica l t o u s e cu lver t s
with submerged inlets.
CONSTRUCTING A HYDROGRAPHY
A h ydr ogr a ph is con s t r u ct ed by mea s u r in g
a s t r ea ms r is e a n d fa ll a n d t h e t imes r e-
lat ed t o t h es e ch an ges in flow. Wh en con -
s t r u ct in g a h ydr ogr a ph
Th e ba s e flow mu s t be mea s u r ed a t a
t ime wh en t h er e h a ve been n o r ecen t
s t or ms . A field r econ n a is s a n ce mu s t be
ma de for t h is mea s u r emen t .
Th e peak flow can be es t imat ed u s in g
t h e h a s t y r u n off es t ima t ion pr es en t ed in
t h is ch a pt er .
Th e gen er a l s h a pe of t h e cu r ve of t h e
h ydr ogr a ph will be s imila r t o t h a t
s h own in Figu r e 6-5.
Th e TOC is t h e t ime it la kes for a n en t ir e
dr a in a ge ba s in t o begin con t r ibu t in g r u n off
t o t h e s t r ea m. As s u min g u n ifor m r a in fa ll,
6-10 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
DRAINAGE-SYSTEM DESIGN
DESIGN DATA REQUIREMENTS
Befor e des ign in g a dr ain age s ys t em, s u r vey
t h e va r iou s t ypes a n d s ou r ces of dr a in a ge-
r ela t ed in for ma t ion , Th e s u r vey s h ou ld in -
clu de, a s a min imu m, in for ma t ion con cer n -
in g t h e a r ea s t opogr a ph y, met eor ologica l
r ecor ds , s oil ch ar act er is t ics , an d available
con s t r u ct ion r es ou r ces .
TOPOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION
Give s pecia l a t t en t ion t o t h e vicin it y of t h e
pr opos ed facilit y as well as t h e pr es en ce of
a n y t opogr a ph ica l fea t u r es t h a t ma y con -
t r ibu t e r u n off t o t h e pr oject a r ea . Th e com-
plet ed fa cilit y oft en will in t er fer e wit h t h e
s it es n a t u r a l dr a in a ge. Th er efor e, wh en
a n a lyzin g t h e effect s of t h e s u r r ou n din g t er -
r a in
Iden t ify a ll a r ea s t h a t con t r ibu t e r u n off
t o t h e s it e.
Det er min e t h e gen er a l s ize a n d s h a pe of
t h es e con t r ibu t in g a r ea s .
Det er min e t h e n a t u r a l dir ect ion of s u r -
fa ce-wa t er flow, t h e s lope of t h e la n d,
a n d t h e t ype a n d ext en t of n a t u r a l
gr ou n d cover .
Loca t e n a t u r a l ch a n n els t h a t ca n be
u s ed t o move r u n off wit h in t h e pr oject
a r ea or t o diver t
s it e.
it a wa y fr om t h e wor k
METEOROLOGICAL DATA
Ga t h er in for ma t ion on gen er a l clima t ic con -
dit ion s , s ea s on a l va r ia t ion s in r a in s t or ms ,
a n d in t en s it y a n d du r a t ion of r epr es en t a t ive
s t or ms . Th is dat a can t h en be applied t o
t h e loca t ion of t h e pr opos ed fa cilit y.
SOIL CHARACTERISTICS
Obt a in s oil da t a fr om s oil a n d geologica l
ma ps , a er ia l ph ot ogr a ph s , or s it e t es t s per -
for med by s oil a n a lys t s . Soil da t a dea ls
wit h t h e h or izon t a l a n d ver t ica l ext en t of
s oil t ypes , t h e eleva t ion of t h e gr ou n dwa t er
t a ble, a n d t h e dr a in a ge ch a r a ct er is t ics of
t h e s oil. Th e mos t impor t a n t dr a in a ge ch a r -
act er is t ic of a s oil is it s per meabilit y. Per -
mea bilit y limit s t h e r a t e a t wh ich t h e r a in -
fa ll in filt r a t es t h e gr ou n d, wh ich gr ea t ly in -
flu en ces t h e pr es en ce an d movemen t of s u b-
s u r fa ce wa t er .
AVAILABLE RESOURCES
Ma ke a n in it ia l in ves t iga t ion of t h e t ime,
ma t er ia ls , equ ipmen t , a n d la bor a va ila ble t o
bu ild a dr a in a ge s ys t em. Wit h ou t a s u ffi-
cien t qu a n t it y of t h es e es s en t ia ls , t h e con -
s t r u ct ion of a n a dequ a t e s ys t em is impos -
s ible.
DESIGN PROCEDURES
Des ign in g a dr ain age s ys t em in volves du r es in t h e des ign of an y dr ain age s t r u c-
n u mer ou s a s s u mpt ion s a n d es t ima t es . Th e t u r e:
degr ee of pr ot ect ion t o be pr ovided is dir ect -
ly r ela t ed t o t h e impor t a n ce of t h e es t a b-
Det er min in g t h e a r ea (u s u a lly in a cr es )
lis h ed t ime-u s e per iod. Th e gen er al loca-
con t r ibu t in g r u n off t o t h e fa cilit y
t ion of t h e facilit y will be det er min ed by it s
fu n ct ion a l r equ ir emen t s .
Th e dr a in a ge s ys t em mu s t be pla n n ed a n d
des ign ed for t h e pr edet er min ed locat ion of
t h e facilit y. Th er e ar e t h r ee bas ic pr oce-
Es t ima t in g t h e qu a n t it y of r u n off.
Des ign in g t h e dr a in a ge s t r u ct u r e t o
ca r r y t h e ma ximu m expect ed r u n off.
Drainage 6-11
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013 Vol 1
DETERMINING THE AREA
CONTRIBUTING RUNOFF
t he
Wh en developin g a t en t a t ive la you t for
dr a in a ge s ys t em, iden t ify a ll loca t ion s
wit h in t h e s it e r equ ir in g dr a in a ge s t r u c-
t u r es beca u s e of t opogr a ph ica l or ma n u fa c-
t u r ed fea t u r es . Th is is bes t don e fr om a
t opogr a ph ic ma p of t h e a r ea or a s ket ch of
t h e pr oject s it e.
Next , det er min e t h e a cr ea ge of t h e a r ea s
t h a t con t r ibu t e r u n off t o t h es e r equ ir ed
dr a in a ge s t r u ct u r es . An a n a lys is of exis t in g
ch an n els is h elpfu l in es t ablis h in g locat ion s
for t h e r equ ir ed s t r u ct u r es . Upon comple-
t ion , t h is t en t a t ive pla n s h ou ld be field
ch ecked at t h e pr oject s it e.
Es t a bli s h i n g Dr a i n a ge -St r u c t u r e Loc a t i on s
Th e in it ial s t ep in developin g a dr ain age-
s t r u ct u r e la you t is t o es t a blis h t h e loca t ion
of t h e r equ ir ed dr a in a ge s t r u ct u r es . Pla ce-
men t , in gen er al. will be con t r olled by t h e
t opogr a ph y. For exa mple, a fill s ect ion
wh ich cr os s es a valley will r equ ir e on e or
mor e cu lver t s t o per mit t h e flow of s t or m
r u n off down t h e valley. A depr es s ion or
en clos ed ar ea will r equ ir e dit ch es or cu l-
ver t s a t va r iou s poin t s t o r emove a ccu mu -
la t ed r a in fa ll.
Figu r e 6-6 s h ows an air field wit h r equ ir ed
cu lver t s (X) an d open ch an n els or dit ch es
(V). Not e t h a t a t Poin t A t h e eleva t ion is 65
feet , wh ile a t Poin t B t h e eleva t ion is 55
feet . Cu lver t s a n d dit ch es mu s t be la id t o
ca r r y wa t er fr om h igh t o low eleva t ion s .
Th e a lign men t of t h es e cu lver t s a n d dit ch es
Figure 6-6. Typical airfield drainage features
6-12 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
s h ou ld be as
s ible, Sh a r p
s t r a igh t a n d s moot h a s pos -
ben ds in dit ch es or n ear cu l-
ver t s will ca u s e er os ion . Not s h own on t h is
s ket ch a r c t h e s t a n da r d dit ch es con s t r u ct ed
a lon g t h e s ides of a ll milit a r y r oa ds a n d a ir -
fields .
De li n e a t i n g Wa t e r s h e ds
Aft er in it ia lly loca t in g dr a in a ge s t r u ct u r es ,
defin e t h e bou n da r ies of t h e a r ea s (or wa t er -
s h eds ) con t r ibu t in g r u n off t o ea ch of t h em.
Th is pr oces s is kn own as delin eat ion .
Delin eat ion is per for med in s ix s imple s t eps
(r efer t o Figu r e 6-6):
St ep 1. Loca t e a ll exis t in g or pr opos ed
dr a in a ge s t r u ct u r es on t h e t opogr a ph ic ma p
or s ket ch (X a n d V).
St ep 2. Iden t ify a n d ma r k a ll t er r a in h igh
poin t s .
St ep 3. Dr a w a r r ows r epr es en t in g wa t er
flow a wa y fr om t h es e h igh poin t s . (Th es e
a r r ows mu s t a lwa ys be pe r pe n di c u la r t o
t h e con t ou r lin es beca u s e wa t er flows
down h ill. )
St ep 4. Con t in u e dr a win g t h e a r r ows u n t il
t h ey con ver ge u pon t h e cu lver t or t h e en d
of t h e dit ch . Remember t h a t r u n off will
flow pa r a llel t o a r oa d or a ir field wh en it is
in t er cept ed by s ide (or in t er cept or ) dit ch es .
St ep 5. Dr a w delin ea t ion lin es . (Th es e
lin es will r u n fr om h igh poin t t o h igh poin t ,
in dica t in g wh er e t h e flow of s u r fa ce r u n off
s epar at es .) Delin eat ion lin es ar c locat ed s o
t h ey ca n n ot be cr os s ed by a n y flow a r r ows .
Flow a r r ows on ly cr os s delin ca t ion lin es a t
cu lver t s or dit ch es .
NOTE: De li n e a t i on li n e s a r e dr a wn be -
t we e n oppos in g a r r ows , (Se e Figu r e 6 -7 . )
Figu r es 6-7 an d 6-8 depict t h e u s e of flow
ar r ows an d delin eat ion lin es for s pecial,
ma n u fa ct u r ed s t r u ct u r es s u ch a s r oa ds ,
air fields , an d s u per elevat ed r oads . Wh en
a ir fields or s t r a igh t r oa dwa ys a r e pr oper ly
con s t r u ct ed, t h ey a r c s h a ped s o t h a t t h e
h igh es t por t ion of t h e cr os s s ect ion (t h e
cr own ) is a t t h e cen t er lin e, a s illu s t r a t ed in
Figu r e 6-8. In t h e plan view, t h e delin ea-
t ion will be at t h e cen t er lin e pr ecis ely
Figure 6-7. Delineation of roads and air fields
Figure 6-8. Delineation of superelevated roads
Drainage 6-13
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
where t h e a ccu mu la t ed s t or m wa t er wou ld will a lwa ys s epa r a t e a t t h e ou t s ide edge of
s epar at e an d flow in oppos in g dir ect ion s .
Figu r e 6-8, page 6-13, s h ows h ow s u per -
eleva t ed r oa dwa ys (r oa dwa ys t h a t a r c
ba n ked t o ea s e t h e flow of t r a ffic t h r ou gh a
cu r ve) ar c delin eat ed. In a pr oper ly con -
s t r u ct ed, s u per eleva t ed r oa d, s t or m wa t er
t h e cu r ve.
Sever al examples ar e pr ovided t o aid in
vis u alizin g s pecial t er r ain feat u r es , in clu d -
in g h ills , r idges , valleys , an d s addles , as
s h own in Figu r es 6-9 an d 6-10 an d Figu r e
6-11, page 6-16.
Figure 6-9. Delineation of a hill
6-14 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-2/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Sin ce each cover or s oil t ype will
meas u r ed accor din g t o it s r es pect ive cover
effect on t h e ba s in , if t h er e a r c
t ype. (See Figu r e 6-12, page 6- 17.)
t ypes of cover in t h e bas in , each
s oil t ype mu s t be delin eat ed an d
St ep 6.
h a ve a n
mu lt iple
cover or
Figure 6-10. Delineation of valleys and draws
Drainage 6-15
DraW
Delineation
line
FM 50430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 6-11. Delineation of ridges, spurs, and saddles
6-16 Drainage
Ridge line
-.1 __ , __ __
Saddle
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 6-12. Area delineation by cover or soil type
De t e r mi n i n g Dr a i n a ge -Sys t e m Si ze
Aft er delin ea t in g t h e wa t er s h ed det er min e
it s s ize in a cr es . Ma ke t h is mea s u r emen t
car efu lly, s in ce t h e s ize dir ect ly in flu en ces
t h e ca lcu la t ion of r u n off fr om t h e wa t er s h ed
a t pea k flow. Us e a n y a ccu r a t e met h od of
mea s u r emen t des ir ed. A pla n imet er wh ich
mea s u r es t h e a r ea of a pla n e figu r e a s a
mech an ically cou pled poin t er t r aver s es t h e
figu r es per imet er , is qu it e a ccu r a t e a n d
s h ou ld be u s ed, if available. However ,
s ever a l ot h er met h ods a r c s u it a ble for field
es t ima t ion .
Counting-s quares method . To ma ke a h a s t y
a ppr oxima t ion of a n a r ea , t r a n s pos e t h e ou t -
lin e of t h e wa t er s h ed t o gr a ph pa per (or
ot h er s u it a ble gr id). Cou n t t h e n u mber of
wh ole s qu a r es a n d es t ima t e t h e va lu es of
t h e pa r t ia l s qu a r es Mu lt iply t h e t ot a l n u m -
ber of cou n t ed s qu a r es by t h e n u mber of
cou n t ed s qu ar e feet r epr es en t ed by a s in gle
s qu a r e. Th en con ver t t h e mea s u r emen t in
s qu ar e feet t o acr es (1 acr e = 43,560
s qu ar e feet ), Figu r e 6-13, page 6-18, s h ows
t h is t ech n iqu e.
Drainage 6-17
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 6-13. Area measurement - counting-squares method
6-18 Drainage
i.I
..
~
,.
"
III
IiI
10IIII
..
Scale: Large squares - 1 sq in
Small squares - 1/100 sq in
I
I TT T
Calculation.:
Approximate number of large squares = 5 = 5 sq in
Approximate number of small squares = 564 = 5.64 sq in
Approximate area = 10.64 sq in
Example:
If one aquare repre .. nt. 10.000 actual
aq ft on the ground. then the
delineated are. rapre.ent.:
10.64(10.0001 2 ....
= ._ acre.
43.580
I
-
-
-
Ge ome t ric-s h a pe s me t h od . This method in-
volves estimating the watershed shape in
terms of rectangles, triangles, or trapezoids.
Using the formulas below for determining
the areas of these geometric shapes, deter-
mine the area of each shape and then total
all areas to estimate the area of the water-
shed. This technique is shown in Figure
6-14, page 6-20.
Rect a n gle:
Ar ea = ba s e x h eigh t or A = bh
Tr ia n gle:
Ar ea = ba s e x h eigh t or A = bh
Tr a p ezoid
Ar ea = s u m of ba s es x h eigh t
or A =
Stripper method. Th e s t r ipper met h od is a
va r ia t ion of t h e geomet r ic-s h a pes met h od.
Th is met h od is s h own in Figu r e 6-15, page
6-21. Appr oxima t e t h e a r ea by dr a win g a
s er ies of lin es t h a t a r e equ idis t a n t (s t r ipper
widt h ) a cr os s t h e delin ea t ed a r ea . Th en
mea s u r e t h e lin es a n d t ot a l a ll of t h em.
L = t ot a l of t h e len gt h s , Th is met h od is
mor e applicable for field es t imat ion s . Us e a
s t r ipper widt h of 1 in ch .
Th e t ot a l of t h e len gt h s (L) is t h en mu lt i-
plied by t h e s t r ipper widt h . Th is wou ld r ep-
r es en t t h e t ot a l a r ea on t h e ma p in s qu a r e
in ch es . Sin ce t h e valu e of 1 s qu ar e in ch
on t h e ma p wou ld r epr es en t t h e ma p s ca le
s qu a r ed on la n d, t h e a cr ea ge ca n be fou n d
by mu lt iplyin g L (in in ch es ) x s t r ipper widt h
(in in ch es ) x (map s cale in feel per in ch
an d dividin g t h e pr odu ct by 43,560
a cr e.
Exa mple:
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Solu t ion :
St ep 1.
St ep 2.
St ep 3.
ESTIMATING THE QUANTITY OF RUNOFF
Dr a in a ge s ys t ems mu s t be des ign ed t o a c-
commoda t e t h e pea k flow gen er a t ed by
r u n off fr om con t r ibu t in g wa t er s h eds du r in g
t h e des ign s t or m, Ma n y t ech n iqu es a r c
a va ila ble for det er min in g t h e pea k flow, bu t
mos t a r c t oo complex for gen er a l field u s e.
Th is ma n u a l will demon s t r a t e t h e mos t com-
on met h od for es t ima t in g r u n offt h e r a -
t ion a l met h od.
DESIGNING DRAINAGE STRUCTURES
FOR MAXIMUM RUNOFF
To a ccommoda t e t h e pea k flow of t h e
des ign s t or m, des ign s t r u ct u r es mu s t pr o-
vide a s u fficien t cr os s -s ect ion al ar ea an d
lon git u din a l s lope for pa s s in g s t or m r u n off.
If pen din g or floodin g of adjacen t ar eas
mu s t be pr even t ed, t h e des ign mu s t be for
peak flow. At t h e s a me t ime, wa t er
velocit ies gen er a t ed a t pea k flow mu s t n ot
be s o gr ea t a s t o ca u s e da ma ge t o t h e
dr ain age s t r u ct u r e or exces s ive er os ion an d
s cou r in g 10 t h e pr ot ect ed facilit y.
Det er min e t h e ca pa cit y of dr a in a ge s t r u c-
t u r es by ca lcu la t in g t h e r u n off fr om a ll
con t r ibu t in g dr a in a ge a r ea s . Specific pr oce-
du r es for des ign in g open ch an n els an d cu l-
ver t s ar e dis cu s s ed lat er in t h e ch apt er .
L = 12.5, ma p s ca le = 175 ft / in , s t r ipper
widt h = 1 in ch (in )
Drainage 6-19
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 6-14. Area measurement - geometric-shapes method
6-20 Drainage
T I I
I I
Scale: Large squares - 1 sq in ,.,.
Small squares - 1/100 sq in
I I I I I I I T T

I T
T T I I I
, _I I I I I I T T T T T
111111111111. R 11.IIIUlIIIIIIIII
6'
~ " "
1
1
3
"..
11111111lt111 m 11111111111111111_11111111
111.1111111111111111111111111111111111
Calculations:
Ar.a '1 = trapezoid = 'h (3.90 + 3.10)1.94 = 6.79 sq in
Area 112 = triangle = ~ fO.6)fO.93) = 0.23 Iq in
Ar.a '3 = trapezoid = 'h (0.5 + 0.34)1.35 = 0.57 sq in
Ar.a '4 = rectangl. = 0.30 1.58 = 0.47 sq in
Ar.a .5 = trapezoid = 'h (1 .43 + 0.75) 0.86 = 0.93 sq in
Ar.a '8 = trap.zoid = 'h !2.37 + 1.65) 0.41 = 0.82 Iq in
Ar.a 17 = trapezoid = 'h (1.85 + 0.94) 0.50 = 0.69 sq in
Total ar.a = 10.6 IQ in
E.ampl.:
If on. squar. r.pr ... nts 10.000 actual sa ft
on tha ground. than tn. designated ar.a repr ... nts:
10.6 x 10.000
- - - ' - - - ~ - ' - = 2.41 acr.s
43,660
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 6-15. Area measurement - stripper method
Drainage 6-21
3.6 3.1
1.0 + 5.3 + 5.3 + 3.1 + 3.6 + 3.8 + 2.4 = 24.5 In
2: lengths = 24.5 In
Step 1.
Step 2.
Step 3.
24.5 In x 1 In .. 24.5 In
2
24.5 In
2
x (285 ft/ln)2 = 1,990,012.5 ft2
1,990,012.5 ft2 = 45.7 acres
43,560 ft2/acre
Map scale: 1 in = 285 ft
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
ESTIMATING RUNOFF USING THE RATIONAL METHOD
ESTIMATING PRINCIPLES
Th e r a t ion a l met h od is u s ed t o es t ima t e t h e
expect ed pea k s t or m r u n off a t a given
dr a in a ge ba s in ou t let . Mu ch of t h e in pu t t o
t h e for mu la is ba s ed on ju dgmen t . Th er e-
for e, it is imper a t ive t h a t s ou n d en gin eer in g
ju dgmen t be u s ed t o det er min e t h e in pu t
da t a .
ASSUMPTIONS
Th e r a t ion a l met h od is ba s ed on t h e follow-
in g u n der lyin g a s s u mpt ion s a n d limit a t ion s :
Th e a r ea is n ot gr ea t er t h a n 1,000 a cr es
a n d is r egu la r in s h a pe, wit h a
h omogen eou s cover a n d s oil t ype.
Th e en t ir e dr a in a ge a r ea is con t r ibu t in g
r u n off t o t h e ou t let poin t wh en pea k
r u n off is obt a in ed.
Th e des ign r a in fa ll in t en s it y is u n ifor m
over t h e en t ir e dr a in a ge a r ea (t h a t is ,
t h e r a in fa ll is u n ifor m over t ime a n d
s pace).
Th er e a r e n o a ct ive s t r ea ms dr a in in g
t h e a r ea . (If a n a ct ive s t r ea m dr a in s t h e
ba s in , u s e t h e h a s t y met h od fou n d in
FM 5-34.)
FORMULA
Th e r a t ion a l met h od u s es t h e followin g for -
mu la :
wh er e
Q =
C =
I =
A =
Q = CIA
peak r u n off in cfs
r u n off coefficien t
in t en s it y of r a in fa ll in in / h r
dr a in a ge a r ea in a cr es
Th e followin g con ver s ion fact or is applied t o
t h is for mu la :
Th is is s o clos e t o u n it y t h a t n o cor r ect ion
fa ct or is a dded; h en ce, t h e n a me ra t ion a l
(beca u s e a r a t ion a l con ver s ion of u n it s ] is
u s ed.
FORMULA VARIABLES
Th e r a t ion a l for mu la h a s t h r ee va r ia bles .
Th e C an d I var iables ar e explain ed h er e.
Th e A var iable is explain ed lat er in t h is
ch a pt er .
Th e C Va r i a ble
Th e r u n off coefficien t , or C var iable, ac-
cou n t s for los s es fr om pr ecipit a t ion . Th e C
va r ia ble is t h e decima l fr a ct ion of t h e
a mou n t of wa t er expect ed t o r u n off r ela t ive
t o t h e a mou n t of pr ecipit a t ion . It ca n be ex-
pr es s ed a s t h e r a t io
Table 6-1 gives con s er vat ive valu es of C.
Kn owledge of a n a r ea s USCS cla s s ifica t ion
(for exa mple, GMd) or a n es t ima t e of t h e
s oils per viou s n es s allows s elect ion of a C
valu e. C va lu es a ppea r in t h e t a ble for
ma n u fa ct u r ed s u r fa ces a n d for wooded
ar eas as well. An ar ea of SP s oil (a per -
viou s , s an dy s oil wit h a s lope les s t h an or
equ a l t o 2 per cen t ) wit h t u r f h a s a C fa ct or
of 0.10; t h a t is , on ly 10 per cen t of t h e r a in
fa llin g on t h is s oil will a ct u a lly r u n off.
Table 6-1. Runoff coefficients
6-22 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Th e r emain in g 90 per cen t becomes los t t o
r u n off t h r ou gh in filt r a t ion a n d ot h er fa c-
t or s . At t h e ot h er ext r eme, a n a s ph a lt pa ve-
men t h as a C valu e of 0.95. On ly 5 per -
cen t of t h e r a in fa llin g on a s ph a lt will be
los t . Th e r emain in g 95 per cen t is expect ed
t o become r u n off.
NOTE: C va lu e s gi ve n i n Ta ble 6 -1 a r e
a c t u a lly ma xi mu ms of r a n ge s of a llowa ble
va lu e s for t h e c ove r or s oil c a t e gor ie s .
Us i n g t h e ma xi mu m va lu e , a c on s e r va t i ve
wor s t -c a s e de s ign r u n off is c a lc u la t e d.
To u s e va lu e s le s s t h a n t h e ma ximu ms
gi ve n i n t h e t a ble , r e fe r t o a r e li a ble c i vi l
e n gi n e e r i n g t e xt de a li n g wi t h h ydr ology.
Th e t a ble i s a r r a n ge d wi t h t h r e e c olu mn s
for va r yin g s lope c on dit ion s .
C Ve r s u s Slope
As t er r a in becomes s t eeper , wa t er flows
s oon er an d mor e r apidly. Th is allows les s
t ime for in filt r a t ion t o occu r a n d r es u lt s in
t h e C va lu e becomin g la r ger for t h e n a t u r a l
cover or s oil cat egor ies . For t h is r eas on ,
wh en ever t h e aver age s lope of an ar ea ex-
ceeds 2 per cen t , a n a dju s t men t mu s t be
ma de.
Table 6-1 is ar r an ged wit h t h r ee colu mn s
for differ en t s lope con dit ion s an d t h eir cor -
r es pon din g r u n off coefficien t s , Us e t h e
colu mn t h a t cor r es pon ds wit h t h e a ver a ge
per cen t age of s lope.
Th e C for a t u r fed s oil is differ en t fr om t h e
C for ba r e s oil. Th e t u r f (gr a s s or ot h er
gr ou n d cover ) exer t s a dr a g on wa t er , ca u s -
in g s lower flow a n d pr ovidin g mor e t ime for
in filt r a t ion t o occu r ; h en ce, a lower C
r es u lt s . Den u ded s oil (s oil fr om wh ich t h e
t u r f or cover h a s been r emoved) r equ ir es a n
in cr eas ed C becau s e a s wift er flow will
r es u lt an d les s t ime will be available for los -
s es t o occu r . If on e cover t ype h a s mor e
t h a n on e flow pa t h , a ver a ge t h e s lopes a n d
u s e t h e appr opr iat e colu mn in Table 6-1.
Exa mple:
Flow pa t h 1A = 2.3 per cen t an d flow pat h
1B = 1.9 per cen t .
Solu t ion :
C for Non h omoge n e ou s Ar e a s
On e of t h e a s s u mpt ion s ma de by t h e r a t ion -
a l met h od is t h a t t h er e is a h omogen eou s
cover a n d s oil t ype t h r ou gh ou t t h e a r ea .
Qu it e oft en t h is is n ot t h e ca s e, es pecia lly
in a r ea s wh er e h u ma n s h a ve exer t ed t h eir
in flu en ce on t h e t opogr a ph y.
If on e t ype of cover an d s oil pr edomin at es
in 80 per cen t or mor e of t h e a r ea , t h e a r ea
is ca lled s imple a n d t h e C va lu e for t h a t
pr edomin a n t s oil a n d cover t ype con t r ols .
If n o on e t ype of cover an d s oil t ype
pr edomin a t es in 80 per cen t or mor e of t h e
t ot a l a r ea , t h e a r ea is complex a n d t h e C
va lu e mu s t be weigh t ed; t h a t is , t h e C
va lu e h a s t o be a dju s t ed t o a ccou n t for t h e
pr opor t ion of C con t r ibu t ed by each s u b-
a r ea .
To h elp u n der s t a n d t h is , ima gin e a complex
a r ea wit h on e s u ba r ea of a ver a ge t u r f a n d
t h e ot h er of bar e s oil. Th e s lope of t h e
ba r e s oil does n ot a ffect h ow fa s t (or s low)
t h e wa t er r u n s off t h e t u r fed a r ea a n d, a s a
r es u lt , h ow mu ch of t h e wa t er s oa ks in t o
t h e t u r fed a r ea . Th e con ver s e is a ls o t r u e.
Th e s lope of t h e t u r fed a r ea does n ot a ffect
t h e s peed or a mou n t of wa t er t h a t r u n s off
t h e bar e s oil ar ea. Table 6-1 s h ows C
va lu es wit h a n d wit h ou t t u r f.
Weigh t t h e C va lu e by mu lt iplyin g t h e cor -
r ect ed C va lu es by t h e a r ea (in a cr es ) t h a t
t h e C va lu es a ffect . Th en t ot a l t h e
pr odu ct s a n d divide by t h e t ot a l a cr ea ge.
Expr es s ed ma t h ema t ica lly, t h e for mu la is
wh er e
C va lu e a n d a r ea for fir s t s u ba r ea
C valu e an d ar ea for s econ d s u b-
a r ea
Drainage 6-23
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Th e I Va r i a ble If a 30-min u t e-du r a t ion s t or m s weeps over
As explain ed pr eviou s ly in t h is ch apt er , r ain -
t h e s a me a r ea in a u n ifor m fa s h ion , t h e en -
fall in t en s it ies can be det er min ed fr om pin -
poin t s ou r ce da t a or is oh yet a l ma ps . Th e
for mer method pr ovides mor e a ccu r a t e
r es u lt s if r eliable dat a is available. Th e
t a s k of ca lcu la t in g t h e cr it ica l du r a t ion for
an y given dr ain age ar ea is det ailed h er e.
Ti me of Con c e n t r a t i on
Un der t h e a s s u mpt ion s lis t ed a t t h e begin -
n in g of t h is s ect ion a n d wit h t h e in t en s it y-
du r at ion r elat ion s h ips pr es en t ed ear lier ,
on ly on e pa r t icu la r s t or m will give a ma xi-
mu m dis ch a r ge (Q) for a given a r ea . Th is
pa r t icu la r s t or m is t h e on e t h a t r a in s over
t h e en t ir e ar ea bein g dr ain ed for a per iod of
t ime ju s t lon g en ou gh t o fill t h e ou t let wit h
r u n off fr om a ll s egmen t s of t h e a r ea a t t h e
s a me t ime. Th is t ime is ca lled t h e a r ea
TOC. A s t or m of s h or t er du r a t ion t h a n t h is
TOC wou ld n ot la s t lon g en ou gh for t h e
r u n off fr om t h e mor e dis t a n t s egmen t s of
t h e a r ea t o r ea ch t h e ou t let . Th e ou t let
wou lr d be filled on ly wit h t h e r u n off fr om
n ea r by s egmen t s . Th er efor e, r u n off wou ld
n ot be ma ximu m
In Figu r e 6-16, all of t h e ar ea below t h e 10-
min u t e lin e will dr a in in 10 min u t es or
les s . Ru n off fr om t h e a r ea bet ween t h e 10-
a n d 20-min u t e lin es will r ea ch t h e ou t let in
n ot les s t h a n 10 min u t es bu t will h a ve
dr a in ed in n ot mor e t h a n 20 min u t es .
Simila r ly, t h e r u n off fr om t h e a r ea bet ween
t h e 20- an d 30-min u t e lin es will r each t h e
ou t let in n ot les s t h a n 20 min u t es n or mor e
[ba n 30 min u t es . At t h e en d of 30
min u t es t h e en t ir e a r ea is dr a in in g. Th er e-
for e, t h e TOC a t t h e ou t let for t h is a r ea is
30 min u t es .
If a s t or m of 20-min u t e du r a t ion s weeps
over t h e a r ea in a u n ifor m fa s h ion , on ly a
fr a ct ion of t h e t ot a l a r ea in s ide t h e 20-
min u t e bou n da r y s imu lt a n eou s ly con -
t r ibu t es r u n off t o t h e ou t let a t t h e en d of
t h e s t or m. All r u n off fr om t h e u pper t h ir d
of t h e a r ea r ea ch es t h e ou t let a ft er t h e r a in -
fa ll h a s cea s ed a n d a ft er mu ch of t h e lower
a cr ea ge h a s fin is h ed con t r ibu t in g r u n off.
t ir e a r ea con t r ibu t es r u n off t o t h e ou t let in
t h e 30-min u t e t ime fr a me (t h e TOC men -
t ion ed above).
If a s t or m wit h a du r a t ion lon ger t h a n t h e
TOC occu r s , t h e dr ain age des ign er can eas i-
ly pict u r e (u s in g t h e s t a n da r d in t en s it y-
du r a t ion cu r ve) t h a t t h e in t en s it y, I, will be
les s t h a n t h e I of t h e 30-min u t e s t or m. Ex-
a min a t ion of t h e r a t ion a l-met h od equ a t ion ,
Q = CIA, r evea ls t h a t s in ce C a n d A wou ld
n ot ch a n ge a s I decr ea s es , Q mu s t decr ea s e
a s well. Th e cr it ica l-s t or m du r a t ion wh ich
yields t h e des ign Q mu s t t h en be equ a l t o
t h e con t r ibu t in g a r ea s TOC.
De t e r mi n i n g TOC
Det er min e t h e a r ea TOC by det er min in g r ep-
r es en t a t ive flow pa t h s . A flow pa t h is t h e
pa t h t h a t a t ypica l dr op of wa t er will follow
fr om t h e t ime it h it s t h e gr ou n d u n t il it
r ea ch es t h e a r ea ou t let , Th e flow pa t h is
called r epr es en t at ive, becau s e n ot all
dr a in a ge a r ea s a r e a s r egu la r in s h a pe a s
t h e ar ea in Figu r e 6-16. Th e pat h s elect ed
mu s t be r epr es en t a t ive of t h e t ime a t wh ich
mos t of t h e a r ea will be con t r ibu t in g wa t er
t o t h e ou t let poin t . Es t a blis h in g r epr e-
s en t at ive flow pat h s is bas ed lar gely on ex-
per ien ce a n d ju dgmen t (t r ia l a n d er r or ).
Figure 6-16. TOC, regular area
6-24 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Un like t h e ar ea depict ed in Figu r e 6-16, t h e
ar ea in Figu r e 6-17 is ir r egu lar as mos t
n a t u r a l a r ea s will be, In ir r egu la r a r ea s , it
is es pecia lly cr it ica l t h a t t h e flow pa t h s ch o-
s en t r u ly r epr es en t t h e t ime r equ ir ed for
mos t of t h e a r ea t o dr a in . All t h e a r ea be-
low t h e 10-min u t e lin e will dr ain in 10 min -
u t es or les s . Th e ar ea bet ween t h e 10- an d
20-min u t e lin es will dr ain in n ot les s t h an
10 min u t es n or mor e t h a n 20 min u t es a n d
s o for t h u p t o t h e 40-min u t e lin e. Flow
lin es a, b, an d c h ave been det er min ed; 90
per cen t of t h e t ot al ar ea (90 acr es ) lies be-
low t h e 30-min u t e lin e an d will dr ain in 30
min u t es or les s . Wa t er fr om t h e r ema in in g
10 a cr es will r ea ch t h e ou t let in n ot les s
t h a n 30 min u t es n or mor e t h a n 40 min -
u t es . Flow lin es a an d c s h ou ld be ch os en
a s t h e r epr es en t a t ive flow pa t h s a n d u s ed
t o det er min e t h e TOC beca u s e t h ey a r e in -
dica t ive of t h e t ime it will t a ke for mos t of
t h e wa t er fr om t h e a r ea t o r ea ch t h e ou t let ,
Lin e b is n ot r epr es en t a t ive.
For s implicit y, in t h is exa mple let C a r bit r a r -
ily equ a l 1.0 a n d a s s u me t h a t t h e 1-h ou r , 2-
year in t en s it y is 2,0 in ch es per h ou r . If a
40-min u t e-du r a t ion s t or m occu r s , in 40 min -
u t es t h e en t ir e a r ea will be wet a n d con t r ib-
u t in g wa t er t o t h e ou t let poin t , Th e s t a n d-
ar d in t en s it y-du r at ion cu r ve in Figu r e 6-4,
Figure 6-17. TOC, irregular area
pa ge 6-9, s h ows t h a t t h e I for a 40-min u t e
s t or m is 2.7 in ch es per h ou r ; t h er efor e, t h e
es t ima t ed r u n off is
Q = CIA
Q = (1.0)(2.7 in / h r )(100 acr es ) = 270 cfs
A s t or m of 30-min u t e du r a t ion will h a ve a n
in t en s it y of 3.2 in ch es per h ou r . At t h e
en d of 30 min u t es , 90 per cen t of t h e a r ea
(90 a cr es ) will be con t r ibu t in g wa t er t o t h e
ou t let a n d t h e volu me will be
Q = CIA
Q = (1.0)(3.2 in / h r )(90 acr es ) = 288 cfs
wh ich is la r ger t h a n t h e 270 cfs es t ima t ed
for t h e en t ir e a r ea .
Flow pa t h s mu s t be ch os en t h a t r epr es en t
t h e t ime r equ ir ed for mos t of t h e a r ea t o
dr a in . As s h own a bove, a s h or t er s t or m of
h igh er in t en s it y ma y ca u s e a la r ger flow. Af-
t er a ll t h e ch os en pa t h s h a ve been t imed,
t h e t imes s h ou ld cor r es pon d t o ea ch ot h er
wit h in a few min u t es . If t imes a r e n ot r ela -
t ively clos e, make a car efu l ch eck t o det er -
min e wh y, a n d a s s es s t h e a r ea t o det er min e
wh ich of t h e t imes will pr odu ce t h e cr it ica l
flow. Apply r a in fa ll a dju s t ed t o t h is cr it ica l
du r a t ion over t h e en t ir e wa t er s h ed. Th e de-
s ign r u n off fr om t h e wa t er s h ed in Figu r e 6-
17 wou ld be
Q = CIA
Q = (1.0)( 3.2 in / h r )(100 acr es ) = 320 cfs
Aft er r epr es en t at ive flow pat h s h ave been es -
t a blis h ed, es t ima t e t h e t ime it will t a ke for
wa t er t o r ea ch t h e ou t let if it t r a vels a lon g
t h e es t a blis h ed pa t h . To do t h is , det er min e
(t h r ou gh obs er va t ion ) t h e n a t u r e of t h e s u r -
fa ce cover a n d t h e s lope of t h e flow pa t h .
Slope a ffect s t h e velocit y of t h e wa t er in
t h a t t h e s t eeper t h e s lope, t h e fa s t er t h e
wa t er r u n s . Wa t er will a ls o t r a vel fa s t er
a cr os s a pa ved a r ea t h a n a cr os s a gr a s s y
ar ea of t h e s ame s lope becau s e gr as s s lows
t h e flow. Flow is s lower over ba r e s oil t h a n
over pa vemen t bu t fa s t er t h a n gr a s s . Flow
in a dit ch is mor e r a pid t h a n over la n d flow
over t u r fed, ba r e, or compa ct ed gr a vel
s u r faces .
Drainage 6-25
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Es t i ma t i n g Flow Ti me for Si n gle Cove r s Not ice t h a t t h er e is a s er ies of cu r ves , ea ch
Aft er es t a blis h in g t h e loca t ion , t h e cover ,
wit h lin ear an d cu r vilin ear por t ion s . Th e
an d t h e s lope of a flow pat h , Figu r e 6-18
s lope of t h e cu r ve in dica t es t h e velocit y a t a
ca n be u s ed t o es t ima t e t h e t r a vel t ime
given poin t a lon g t h e flow pa t h . In t h e cu r -
a lon g t h e flow pa t h . It is impor t a n t t o u n -
vilin ear por t ion , t h e s lope is in it ially zer o
der s t a n d wh a t t h e illu s t r a t ion is depict in g
an d gr adu ally s t eepen s u n t il it becomes
a s well a s h ow t o u s e it pr oper ly.
lin ea r . Th is r epr es en t s t h e fa ct t h a t wa t er
Figure 6-18. Flow travel time
6-26 Drainage
UIOO
1400
1200
1000
-
-
;:
.g
"0
c:
en
;:;:
lOO
CD
>
0
eoo
200
o ~
o
~
~
I ~ I ~ I ~
I ~ . ~
...
. ~ -
f9

M
~
1:11 I ~ I ~ I ~ ~ ' I ~
I
.

l:a 1=:"1 .. ~ 1:1
tIf+
mm
E
rll
I
m
r rll,
, r
rn
LA
::oIo"'l
10 20 eo
Time of concentration - min
NOTE: It Is valid to Interpolate between percent slope curves.
Average
turf
Sparse
turf
Bare
soil
Compacted
gravel
Paved
areas
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
in it ially moves ver y s lowly an d begin s t o
pick u p s peed on ly as it s accu mu lat ed
dept h in cr eas es . It is in it ially s low flowin g
in a la min a r or s h eet -flow ma n n er a n d
gr a du a lly becomes t u r bu len t (a n d fa s t er ) a s
it pr ogr es s es down h ill. At s ome poin t , t h e
t u r bu len t -flowin g wa t er r ea ch es s ome
s t ea cly-s t a t e velocit y. It is a ppa r en t fr om
Figu r e 6-18 t h at t h e s lope an d s lickn es s
of t h e flow pa t h dict a t e h ow qu ickly t h e
t r a n s it ion occu r s fr om s low-movin g la min a r
flow t o r apid, fu lly developed t u r bu len t flow
To es t ima t e t h e t r a vel t ime in s h eet -flow
con dit ion s , u s e Figu r e 6-18. En t er t h e
r igh t -h a n d ver t ica l edge a t t h e a ppr opr ia t e
cover t ype of t h e flow pat h . Pr oceed
h or izon t a lly t o t h e left u n t il r ea ch in g t h e
cu r ve labeled wit h t h e s lope of t h e pat h .
Follow t h e cu r ve u p or down u n t il you
r ea ch t h e in t er s ect ion of t h e h or izon t a l lin e
equ a lin g t h e flow-pa t h len gt h , wh ich is
det er min ed on t h e left -h an d ver t ical edge.
Rea d t h e t r a vel t ime, wh ich is fou n d by
dr a win g a lin e ver t ica lly fr om t h e in t er s ec-
t ion t o t h e lower mos t a xis . Some exa mples
of t h e u s e of t h is gr a ph a r e a s follows :
Travel
Path Cover Length Sl ope Time
(ft) (%) (rein)
1 Sparse 800 3,0 19
turf
2 Paved 500 1.5 8
area
3 Average 600 2.5 26
turf
Not e t h a t it wa s n eces s a r y t o in t er pola t e t o
fin d t h e t r a vel t ime for pa t h 3. It is va lid
t o in t er polat e bet ween labeled lin es , bu t
n ever ext r a pola t e a bove or below t h e limit -
in g-cu r ve valu es . Us e t h e limit in g cu r ve in
t h a t s it u a t ion To es t ima t e t h e t r a vel t ime
in dit ch -flow con dit ion s , u s c Table 6-2.
Us in g t h e s lope of t h e flow pa t h , en t er t h e
ch a r t , t h en r ea d t h e r igh t -h a n d colu mn
u n der velocit y. To calcu lat e t h e velocit y,
divide t h e len gt h of t h e pa t h by t h e velocit y
obt a in ed fr om t h e ch a r t .
Exa mple:
Pa t h 1B
Cover - Dit ch
Len gt h - 1,015 ft
Slope - 0.9%
Ch ar t velocit y - 135 feet per min u t e (fpm)
Table 6-2. Estimating flow velocity
Drainage 6-27
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Solu t ion : Ar id pa r t ia l t r a vel t imes t o get t h e t ot a l
t r a vel t ime:
= 7.5 min u t es (min )
Es t i ma t i n g Flow Ti me for Mu lt i ple Cove r s
In ma n y ca s es , a flow pa t h t r a ver s es mor e
t h a n on e cover t ype. Es t ima t in g t r a vel t ime
a ccu r a t ely t h en becomes mor e complica t ed
beca u s e it is n ot a ppr opr ia t e s imply t o a dd
t imes obt ain ed fr om Figu r e 6-18, page 6-26.
La min a r flow occu r s on ly on ce a lon g a flow
pa t h , n o ma t t er h ow ma n y cover t ypes a r e
t r aver s ed. For s u bs equ en t cover s , it be-
comes n eces s a r y t o es t ima t e flow velocit y
u s in g Table 6-2, page 6-27.
To es t ima t e t r a vel t ime in a dit ch , u s e
Table 6-2. En t er t h e t able u s in g t h e s lope
of t h e flow pa t h . Th en r ea d r igh t t o t h e
velocit y colu mn an d fin d t h e velocit y in feet
per min u t e. By kn owin g t h e flow-pa t h
len gt h a n d t h e t a ble velocit y, t h e t r a vel ca n
be calcu lat ed.
Exa mple:
As s u me t h a t pa t h s 1 a n d 2 fr om t h e pr eced-
in g exa mple wer e a ct u a lly t h e u pper a n d
lower len gt h s of on e combin ed flow pa t h .
To es t ima t e t h eir combin ed t r a vel t ime, fir s t
es t ima t e ea ch s epa r a t ely in t h e or der t h e
wa t er wou ld flow t h r ou gh t h em.
Solu t ion :
Es t ima t e t h e t r a vel t ime of pa t h 1. Sin ce
pa t h 1 is u ph ill fr om pa t h 2, n ot h in g h a s
ch a n ged fr om befor e. Th e t r a vel t ime
r ema in s 19 min u t es . Es t ima t e t h e t r a vel
t ime of pa t h 2. Remember t h a t t h e flow
en t er in g a t t h e u ps t r ea m en d of pa t h 2 is a l
r ea dy movin g. To es t ima t e t r a vel t ime,
divide t h e len gt h of t h e pat h by t h e es -
t imat ed velocit y lis t ed in Table 6-2. In t h is
cas e, for a 500-foot , paved pat h at 1.5 per -
cent
Tr a vel t ime =
(Not e t h a t pa t h 2 h a d a n 8-min u t e t r a vel
t ime wh en con s ider ed alon e.)
Tr a vel t ime = 19 min + 3.0 min = 22 min
It ma y be h elpfu l, a t t imes , t o es t ima t e t h e
t r a vel t ime t h r ou gh a cu lver t . A r ea s on a ble
as s u mpt ion of cu lver t velocit y is 5 feet per
s econ d (fps ) (300 fpm), alt h ou gh mor e
pr ecis e det er min at ion s can be made wit h in -
for ma t ion pr es en t ed la t er in t h is ch a pt er .
Se le c t i n g De s i gn TOC
Th e u s u al pr ocedu r e is t o es t ablis h s ever al
t r ia l flow pa t h s t h a t a r e t h ou gh t t o be r epr e-
s en t a t ive of t h e a r ea a n d det er min e a t r a vel
t ime for ea ch pa t h . Compa r e t h e t ime for
wa t er t o t r a vel a lon g ea ch of t h e flow pa t h s
ch os en . If t h e t imes a r c wit h in a few
min u t es of ea ch ot h er , s elect t h e lon ges t
t ime a s t h e a r ea TOC. If t h e t imes a r c n ot
wit h in a few min u t es of ea ch ot h er , ma ke a
complet e a n a lys is of t h e a r ea . New flow
pa t h s ma y be n eeded t o det er min e wh ich of
t h e t imes is r epr es en t a t ive of t h e bu lk of
t h e ar ea dr ain in g. Th e lar ges t r epr e-
s en t at ive t ime is ch os en as t h e des ign TOC.
Th e A Va r i a ble
Th e dr a in a ge a r ea , A, (t h e a r ea con t r ibu t in g
s t or m-wa t er r u n off t o t h e cu lver t or dit ch
bein g des ign ed) mu s t be calcu lat ed in
acr es , Th is pr ocedu r e was pr es en t ed ear lier
in t h is ch a pt er .
APPLYING THE RATIONAL METHOD
Applica t ion of t h e r a t ion a l met h od of es -
t ima t in g dr a in a ge va r ies a ccor din g t o t h e
t ype of dr a in a ge a r ea . On e t ype is a s in gle,
in depen den t ar ea wh ich does n ot r eceive
a n y dr a in a ge fr om a n u ps t r ea m a r ea .
An ot h er t ype is a depen den t or s u cces s ive
a r ea t h a t r eceives r u n off fr om a n ot h er a r ea .
Si n gle Ar e a s
Th e r a t ion a l met h od of es t ima t in g s in gle
a r ea s is r ea s on a bly s imple a n d s t r a igh t -
for war d, if it is don e met h odically. Th e
s t eps a r e s u mma r ized in t h e pr oper or der .
lf t h is s u mmar y is followed s t ep-by-s t ep,
6-28 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
t h e pr ocedu r e will be cor r ect an d t h e es t i-
mat e obt ain ed will be as valid as t h e ju dg-
men t s t h a t a r e ma de.
St ep 1. Delin ea t e t h e a r ea t o det er min e t h e
a r ea con t r ibu t in g r u n off t o you r pr oject loca -
t ion . Refer t o pa ge 6-13, Delin ea t in g Wa t er -
s h eds .
St ep 2. Delin eat e s u bar eas by s oil or cover
t ype. Refer t o page 6-15.
St ep 3. Det er min e a cr ea ge for ea ch ba s in
a n d s u ba r ea . Refer t o page 6-17.
St ep 4. Clas s ify t h e dr ain age bas in as s im-
ple or complex. A s imple wa t er s h ed h a s
on e cover or s oil t ype over 80 per cen t of it s
t ot a l a r ea . A complex wa t er s h ed h a s n o s in -
gle cover or s oil t ype cover in g at leas t 80
per cen t of it s t ot a l a r ea .
St ep 5. Det er min e r epr es en t a t ive flow
pa t h s . Refer t o t h e in for ma t ion on pa ges
6-24 an d 6-25.
St ep 6. Divide flow pa t h s in t o t wo s ect ion s :
la min a r a n d dit ch flow. As a r u le of
t h u mb, u s e 500 feet plu s or min u s 200 feet
a s a poin t wh er e la min a r flow will ch a n ge
t o dit ch or s t ea dy-s t a t e flow. Gen er a lly,
over la n d flow con cen t r a t es in t o n a t u r a l r ivu -
let s or ch a n n els a ft er r ou gh ly 500 feet of
t r a vel. Th is dis t a n ce ma y va r y u p t o s ev-
er al h u n dr ed feet eit h er way, depen din g
u pon s u ch fa ct or s a s s oil t ype, veget a t ion ,
an d s lope, It is always bes t t o vis u ally in -
ves t igat e on -s it e t o look for eviden ce of ch an -
n elin g, a n d t a ke mea s u r emen t s a ccor din gly.
However , s in ce in t h is pr oblem it is n ot pos -
s ible t o vis u ally in ves t igat e t h e dr ain age
a r ea , clu es t o det er min e wh en over la n d flow
(s h eet flow) en ds an d dit ch flow begin s
mu s t come fr om t opogr a ph ic in for ma t ion
a lon e. Some of t h es e clu es ma y be t h e be-
gin n in g of u ph ill s wa les or flow pa t h s t h a t
con ver ge in a s wale. Th is con ver gen ce may
t a ke pla ce in a va lley wh er e mu lt iple pa t h s
meet .
St ep 7. Det er min e t h e s lope of ea ch
s ect ion of flow pat h . See page 6-25.
St ep 8. Det er min e t h e a ver a ge s lope of t h e
ba s in or ea ch s u ba r ea ba s ed on flow pa t h s .
Defin e t h e s lope as bein g eit h er 2%, > 2%
a n d < 7%, or 7%.
St ep 9. Fin d t h e C va lu e of t h e ba s in or
each s u bar ea bas ed on s oil or cover t ype
an d s lope fr om Table 6-1, page 6-22. Se-
lect C fr om t h e a ppr opr ia t e colu mn in Ta ble
6-2, page 6-27, makin g s u r e t h at you pick
t h e r igh t C-va lu e colu mn . Not ice t h a t t h e
colu mn s a r e a r r a n ged wit h r es pect t o s lope
an d cover t ype.
Ca lcu la t e if t h e a r ea is complex.
St ep 10. Det er min e t h e t r a vel t ime for
ea ch flow pa t h a n d s elect t h e lon ges t flow
pa t h a s t h e ba s in TOC. Refer t o s h eet flow
on page 6-27 an d dit ch flow in Table 6-2.
St ep 11.
s t or m on
6-3, page
St ep 12.
Fin d I for a 2-year , 60-min u t e
t h e wor ld is oh yet a l ma p (Figu r e
6 - 7 ).
Adju s t I bas ed on t h e TOC (s t ep
10), u s in g Figu r e 6-4, page 6-9.
St ep 13. Ca lcu la t e Q u s in g C fr om s t ep 12,
a n d A fr om s t ep 3 a s follows : Q=CIA.
Exa mple:
Es t ima t e t h e a mou n t of r u n off expect ed t o
ar r ive at t h e cu lver t in Figu r e 6-19, page
6-30.
Th e loca t ion is Gies s en , Ger ma n y, a n d t h e
des ign life is t wo year s .
NOTE: A n u mbe r of s t e ps , qu a n t it ie s ,
a n d c a lc u la t i on s wi ll be gi ve n t o i llu s -
t r a t e t h e pr oc e s s .
Solu t ion :
St ep 1. Delin ea t e t h e a r ea . (Given for t h is
exa mple. )
St ep 2. Delin eat e t h e s u bar eas by s oil or
cover t ype. (Given for t h is example.)
Drainage 6-29
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 6-19. Delineating runoff area
St ep 4. Clas s ify t h e dr ain age bas in as
St ep 3. Det er min e t h e a cr ea ge for ea ch
s imple or complex.
Divide t h e lar ges t s oil
ba s in or s u ba r ea . Th e followin g acr eage is
or cover gr ou p (t h e GMd s oil] wit h t u r f s u b-
given for t h is exa mple:
a r ea equ a lin g 47.9 a cr es by t h e t ot a l a r ea ,
48.8 acr es .
Aver a ge t u r f GMd
47.9 acr es
Compa ct ed gr a vel
0.9 acr e
Tot a l a cr ea ge (A)
48.8 acr es
6-30 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Sin ce t h e per cen t a ge is gr ea t er t h a n 80,
t h is a r ea will be t r ea t ed a s a s imple a r ea
con s is t in g of 48.8 acr es of t u r fed GMd s oil.
St ep 5. Det er min e t h e r epr es en t a t ive flow
pa t h s . It is n eces s a r y t o det er min e t h e
aver age s lope of t h e en t ir e s imple ar ea
s h own in Figu r e 6-19. In or der t o do t h is ,
u s e r epr es en t a t ive flow pa t h s , If t h e n or t h -
s ou t h r u n n in g s wa le is ima gin ed a s t h e
dividin g lin e, appr oximat ely on e-t h ir d of t h e
wa t er s h ed a r ea lies t o t h e wes t (left ) a n d
t wo-t h ir ds t o t h e ea s t (r igh t ). To det er min e
a n a ver a ge s lope, t h e n u mber of s lope mea s -
u r emen t s t a ken on t h e wes t er n s lope
s h ou ld be ba la n ced by t wice t h a t n u mber
t a ken fr om t h e ea s t . Figu r e 6-20 r eflect s
t h is gu idelin e, s h owin g t h r ee s lope meas u r e-
men t s , t wo on t h e ea s t a n d on e on t h e wes t .
NOTE: Th e s e le c t i on of r e pr e s e n t a t i ve
flow pa t h s is a ju dgme n t c a ll ba s e d on
t h e be s t e va lu a t i on of t h e t opogr a ph i c fe a -
t u r e s .
Figure 6-20. Determining average slope
Drainage 6-31
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
s h eet an d dit ch flow. Gen er ally, over lan d
flow con cen t r a t es in t o n a t u r a l dit ch es a ft er
500 feet . Pat h 1 ch an ges t o dit ch flow in
t h e valley wh er e it s lopes down . See s ec-
t ion A of Figu r e 6-20, page 6-31. Th e s ame
is t r u e for pa t h 2. By lookin g a t t h e con -
t ou r lin es n ea r pa t h 3, we ca n s ee t h ey a r e
r ela t ively fla t . Flow occu r s acr os s a wide
ar ea, an d n o clear poin t can be s een wh er e
t h e flow ch a n ges . A good es t ima t e wou ld
be at 575 feet .
St ep 7. Det er min e t h e s lope of ea ch flow
pa t h . Th e r epr es en t a t ive flow pa t h s
s elect ed in an ear lier s t ep, if pr oper ly
s elect ed, can pr ovide ver y good s lope in for -
ma t ion wit h a min imu m of effor t . Ot h er
s lope lin es may be s elect ed for pr act ice an d
t o gain con fiden ce in u s in g t h is pr ocedu r e.
Remember t o ma in t a in t h e 2-t o-1 ba la n ce
in fin din g s lopes in t h is bas in an d t o delet e
r edu n da n t in for ma t ion . Th e s lope mu s t be
mea s u r ed over a pa t h t h a t wa t er wou ld a c-
t u a lly follow a s it flows down h ill. Nor ma lly,
all wor k wou ld be per for med on on e con -
s olida t ed ma p. For in s t a n ce, t o det er min e
t h e s lope for pa t h 1A
Th is pr ocedu r e is r epeat ed for ever y flow
pat h illu s t r at ed in Figu r e 6-20.
A t a bu la r s olu t ion is r ecommen ded t o det er -
min e TOC.
Length Slope Time
Path Cover (ft) (%) (min)
1A Average 575 5.9 14.5
turf
1B Ditch 1,015 09 7.5
section (135 fpm)
22.0
2A Average 640 5.2 16.5
turf
2B Ditch 1,285 0.8 9.9
section (130 fpm)
26.4
3A Average 575 5.0 16,0
turf
3B Ditch 650 2.3 3.02
section (215 fpm)
19.02
Th e s lope of t h e or igin al pat h 3 is u n -
ch a n ged, r ema in in g a t 3.6 per cen t . Pa t h s
2A a n d 2B a r e n ow on e s in gle pa t h , 2, wit h
an aver age s lope of 2.3 per cen t . (Th e
aver age of 5.2 per cen t an d 0.8 per cen t is
n ot 2.3 per cen t .) Redet er min e t h e over a ll
s lope (as don e ear lier ). Th e ear lier pat h 1B
h as been delet ed, leavin g on ly t h e or igin al
pa t h 1A (wit h S = 5.9 per cen t ) as t h e n ew
pa t h 1. Th e r ea s on for delet in g 1B is t h a t
it pr ovides t h e s a me in for ma t ion a lr ea dy
pr ovided by t h e n ew pat h 2. Pat h 2B cou ld
h ave been delet ed in s t ead of pat h 1B wit h
n o ch a n ge t o t h e fin a l r es u lt .
St ep 8. Det er min e t h e a ver a ge s lope of t h e
ba s in or s u ba r ea ba s ed on flow pa t h s .
Wit h t h e t h r ee flow pa t h s n ow det er min ed,
t h e a ver a ge s lope of t h e s imple a r ea is
St ep 9. Fin d t h e C va lu e of t h e ba s in or
s u bar ea bas ed on s oil or cover t ype an d
s lope fr om Table 6-1, page 6-22. Sin ce we
kn ow t h at t h e aver age s lope is 3.93 per -
cen t , we can u s e Table 6-1. Us in g t h e
colu mn ma r ked s lope >2% a n d <7% wit h
t u r f, we h a ve a C va lu e of 0.35.
St ep 10. Det er min e t h e t r a vel t ime of ea ch
flow pa t h a n d s elect t h e lon ges t flow-pa t h
t r a vel t ime a s t h e ba s in TOC. Times for
pat h s 1B an d 2B wer e obt ain ed by dividin g
t h eir flow len gt h s by a ppr oxima t e velocit ies
obt ain ed fr om Table 6-2, page 6-27. Th e
t r a vel t imes for ea ch of t h e complet e flow
pat h s (22.0, 26.4, an d 19,02 min u t es ,
r es pect ively) ar e obt ain ed fr om Figu r e 6-18,
page 6-26. Th e va r ia t ion bet ween t h e s ma l-
les t a n d la r ges t t ime, a lt h ou gh n ot s ma ll, is
n ot exces s ively lar ge, eit h er . Per h aps pat h
1 is n ot r epr es en t a t ive a n d s ome dit ch flow
occu r s a lon g pa t h 3 t h a t cou ld n ot be det er -
min ed fr om t h e t opogr a ph ic in for ma t ion
available. Bot h of t h es e pos s ibilit ies ar e
likely t o be t r u e. However , wit h ou t a n a c-
t u a l field in ves t iga t ion t o ju s t ify r evis in g
eit h er pa t h 1 or 3, a ccept t h e t r a vel t imes
a lr ea dy det er min ed a n d s elect t h e la r ges t a s
t h e bas in TOC. Th u s , TOC = 26.4 min u t es .
6-32 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
St ep 11. Det er min e t h e I va lu e for a 2-
yea r , 60-min u t e s t or m. To det er min e fa ct or
I, a s ou r ce of r a in fa ll da t a is n eces s a r y.
Th e ch oice is bet ween u s in g pin poin t dat a
(t h e mos t a ccu r a t e mea n s of det er min in g 1)
or r efer r in g t o a n is oh yet a l ma p. Sin ce pin -
poin t da t a is n ot a va ila ble, u s e a n is oh yet a l
ma p. Refer t o t h e is oh yet a l ma p in Figu r e
6-3, page 6-7. Kn owin g t h at t h e air field is
loca t ed n ea r t h e demilit a r ized zon e (DMZ) in
Kor ea, as s h own in Figu r e 6-3, r ain fall in -
t en s it y of t h e 1-h ou r , 2-yea r s t or m is det er -
min ed t o be 2.5 in ch per h ou r or
St ep 12. Adju s t t h e I va lu e. To det er min e
I, mu s t be a dju s t ed s o t h a t it s
du r a t ion is equ a l t o t h e ba s in TOC, 26.4
min u t es . Us e t h e s et of s t a n da r d in t en s it y-
du r at ion cu r ves in Figu r e 6-4, page 6-9, t o
ma ke t h e a dju s t men t . Us in g cu r ve 5 (for
2.5 in ch es per h ou r ) an d s lidin g alon g u n t il
t h e 26.4-min u t e ima gin a r y ver t ica l lin e is in
t er s ect ed, t h e in t en s it y (a dju s t ed t o 26.4
min u t es ) is fou n d t o be 4.2 in ch es per
h ou r ; t h u s --
St ep 13. Ca lcu la t e Q u s in g C fr om s t ep 9,
fr om s t ep 12, a n d A fr om s t ep 3.
All t h e var iables h ave been det er min ed t o
s olve t h e equ a t ion Q = CIA, as follows :
C = 0.35
I = 4 . 2 i n / h r
A = 4 8 . 8 a cr es
Q = 0.35 x 4.2 in / h r x 48.8 acr es
Q = 71.74 cfs
Th e det er min a t ion
t o t h e exa mple.
If ar ea 5 h ad been
or 71.7 cfs
of Q is t h e fin a l s olu t ion
a complex a r ea , s t eps 1,
2, 3, an d 5 wou ld be u n ch an ged. Th e on ly
differ en ce wou ld occu r in s t ep 4, wh ich
wou ld be ch an ged as follows :
St ep 4 (for a complex a r ea ). An for
e a c h s oil or cover a r ea mu s t be det er min ed
(except for ma n u fa ct u r ed cover s ). A C
va lu e for e a c h s oil or cover mu s t be det er -
min ed bas ed on t h e aver age s lope for each
cover a r ea . On ce a ll C cor r ect ion s a r e
ma de, t h en a n a r ea -weigh t ed C or ca n
be det er min ed. wou ld be u s ed in s olv-
in g Q = CIA.
Su c c e s s i ve Ar e a s
Up t o t h is poin t , t h e dr a in a ge a r ea s dis -
cu s s ed h ave been s in gle, in depen den t
ar eas , wh et h er s imple or complex, Th es e in -
depen den t a r ea s do n ot r eceive r u n off fr om
a n u ps t r ea m a r ea . Some dr a in a ge s ys t ems ,
h owever , con s is t of a s er ies of dr ain age
a r ea s wit h u ps t r ea m a r ea s dis ch a r gin g
r u n off in t o lower a r ea s . Th e a r ea s r eceivin g
t h is r u n off ar e called depen den t ar eas . Th e
r u n off a ccu mu la t es a n d in cr ea s es in it s pa s -
s a ge t h r ou gh t h e s ys t em.
Somet imes , t wo or mor e a r ea s dis ch a r ge
r u n off in t o t h e s a me depen den t down s t r ea m
a r ea . Su ch con t r ibu t in g a r ea s a r c ca lled
pa r a llel a r ea s .
Un for t u n a t ely, t h e in cr ea s e in r u n off is n ot
t h e s imple s u mma t ion of t h e pea k r u n off of
each in dividu al ar ea. Th e in dividu al peak
flows a r c a ct ed u pon by va r iou s fa ct or s , in -
clu din g s t or a ge a n d pea k-t low r edu ct ion
wh ile in t h e dr a in a ge n et wor k, Als o, t h e
pea k flow fr om u ps t r ea m a r ea s a n d t h e
pea k flow fr om down s t r ea m, depen den t
a r ea s will pr oba bly n ot a r r ive a t t h e lower
ou t let s imu lt a n eou s ly. Hen ce, t h e t ot a l
pea k flow mu s t be les s t h a n t h e t ot a l of t h e
in dividu al peak flows .
Ca lc u la t i n g TOC
Beca u s e of t h e a ccu mu la t ion of pea k flow
in s u cces s ive ar eas , calcu lat ion of TOC for
t h os e a r ea s mu s t be differ en t fr om t h e
met h od u s ed for s in gle, in depen den t ar eas .
To es t ima t e t h e a mou n t of t h e a ccu mu la t ed
r u n off wit h s ome pr ecis ion , a pr ocedu r e h a s
been developed t o r ecalcu lat e TOC for each
of t h e s u cces s ive dr a in a ge a r ea s a s wa t er
t r a vels down s t r ea m. Na t u r a lly, a s TOC in -
cr eas es , r ain fall in t en s it y, I, decr eas es .
Th e t er m TOC mu s t be modified t o r eflect
calcu lat ion differ en ces . Con s ider t wo ar eas ,
a n u ps t r ea m a r ea W a n d a down s t r ea m
Drainage 6-33
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
ar ea X, as s h own in Figu r e 6-21. Th e
ma ximu m t r a vel t ime fr om t h e mos t
h ydr au lically r emot e r epr es en [alive poin t s
in t h is s er ies of t wo a r ea s t o t h e ou t let of
a r ea X is defin ed a s TOC. Th e ma ximu m
r epr es en t a t ive flow t imes for r u n off o r i gi n a t -
i n g in bot h a r ea s (X a n d W) t o a r r ive a l
[h eir r es pect ive ou t let s (X an d W) ar c
defin ed a s in let t ime X a n d in let t ime W,
r es pect ively.
Th e TOC a t t eh ou t let u ps t r ea m in a r ea W
is given a s wh ich equ a ls in let t ime
W for t h is in depen den t ar ea. Th e dit ch t ime
(DT) or t r a n s it t ime t h r ou gh a r ea X, fr om
ou t let W t o ou t let X, is Th e t ot a l of
t h es e t wo elemen t s is
in let
Figure 6-21. Schematic example for
successive areas
To a des ign er en gaged in s izin g t h e cu lver t
wh ich s er ves a s ou t let W, t h e TOC wou ld
s imply be However ,
wh en s izin g cu lver t s t h a t occu r fu r t h er
down in s u cces s ive ar eas (for in s t an ce, t h e
cu lver t a t ou t let X), t h e des ign er r equ ir es
t h e t ime it t a kes wa t er t o a r r ive fr om t h e
mos t h ydr a u lica lly r emot e loca t ion , wh ich
migh t be in eit h er a r ea X or a r ea W. To
det er min e t h is ma ximu m r epr es en t a t ive
t ime t h e des ign er mu s t compa r e t h e
t r a vel t imes for r u n off or igin a t ion in bot h
a r ea s .
Th e t r a vel t ime for wa ler or igin a t in g in a r ea
W a n d a r r ivin g a t ou t let X is equ a l 10 t h e
in let lime a t a r ea W (wh ich is t h e s a me a s
s in ce ar ea W is depen den t ) plu s t h e
t r a n s it t ime a s t h e wa t er flows in a dit ch
t h r ou gh a r ea X. Th is compos it e t ime,
ca lled in let mu s t be compa r ed t o
t h e t ime for wa t er t h a t or igin a t es in a r ea X,
or in let , t h e ma ximu m r epr e-
s en t a t ive t ime for wa t er t o a r r ive a t ou t let
X, is t h e la r ger t ime va lu e iden t ified in t h e
compa r is on .
Es t i ma t i n g Su c c e s s i ve Ar e a Ru n off
Th e modified defin it ion of TOC is applied in
es t ima t in g r u n off for s u cces s ive a r ea s . Th is
ca lcu la t ion r equ ir es collect ion of cer t a in es -
s en t ia l da t a a n d a pplica t ion of t h e pr in -
ciples u s ed for s in gle ar eas , appr opr iat ely
modified, t o det er min e t h e des ir ed Q.
Preparatory Work .
St ep 1. Delin eat e ever y s u bar ea in t h e
s er ies of ar eas .
St ep 2. Det er min e t h e in t en s it y of t h e 2-
yea r , 60-min u t e r a in fa ll.
St ep 3. Det er min e A, C, a n d in let t ime.
For ea ch s u ba r ea , det er ,ome t h e a cr ea ge
(A); var iable C, cor r ect ed for s lope an d
weigh t ed (a s n eces s a r y); a n d t h e in let t ime.
St ep 4. Det er min e t h e DT (or t r a n s it t ime).
For each depen den t s u bar ea, t h e DT is
det er min ed fr om t h e u pper ou t let 10 t h e
6-34 Drainage
lower ou t let
fpm, u n les s
Determining
u s in g cu lver t flow (as s u me 300
you h a ve mor e pr ecis e da t a ).
Specific Q, Wor kin g s ys t ema t i-
ca lly, s t a r t a t t h e u pper mos t s u ba r ea a n d
pr oceed down s t r eam. Refer t o Figu r e 6-21
a n d n ot e t h a t s u ba r ea W is u ps t r ea m fr om
s u ba r ea X.
St ep 1. Det er min e t h e s u ba r ea TOC u s in g
t h es e s imple r u les :
Th e r u le for an in depen den t s u bar ea is
Th e r u le for a depen den t ar ea is
Compa r e in let wit h in let t ime
Select t h e lar ger valu e of bas ed on
t h e compa r is on .
St ep 2. Adju s t
St ep 3. Ca lcu la t e Q for s u ba r ea W.
St ep 4. Pr oceed down s t r ea m t o s u ba r ea X
an d r epeat s t eps 1, 2, an d 3.
St ep 5. Tot a l t h e a ccu mu la t ed r u n off, To
get t h e t ot a l r u n off a t t h e Ou t let of s u ba r ea
X, u s e t h e followin g equ a t ion :
St ep 6. Con t in u e wor kin g down s t r ea m.
Pr oceed u n t il t h e r u n off a t t h e lowes t ou t let
in t h e s er ies is calcu lat ed. Us e t h e
dr ain age bas in s cor r es pon din g r ain fall in -
t en s it y for t h e I va lu e; u s e t h e t ot a l a r ea for
a ll ba s in s a n d t h e s u ba r ea s for t h e a r ea . A
va lu e, in t h e r a t ion a l-met h od for mu la .
NOTE: Re me mbe r t h a t wh e n u s i n g t h e r a -
t i on a l me t h od, t h e a r e a li mi t i s 1 , 0 0 0
a c r e s . Alwa ys c h e c k t h e a c c u mu la t e d
a c r e a ge t o e n s u r e t h a t i t doe s n ot e xc e e d
1 , 0 0 0 a c r e s .
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM
Exa mple:
32-8013, Vol 1
Us in g t h e r a t ion a l met h od a n d Figu r e 6-22,
page 6-36, det er min e t h e r u n off, in cfs , ex-
pect ed a t cu lver t s 3 a n d 4 a t t h e Spa n II
Ar my Air field a t Gies s en , Ger ma n y. Th e
s oil t ype is GMd.
Solu t ion :
St ep 1. Delin ea t e t h e a r ea ; it is fou n d t o
h a ve t h e followin g:
Su ba r ea A.
Compa ct ed gr a vel 6.2 acr es Simple
Aver a ge t u r f
0 . 2 a c r e Ar ea
6.4 acr es
Su ba r ea B.
Compa ct ed gr a vel 0.9 acr e Simple
Aver a ge t u r f 12.5 acr es
Ar ea
13.4 acr es
St ep 2. Delin eat e s u bar eas by s oil or cover
t ype. (See s t ep l. )
St ep 3. Det er min e a cr ea ge for ea ch ba s in
or s u ba r ea . (Th is in for ma t ion
s t ep 1,)
St ep 4. Clas s ify t h e bas in as
plex.
Su ba r ea A.
is given in
s imple or com-
Compa ct ed gr a vel 6.2 acr es
Aver a ge t u r f 0.2 acr e Simple
Tot a l 6. 4 a cr es
6.2 acr es / 6.4 acr es = 0.97 or 97%
Su ba r ea B.
Compa ct ed gr a vel 0.9 acr e
Aver a ge t u r f 12.5 acr es
Simple
Tot a l 1 3 . 4 a cr es
12.5 acr es / 13.4 acr es = 0.93 or 93%
St ep 5. Det er min e r epr es en t a t ive flow
pat h s . See Table 6-3, page 6-37 (given in -
for ma t ion ).
s h eet flow an d ch an n el flow. See Table 6-3
(given in for ma t ion ).
Drainage 6-35
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 6-22. Successive areas - example
St ep 7. Det er min e t h e s lope of each s ec- Bot h of t h es e pa t h s will h a ve a n a ver a ge
t ion of t h e flow pa t h . s lope of les s t h an 2 per cen t . Su bar ea 2
h a s t h r ee ma jor pa t h s . Pa t h 2 h a s a n
St ep 8. Det er min e t h e a ver a ge s lope of t h e aver age s lope of 2.3 per cen t , pat h 3 h as an
ba s in or ea ch s u ba r ea , Th er e a r e t wo aver age s lope of 2.4 per cen t , an d pat h 4
pa t h s in s u ba r ea 1, pa t h s 1A a n d 1B. h as an aver age s lope of 2.6 per cen t . (See
6-36 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table 6-3. Determining travel time
Figu r e 6-22. ) Us in g t h is in for mat ion , we
ca n n ow get a n a ver a ge s lope for pa t h s 2,
3, an d 4.
Ave r a ge S l op e =
Aver a ge s lope for s u ba r ea 1 = < 2%
Aver age s lope for s u bar ea 2 = 2.4%
St ep 9. Fin d t h e C va lu e for ea ch s u ba r ea ,
Su ba r ea A h a s compa ct ed gr a vel wit h a n
aver age s lope les s t h an 2 per cen t . Us in g
Table 6-1, page 6-22, we fin d t h at t h e C
valu e is 0.70. Likewis e, t h e C valu e for s u b-
a r ea B, GMd wit h a ver a ge t u r f wit h a s lope
of 2.4 per cen t , is 0.35.
St ep 10. Det er min e t h e t r a vel t ime of ea ch
flow pa t h a n d s elect t h e lon ges t flow-pa t h
t r a vel t ime a s t h e TOC. Obt a in s h eet -flow
t imes fr om Figu r e 6-18, page 6-26, an d
dit ch -flow t r avel t ime fr om Table 6-2, page
6-27. Det er min e t h e t r a vel t imes a n d dit ch
t ime fr om Table 6-3.
Dit ch =
=
Dit ch velocit y =
3.8 min
188 fpm at 1.8%
an d 194 fpm at 1.9%
In let t ime A = 16.3 min
In let t ime B = 25.3 min
St ep 11. Det er min e I a n d (I va lu e for
Gies s en , Ger ma n y is 1.7 in / h r fr om loca l
r ain fall r ecor ds .)
Su ba r ea A.
Su ba r ea B.
Compa r e in let = 25.3 min wit h
+ DT = 16.3 + 3.8 = 20.1 min
Select t h e la r ger va lu e of = 25.3 min
a n d = 1.8 in / h r
St ep 12. Adju s t I bas ed on TOC u s in g Fig-
u r e 6-4, page 6-9. (Th is s t ep was in clu ded
in s t ep 11.)
St ep 13. Det er min e r u n off.
To ca lcu la t e r u n off in s u ba r ea A, u s e
= 0.70( 2.6 in / h r )(6.4 acr es )
= 11.6 cfs
To ca lcu la t e r u n off in s u ba r ea B, u s e
= 0.35( 1.8 in / h r )(13.4 acr es )
= 8.4 cfs
= 11.6 cfs
= 11.6 + 8.4 = 20 cfs
NOTE: Alt h ou gh pa t h 4 wa s u s e d t o ob-
t a i n a n a c c u r a t e s lope a ve r a ge , i t i s n ot
u s e d for t r a ve l t i me . Th e s i t u a t i on , a s
dr a wn on t h e ma p, c le a r ly s h ows t h a t
pa t h 4 c ou ld n ot be c h os e n for t h e TOC.
Drainage 6-37
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
SECTION II. OPEN-CHANNEL DESIGN
An open ch a n n el is a con du it wit h a fr ee-
Th e s ize, t h e s h a pe, t h e met h od of con s t r u c-
wa t er s u r fa ce u s ed t o con vey wa t er . Th e
t ion , a n d t h e loca t ion of a dit ch a r e det er -
mos t common is a dit ch , wh ich is a n open min ed lar gely by it s pu r pos e. Th es e fac-
ch a n n el cu t in t o t h e s oil. If s o des ir ed, t h e
t or s , on ce det er min ed, will in flu en ce t h e
dit ch ca n be lin ed a lon g t h e bot t om fr om
des ign ca pa cit y a n d ma in t en a n ce r equ ir e-
ba n k t o ba n k.
men t s .
DESIGN FACTORS
LOCATION
Th er e ar e t h r ee main t ypes of dit ch es u s ed
in r oa d a n d a ir field con s t r u ct ion .
An interceptor ditch is gen er ally locat ed on
a h ills ide a bove a r oa dwa y or ot h er fea t u r e
r equ ir in g pr ot ect ion . It s fu n ct ion is t o in t er -
cept r u n off a n d dir ect t h e flow t o a mor e
des ir able locat ion . It is u s u a lly loca t ed
above s ideh ill cu t s t o pr even t er os ion of t h e
cu t .
A s ide dit ch is locat ed alon g t h e s ide of a
r oa d. It collect s r u n off fr om t h e r oa d a n d
a dja cen t a r ea s a n d t r a n s por t s it t o a cu l-
ver t or diver s ion dit ch .
Wh en t h e Topogr a ph y a llows , a d ivers ion
ditch is bu ilt t o t r a n s por t wa t er a wa y fr om
r oadways or air fields . It can be u s ed in
con ju n ct ion wit h in t er cept or a n d s ide
dit ch es t o t r a n s por t wa t er bet ween cu lver t s
or t o diver t a n exis t in g s t r ea m ch a n n el
a r ou n d a pr oject .
CROSS SECTION
Th e loca t ion a n d pea k qu a n t it y of r u n off ex-
pect ed will det er min e t h e dit ch cr os s -s ec-
t ion a l a r ea r equ ir ed. Th e mos t common
s h a pes of cr os s s ect ion s t r ia n gu la r (s ym-
met r ica l a n d n on s ymmet r ica l), t r a pezoida l,
an d s egmen t al-ar e s h own in Figu r e 6-23.
In t h e TO, t h e s h ape of a dit ch is als o dic-
t a t ed, t o a gr ea t ext en t , by t h e ch oice of en -
gin eer equ ipmen t a va ila ble for it s con s t r u c-
t ion . Two it ems of equ ipmen t a r e u n iqu ely
s u it ed for s peedy dit ch excavat ion : t h e
mot or gr a der a n d t h e wh eeled t r a ct or -
s cr a per . Ot h er it ems of equ ipmen t t h a t ca n
be u s ed t o excavat e a dit ch s ect ion in clu de
t h e backh oe; bu lldozer ; fr on t -en d loader ;
t r en ch in g mach in e; an d cr an e equ ipped
wit h a dr a glin e, cla ms h ell, or s h ovel fr on t .
Figure 6-23. Ditch cross sections
6-38 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
However , pr odu ct ion r a t es for t h es e it ems
a r e r ela t ively low compa r ed t o t h e gr a der or
s cr aper ; h en ce, t h e gr ader or s cr aper is
mor e likely t o be u s ed.
Triangular or V ditches a r e common ly in -
s t alled t o h an dle flows u p t o 60 cu bic feet
per s econ d. Th e r oad gr ader is well
des ign ed t o qu ickly excavat e t h e n eces s ar y
cr os s s ect ion t o h an dle t h is flow, pr ovided
t h a t t h e dit ch is bu ilt in s oil r a t h er t h a n
r ock. Gr a der efficien cy dr ops s ign ifica n t ly
wh en cr os s s ect ion s of lar ger dimen s ion s
a r e r equ ir ed.
For flows lar ger t h an 60 cu bic feet per
s econ d, t h e trapez oidal ditch is common ly
s pecified. Th e fla t bot t om a n d mids ect ion
of t h is dit ch can be excavat ed r apidly by a
wh eeled s cr aper , an d t h e s ide s lopes can be
dr es s ed back by s u bs equ en t pas s es of a
r oa d gr a der .
Sma ller bot t om widt h s ca n be pr ovided
u s in g a n y of t h e pr eviou s ly men t ion ed
it ems of con s t r u ct ion equ ipmen t , in clu din g
t h e r oa d gr a der wit h it s bla de t u r n ed t o a
h igh an gle. Pr odu ct ion r a t es , h owever , will
be mu ch lower t h a n t h os e of t h e wh eeled
s cr aper .
Not e t h at t h e 60 cu bic feet per s econ d
gu idelin e is flexible. If s cr aper s ar e n ot
a va ila ble t o exca va t e a dit ch ca r r yin g 100
cu bic feet per s econ d bu t a gr ader is , com-
mon s en s e dict a t es t h a t t h e gr a der be u s ed
t o con s t r u ct a n over s ized V dit ch r a t h er
t h a n u s in g low-pr odu ct ion -r a t e equ ipmen t
t o con s t r u ct a t r a pezoida l dit ch ,
Th e s egmental-d itch s h ape r es u lt s wh en ex-
plos ives ar c u s ed t o cr eat e t h e dit ch . Th is
t ech n iqu e is oft en u s ed wh en t h e t er r a in is
t oo s oft t o s u ppor t exca va t in g ma t h in er y.
Dit ch es cu t by h a n d will oft en bea r t h is
s h ape as well.
SIDE-SLOPE RATIOS
Dit ch es h a ve t wo s ides a n d t wo a s s ocia t ed
s ide-s lope r at ios . Side s lope is t h e s lope of
t h e ba n ks of t h e ch a n n els , n or ma lly ex-
pr es s ed a s a r a t io of feet h or izon t a l t o feet
ver t ica l. For example, 3:1 is a s ide s lope of
3 feel h or izon t a l t o 1 foot ver t ica l. Wh en
t h e s idewalls on oppos it e s ides ar e in clin ed
equ a lly, t h e dit ch is ca lled s ymmet r ica l.
Nons y mmet rical dit ch es h ave s ide s lopes
t h a t differ .
Th e des ign er s elect s appr opr iat e s ide-s lope
r at ios . Th e s elect ion is cr it ical t o en s u r e
t h a t t h e dit ch s er ves it s pu r pos e. Dit ch
s idewalls t h at ar e t oo s t eep in vit e exces s ive
er os ion a n d a r e likely t o ca u s e t h e dit ch t o
clog wit h s edimen t . Even mor e s er iou s is
t h e r is k of a s ever e acciden t , if a veh icle
s h ou ld r u n in t o t h e dit ch a n d become
en t r apped or over t u r n becau s e t h e s ide
s lope is t oo s ever e. On ly on e s ide s lope is
r equ ir ed for s ymmet r ica l dit ch es . For
cla r it y, t h e t er ms front s lope or d itch s lope
a n d back s lope ar e u s ed t o differ en t iat e be-
t ween t h e dis s imilar s lopes . Figu r e 6-24,
pa ge 6-40, illu s t r a t es t h is t er min ology.
Th e s idewall of a r oads ide dit ch locat ed ad-
ja cen t t o t h e s h ou lder is ca lled t h e fr on t
s lope of t h e dit ch . Th e far s lope, called t h e
back s lope, is s imply an ext en s ion of t h e
cu t fa ce in a n exca va t ion . Th e followin g
r u les of t h u mb ar e applicable on ly in s h a l-
low di t c h e s i n r e la t i ve ly fla t t e r r a i n :
Roa ds ide dit ch es ma y be cu t n on s ym-
met r ica lly a t 3:1/ 1:1 (fr on t s lope/ ba ck
s lope).
NOTE: For c a lc u la t ion pu r pos e s , t h e
h or izon t a l c ompon e n t of t h e r oa ds ide
di t c h wi ll be r e fe r r e d t o a s X. Li k e wi s e ,
t h e h or izon t a l c ompon e n t on t h e ba c k
s lope wi ll be r e fe r r e d t o a s Y. (Se e Fi gu r e
6 -2 3 . )
Diver s ion dit ch es ma y be cu t s ymmet r i-
cally at 1:1.
Dit ch es in t en ded t o be s u bject t o cr os s
t r a ffic ma y be cu t s ymmet r ica lly a t 3:1
or mor e gen t ly.
In mos t ca s es , in t er cept or a n d diver s ion
dit ch es a r e in s t a lled fa r en ou gh fr om t h e
t r a veled wa y n ot t o pr es en t a h a za r d t o
pa s s in g veh icles on t h e r oa dwa y or a ir cr a ft
on t h e r u n wa y. Sin ce t h er e is ver y lit t le
dan ger fr om eit h er s ide, s ymmet r ical s ide-
s lope r at ios ar e s pecified for t h es e t ypes of
dit ch es .
Drainage 6-39
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 6-24. Definition sketch
Tables 6-4 an d 6-5 ar e als o u s efu l in s elect -
in g fr on t s lopes for fill s ect ion s .
TYPES OF FLOW
Sever a l t ypes of flow a r e a s s ocia t ed wit h
open ch an n els . Some of t h es e t ypes occu r
s imu lt a n eou s ly in t h e s a me ch a n n el. An
u n der s t a n din g of t h es e t ypes of flow
a n d t h eir in t er r ela t ion s h ip is es s en t ia l t o
t h e effect ive des ign of dr ain age s ys t ems .
An open-channel flow h a s a fr ee s u r fa ce a n d
n o h ydr au lic pr es s u r e. Some examples of
open -ch an n el flow in clu de dit ch es , can als ,
s t r ea ms , a n d cu lver t s n ot flowin g fu ll. Em-
pir ical for mu las wit h exper imen t ally der ived
coefficien t s ar e u s ed in des ign in g an open
ch an n el. Th es e h ydr au lic for mu las r eflect
cer t a in h ydr a u lic t h eor ies a n d a s s u mpt ion s
gover n in g des ign an alys is of fr ee-flow ch an -
n els .
A s teady flow is as s u med in an open ch an -
n el wit h a u n ifor m dept h du r in g t h e des ign
per iod. Ch an ges in flow ar e gen er ally s low,
a n d a n y er r or s t h a t ma y be in t r odu ced by
t h is a s s u mpt ion a r e n ot s ign ifica n t .
A con t in u ou s flow is a s s u med a ccor din g t o
t h e pr in ciple of t h e con s er va t ion of ma s s .
A uniform flow is a s s u med wh en t h e dept h
of wa t er t h r ou gh ou t a ch a n n el is con s t a n t
in dimen s ion a n d s lope. Th is mea n s t h a t
t h e s lope of t h e wa t er s u r fa ce is t h e s a me
a s t h e s lope of t h e ch a n n el bot t om. Th is a s -
s u mpt ion is es s en t ia lly cor r ect for ch a n n els
of moder a t e s lope a n d len gt h . Flows in
dit ch es , ca n a ls , a n d r iver s a r e u n ifor m, bu t
flows over s pillwa ys or wa t er fa lls a r e n ot
u n ifor m.
Th e s t r en gt h of vis cos it y for ces an d h en ce
t h e t h ickn es s of movin g flu id, det er min e
wh et h er ch a n n el flow is turbulent or
laminar.
Turbulent flow is as s u med for pu r pos es of
open -ch an n el des ign . Th is t ype of flow oc-
cu r s wh en vis cos it y for ces ar e r elat ively
wea k a n d t h e in dividu a l wa t er pa r t icles
move in r a n dom pa t t er n s wit h in t h e a g-
gr ega t e for wa r d-flow pa t t er n .
Laminar flow occu r s wh en vis cos it y for ces
pr edomin a t e a n d t h e pa r t icles of t h e flu id
move in s moot h , pa r a llel pa t h s . An exa mple
of t h is t ype of flow is h on ey pou r ed fr om a
con t a in er ; h on ey h a s h igh -vis cos it y s t r en gt h
compa r ed t o wa t er . Th e on ly t ype of
la min a r flow con s ider ed in t h is ma n u a l is
s h eet flow, wh ich occu r s wh er e dept h is ex-
t r emely s h a llow. It is a s s u med t h a t t h e flow
6-40 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table 6-4. Recommended requirements for slope ratios in cuts and fills - homogeneous soils
Table 6-5. Recommended requirements for slope ratios in cuts - rock with bedding
or other planes of weakness
Drainage 6-41
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
in n at u r al an d des ign ed ch an n els will be
s t ea dy, con t in u ou s , u n ifor m, a n d t u r bu len t .
DESIGN EQUATIONS FOR OPEN
CHANNELS
Th is s ect ion deals wit h open -ch an n el des ign
equ a t ion s . Becau s e of t h e var iables an d as -
s u mpt ion s t o be ma de, t r ia l t ech n iqu es a r e
r equ ir ed t o det er min e t h e s h a pe a n d dept h
of a pa r t icu la r ch a n n el befor e a fin a l s olu -
t ion is r each ed.
Con t in u it y Equ a t ion
Th e equ a t ion of con t in u it y is expr es s ed a s
follows :
wh er e
Q = r a t e of flow in cfs
A = cr os s -s ect ion a l a r ea in s q ft
V = velocit y in fps
Ma n n i n gs Ve loc i t y of Flow Equ a t i on
Ma n y empir ica l equ a t ion s h a ve been
pr opos ed for det er min in g t u r bu len t flow.
Th e mos t widely u s ed is t h e equ a t ion
pr es en t ed by Man n in g in 1889. It s t at es
or , a ft er t r a n s pos in g,
wh er e
V = velocit y of flow in fps
R = h ydr a u lic r a diu s
or
cr os s -s ect ion a r ea of wa t er
R =
wet t ed per imet er
S = s lope or gr a de of t h e ch a n n el in feet
per foot (ft / ft )
n = r ou gh n es s coefficien t or fr ict ion fa ct or ,
wh ich depen ds u pon t h e mat er ial compr is -
in g t h e
NOTE:
ch an n el lin in g
Wh e n u s i n g me t r i c u n i t s
Ma n n in gs equ a t ion ca n ea s ily be s olved
ma t h ema t ica lly u s in g t h e equ a t ion . How-
ever , t o as s is t in t h e des ign of open ch an -
n els , t h e equ a t ion h a s been pr epa r ed a s a
n omogr a ph . (See Figu r e 6-25. )
Rou gh n e s s Coe ffic ie n t (n )
Th e r ou gh n es s or r es is t an ce coefficien t is a
mea s u r e of t h e r es is t a n ce t o flow ca u s ed by
s u r fa ce-con t a ct ir r egu la r it ies . It va r ies wit h
s oil t ype, ch an n el con dit ion , an d t ype of
dit ch lin in g u s ed. Us e Table 6-6 t o es -
t ima t e t h e r ou gh n es s coefficien t , n , u s ed in
t h e s olu t ion of t h e equ a t ion . Th e coeffi-
cien t can be ch an ged on ly if t h e dit ch
lin in g is ch an ged or modified. Th e effect of
t h e r ou gh n es s coefficien t on velocit y can be
alt er ed by ch an gin g t h e s ide s lopes of t h e
dit ch , t h er eby ch a n gin g t h e wa t er con t a ct
a r ea . Ch a n gin g t h e r ou gh n es s coefficien t in
t h is wa y ch a n ges t h e dit ch ca pa cit y.
Lon git u din a l Slope or Gr a de (S)
Un der n or ma l con dit ion s , t h e dit ch s lope
(t h e lon git u din a l fa ll of t h e ch a n n el in feet
per foot or in per cen t age) will be det er -
min ed by t h e s lope of t h e t er r a in . For
s h or t dit ch len gt h s on ly, a va r ia t ion fr om
t h e n a t u r a l s lope of t h e t er r a in ca n be
a ch ieved by modifyin g t h e cu t t in g dept h of
t h e dit ch . By va r yin g t h e cu t t in g dept h
wit h in t h e dit ch len gt h , t h e s lope can be in -
cr eas ed or decr eas ed in depen den t ly of t h e
t er r ain s lope.
In ch an n el des ign , s lope per cen t age an d t h e
r es u lt in g ch a n ge in velocit y a r e impor t a n t
con s ider at ion s . Slopes over 2 per cen t may
h a ve t oo h igh a velocit y, r es u lt in g in
er os ion . Slopes u n der 0.5 per cen t will
gen er a lly h a ve t oo low a velocit y, r es u lt in g
in s edimen t a t ion depos it s . Depos it ion (t h e
depos it in g of s edimen t on t h e bot t om of t h e
dit ch ) n or mally occu r s at velocit ies below 3
feet per s econ d.
Ve loc it y of Flow (V)
Man y dit ch es wit h differ in g s ide s lopes an d
cr os s -s ect ion a l a r ea s of flow will ca r r y t h e
s a me r a t e of r u n off on a s imila r lon git u din a l
s lope. In each cas e, h owever , t h e velocit y of
flow will be differ en t . Sin ce exces s ive
velocit y in a dit ch will cau s e er os ion an d
6-42 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 6-25. Nomograph for Mannings equation
Drainage 6-43
03 0.2 50
E f 1.486 2/3 'h
qua Ion: V= -n- R S
40
0.2
0.3
30
001
0.10
0.4
0.09
0.08
Q)
20
0.5
:
0.07
Cl
006
c
0.6 2
"-
0.05
"-
::l
0.7
I-
0.04
"-
0.8
'"
09y
0.02
0.03
0.9
""
Y
1.0
10 ....
~
"9 q(t
0.02
""
/'
8
0.03
a: ./"
>
""
/'/
7
Cl)
j ./"
6
0.04
B
0.01
Cl)
,/"
C
::l
20 5
0.009
'C
~
E 0.05 "-
0.008
f!
~ ~ ~ 9 (jJ'?J Q)
!
0.007
. ~
%0 .
4
:Sl
a; :; c : , ~
i
0.06
Q)
0.006
as
/
8
"-
-
"t)
.5
0.005
>. 3/
0.07 :::t
",
!
3
.2
0.08
Cl)
4
0.09
0.10
5 2
0.002
6
Example jsee dashed line):
Given V = 2.9
7
S = 0.003
0.20
n = 0.02
8
0.001 9
Find: R
1. Line from S value to
-0.0009
10 n value intersects
1.0
0.0008
turning line. establishing
0.9
0.0007
turning point.
2. Line from V value
0.8 0.30
0.0006
through turning point
0.0005
intersects hydraulic
radius scale at R = 0.6
0.6 0.0004
foot.
0.0003 20
0.5
-0.40
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table 6-6. Values for Mannings n and maximum permissible velocities of flow in open channels
pos s ibly da ma ge a dja cen t s t r u ct u r es , it If velocit y (V) in cr eas es , er os ion in -
mu s t be con t a in ed wit h in limit s . Ta ble 6-6 cr eas es .
lis t s t h e ma ximu m per mis s ible velocit ies ,
depen din g on s oil an d ot h er fact or s .
Ve loc it y Re la t ion s h ips
As s lope in cr eas es , velocit y (V) in cr eas es .
As qu a n t it y of r u n off (Q) in cr ea s es wh ile
a r ea (A) r ema in s con s t a n t , velocit y (V)
in cr eas es .
If Ma n n in gs n in cr ea s es , velocit y (V)
decr eas es .
Hydr a u lic Ra diu s (R]
Th e h ydr a u lic r a diu s (R) is t h e a r ea of t h e
wat er cr os s s ect ion of t h e dit ch divided by
it s wet t ed per imet er , ca lcu la t ed a s s h own in
Figu r e 6-26. It r ela t es t h e s u r fa ce a r ea of
fr ict ion r es is t a n ces wit h t h e volu me of
wat er bein g car r ied by t h e dit ch . Th e
h ydr au lic r adiu s can be calcu lat ed u s in g an
elect r on ic calcu lat or as s h own in Figu r e 6-
27, page 6-46.
6-44 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 6-26. Hydraulic radius
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Th er e a r e cer t a in fa ct or s kn own for ea ch
dit ch bein g des ign ed. Each of t h es e fact or s
will a ffect des ign det a ils . It ems s u ch a s t h e
loca t ion , t h e pea k flow or r u n off ca r r ied,
t h e effect of t er r a in on s lope, a n d t h e s oil
t ype or ma t er ia l t o be u s ed t o lin e t h e dit ch
all h ave a bear in g on ch an n el des ign .
LOCATION
Th e loca t ion of t h e dit ch will det er min e it s
gen er al s h ape an d t h e s ide s lopes t o be
u s ed in it s des ign .
QUANTITY OF RUNOFF (Q)
Des ign er s mu s t kn ow t h e qu a n t it y of r u n off
t h e ch a n n el will h a ve t o ca r r y. Us u a lly,
t h is is es t ima t ed u s in g t h e r a t ion a l met h od
of r u n off det er min a t ion . However , it ma y
als o be es t imat ed bas ed on kn owledge of
t h e s lope, t h e dia met er , a n d t h e t ype of cu l-
ver t s u s ed t o dis ch a r ge in t o t h e ch a n n el.
Th e valu e of Q will als o det er min e wh ich
t ype of dit ch s ect ion , t r ia n gu la r or
t r apezoidal, will be u s ed. Th is depen ds on
wh et h er Q is gr ea t er t h a n or les s t h a n 60
cu bic feet per s econ d.
SLOPE (S)
Th e s lope will be det er min ed by t h e t er r ain .
In gen er al, t h e s lope u s ed will be t h e
n a t u r a l gr ou n d s lope. Sma ll modifica t ion s
of t h e s lope can be made for s h or t dit ch s ec-
t ion s .
PROPOSED DITCH LINING
Th e dit ch lin in g det er min es t h e velocit y an d
r ou gh n es s coefficien t or r es is t a n ce fa ct or , n .
(See Table 6-6.)
Table 6-6 gives maximu m er os ion velocit ies
for each t ype of s oil an d lin in g. Th e lower
velocit y on t h e ch a r t in dica t es t h e velocit y
a t wh ich er os ion will s t a r t occu r r in g in
s ome por t ion of t h e dit ch . At t h e h igh
velocit y va lu e, t h e en t ir e len gt h of t h e dit ch
will pr obably be er odin g.
Table 6-6 als o pr ovides Man n in gs r ou gh -
n es s coefficien t (n ) wh ich r epr es en t s t h e fr ic-
t ion r es is t a n ce of t h e dit ch , ch a n n el, or
s t r ea m for va r iou s s oil t ypes a n d lin in gs .
Us e t h e aver age valu e of n for des ign pu r -
pos es .
Drainage 6-45
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 6-27. Calculating hydraulic radius
DESIGN TECHNIQUES
On ce des ign con s ider at ion s h ave been ex-
St ep 1. Det er min e t h e pea k volu me of
amin ed, t h e in t er act ive des ign pr ocedu r e
s t or m-wa t er r u n off, Q. Ca lcu la t e t h e t ot a l
can begin .
a r ea (s ) con t r ibu t in g flow t o t h e dit ch . (Us e
t h e r a t ion a l met h od.) Us in g t h e appropriate
DESIGN STEPS
for mu la , fin d Q.
Th e s t eps u s ed in des ign follow:
St ep 2. Det er min e t h e s lope, S, in feet per
foot . If t h e s lope is a lr ea dy kn own a s a
6-46 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
per cen t a ge, it ma y be con ver t ed t o u n it s of
feet per foot by s imply dividin g by 100.
St ep 3. Select t r ia l va lu es for r es is t a n ce, n ,
an d velocit y, V. Fr om Table 6-6, page 6-44,
s elect a va lu e of t h e r es is t a n ce or r ou gh -
n es s coefficien t , n , a n d a velocit y, V, for t h e
s oil t ype in wh ich t h e dit ch is t o be con -
s t r u ct ed.
Th e in it ial t r ial velocit y s h ou ld be h eld t o 1.
feet per s econ d below t h e h igh valu e.
Us u ally, t h e ch an n el will be car r yin g les s
t h an des ign flow, r edu cin g t h e velocit y an d
ma kin g s edimen t a t ion likely. If a h igh
valu e is ch os en for t h e des ign velocit y, t h is
depos it ed mat er ial will be r emoved by t h e
wa t er du r in g a pea k flow wit h ou t ca u s in g
ext en s ive da ma ge t o t h e ch a n n el.
St ep 4. Det er min e t h e h ydr a u lic r a diu s .
Fr om t h e s lope, S; Ma n n in gs n ; a n d t h e
velocit y, V; fin d t h e h ydr a u lic r a diu s of t h e
dit ch , u s in g t h e n omogr a ph or equ a t ion .
Ca ll t h is t o dis t in gu is h it fr om t h e R
va lu es in Appen dix C of t h is ma n u a l, wh ich
will be
St ep 5. Det er min e t h e t ype of dit ch cr os s
s ect ion . Wh er e Q is gr eat er t h an 60 cu bic
feet per s econ d, u s e a t r apezoidal dit ch .
Wh er e Q is equ al t o or les s t h an 60 cu bic
feet per s econ d, u s e a t r ia n gu la r dit ch .
Wh et h er t h e dit ch is s ymmet r ica l or n on -
s ymmet r ical will depen d on t h e s pecific loca-
t ion .
St ep 6. Select t h e appr opr iat e h ydr au lic
r a diu s a n d a r ea t a ble, Fr om Appen dix C,
s elect t h e appr opr iat e h ydr au lic r adiu s an d
ar ea t able for t h e des ir ed dit ch cr os s s ec-
t ion . Iden t ify t h e colu mn h ea ded wit h t h e
t en t a t ive s ide-s lope r a t ios . En t er t h e
t a ble, loca t in g t h e va lu e of t h a t cor -
r es pon ds wit h Th en fin d t h e cr os s -s ec-
t ion a l a r ea a n d dit ch dept h cor r es pon din g
t o a n d In u s in g t h e t a bles , if t h e
exa ct va lu e is n ot a va ila ble, u s e t h e
n ext s ma ller va lu e lis t ed in t h a t colu mn .
St ep 7. Ca lcu la t e Q.
Q = AWV, wh er e a r ea ,
Us e t h e equ a t ion
a n d velocit y, V,
ar e det er min ed in s t eps 6 an d 3, r es pect ive-
ly. If t h e ca lcu la t ed Q fr om s t ep 7 is n ot
mor e t h a n 5 per cen t gr ea t er t h a n t h e
des ign Q, t h e dit ch s elect ed can be u s ed. If
t h e ca lcu la t ed Q is mor e t h a n 5 per cen t
gr ea t er t h a n t h e des ign Q, r edu ce t h e
velocit y an d r epeat s t eps 4, 5, 6, an d 7.
If t h e ca lcu la t ed Q is s ma ller t h a n t h e
des ign Q by mor e t h an 5 per cen t , in cr eas e
t h e velocit y, However , do n ot ma ke it a n y
la r ger t h a n t h e ma ximu m for t h e s oil or
lin in g bas ed on Table 6-6. If t h e calcu lat ed
Q is s t ill les s t h a n t h e 95-per cen t limit , t h e
cr os s s ect ion mu s t be in cr eas ed by flat t en -
in g t h e s ide s lopes or by in cr eas in g t h e bot -
t om widt h (if a t r a pezoida l s ect ion is u s ed).
St ep 8. Pr ovide fr eeboar d. Add 0.5 foot t o
t h e wa t er dept h t o pr ovide fr eeboa r d.
Fr eeboar d is t h e addit ion al dit ch dept h over
t h a t r equ ir ed t o ca r r y t h e des ign flow. Th is
a dded dept h a llows t h e dit ch t o ca r r y t h e
des ign capacit y, even wit h s edimen t in t h e
dit ch bot t om. Th e t ot a l dept h , in clu din g
fr eeboa r d, will be t h e cu t t in g dept h a n d t h e
dept h at wh ich t h e dit ch gr ade will be s et .
Exa mple:
Des ign a dit ch t o ca r r y a pea k volu me of
s t or m-wa t er r u n off equ a lin g 47,3 cfs fr om a
cu lver t t o a s t r ea m t h a t is 289 feet fr om
t h e ou t let of t h e cu lver t . Th e dit ch in ver t
(or bot t om) eleva t ion a t t h e ou t let of t h e cu l-
ver t will be 7.0 feet a bove s ea level. Th e
dit ch in ver t will be con s t r u ct ed above t h e
s t r ea m h igh wa t er ma r k a t a n eleva t ion of
5.5 feet above s ea level. Th e dit ch lin in g
will be t h e bar e (u n t u r fed) GMd s oil, as ex-
ca va t ed.
Slop e =
in ver t a t cu lver t or 7.0 ft - 5.5 ft
dis t a n ce fr om cu lver t t o s t r ea m
Soil (GMd): V = 3 t o 5 fps (Table 6-6)
= 0.024 (Table 6-3, page
Drainage
6-37)
6-47
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Solu t ion (Nomogr a ph a n d Ta ble Met h od):
Th e s olu t ion of a dit ch pr oblem is a lwa ys a
t r ia l t ech n iqu e in wh ich s ever a l va lu es of
velocit y ar c u s ed. Tables ar e r ecommen ded
t o t a bu la t e t h e r es u lt s . Th e t a bles s h ou ld
be s imilar t o t h e dit ch des ign wor k s h eet
s h own in Table 6-7.
St ep 1. Select a dit ch . Sin ce des ign flow,
Q, is les s t h an 60 cu bic feet per s econ d,
t h e dit ch s h ou ld be t r ia n gu la r . Th e ch a n -
n el is n ot a r oads ide dit ch , s o it s h ou ld be
s ymmet r ica l. Select s ide s lopes for a 3:1 t r i-
a n gu la r dit ch for t h e fir s t t r ia l. (Th is a s -
s u mes t h at per iodic veh icu lar cr os s in gs ar e
expect ed.) Th es e fact or s can be ch an ged if
t h e dit ch des ign is n ot s u it a ble. En t er t h e
in for ma t ion in t h e colu mn s u n der dit ch
s elect ion on t h e dit ch des ign wor k s h eet .
St ep 2. Select t h e velocit y. Th e er os ion
velocit y for t h e s oil is 3 t o 5 feet per
s econ d. Th is mea n s t h a t a t 3 feet per
s econ d t h e s oil in t h e dit ch ma y begin t o
er ode, an d at 5 feet per s econ d t h e wh ole
dit ch will be er odin g. Sin ce it is pr efer able
n ot t o exceed t h e of 5 feet per s econ d,
t h e bes t in it ial ch oice is u s u ally 1 feet per
s econ d lower t h an or 4 feet per
s econ d. En t er t h is figu r e on t h e des ign
wor k s h eet .
St ep 3. Det er min e t h e h ydr a u lic r a diu s ,
fr om t h e n omogr a ph . Us in g t h e
n omogr aph (Figu r e 6-26, page 6-45), fir s t lo-
ca t e a t u r n in g lin e. Th e lin e is in t h e cen -
t er on t h e n omogr a ph . Fin d t h e t u r n in g
poin t by locat in g t h e s lope, S (in feet per
foot ), in t h e left colu mn of t h e ch a r t a n d
t h e r ou gh n es s coefficien t , n , in t h e r igh t
colu mn . Dr a w a s t r a igh t lin e t o con n ect
t h e t wo poin t s . Th e poin t a t wh ich t h e n ew
lin e cr os s es t h e t u r n in g lin e is t h e t u r n in g
poin t . Th is t u r n in g poin t will r ema in (h e
s a me a s lon g a s n eit h er S n or n ch a n ges .
Th e h ydr au lic r adiu s , Rm, is fou n d by con -
n ect in g t h e velocit y (in t h e s econ d colu mn
fr om t h e r igh t ) a n d t h e t u r n in g poin t by
dr a win g a s t r a igh t lin e t h r ou gh t o t h e R
s cale. Th en r ead t h e h ydr au lic r adiu s (R)
in t h e s econ d colu mn fr om t h e left . Th is
gives t h e r equ ir ed R for a n y given V in
Ma n n in gs equ a t ion . In t h is exa mple, R =
0.86. En t er t h is va lu e on t h e wor k s h eet .
Th e R va lu e ca n be compu t ed by u s in g t h e
ca lcu la t or met h od s h own in Figu r e 6-27,
page 6-46.
St ep 4. Fin d t h e h ydr au lic r adiu s , in
t h e dit ch t a ble. Loca t e t h e a ppr opr ia t e
t able amon g Tables C-2 t h r ou gh C-10 in Ap-
pen dix C of t h is ma n u a l. Th er e a r e fou r
t ypes of t a bles : V-t r ia n gu la r or s ymmet r i-
ca l, V-t r ia n gu la r or n on s ymmet r ica l,
t r a pezoida l-s ymmet r ica l, a n d t r a pezoida l-
n on s ymmet r ica l. For t h is exa mple, u s e
Ta ble C-2 for a s ymmet r ica l V dit ch .
Loca t e t h e pa ir of colu mn s r epr es en t in g t h e
s ide s lopes of t h e dit ch bein g des ign ed (for
exa mple, 3:1). Loca t e t h e va lu es t h a t
fa ll a bove a n d below, or t h e on e t h a t is ex-
a ct ly equ a l t o, t h e va lu e fou n d fr om t h e
n omogr a ph of Ma n n in gs equ a t ion . In t h is
exa mple, t h e = 0.86 ca n n ot be fou n d in
t h es e colu mn s , bu t t h e va lu es 0.85 a n d
0.90 ar c given , Us e t h e lower valu e (0.85)
on t h e wor k s h eet .
St ep 5. Recor d t h e a r ea a n d dept h . Wit h
= 0.85, t h e cor r es pon din g ar ea fou n d in
Table C-2 is 9.72 s qu ar e feet , an d t h e
dept h (d) fou n d in t h e colu mn a t t h e fa r left
is 1.8 feet , Recor d t h es e valu es u n der t h e
appr opr iat e h eadin gs on t h e dit ch des ign
wor k s h eet .
Table 6-7. Ditch design work sheet
6-48 Drai nage
FM 5-430-00-1 /AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
St ep 6. Ch eck for Q. Ch eck t o s ee if t h is
pa r t icu la r dit ch will mcct t h e r equ ir emen t s
of t h e des ign by per for min g t h e calcu la -
t i o n s -
Q =
Q = (9.72 s q ft )(4.0 fps )
Q = 38.9 cfs
Th is ca lcu la t ed qu a n t it y of flow (Q) mu s t
fall wit h in 5 per cen t of t h e des ign flow of
47,3 cu bic fect per s econ d, or bet ween 44.9
an d 49.7 cu bic feet per s econ d. If t h is r e-
qu ir emen t is n ot met , a s in t h is ca s e, t r y a
n ew velocit y. If t h e calcu lat ed Q is les s
t h a n 95 per cen t of t h e des ign flow, u s e a
h igh er velocit y. For t h is example, s in ce
38.9 is les s t h an 44.9 cu bic feet per s econ d
(t h e lower limit of t h e a ccept a ble r a n ge), a
velocit y of 4,5 feet per s econ d wou ld be an
a ccept a ble a s s u mpt ion for t h e n ext t r ia l.
V = 4.5
Rm = 1.0
R t = 0.95
= 12.0 s q ft . d = 2.0 ft
Q = (4.5 fps )(12.0 s q ft )
Q = 54.0 cfs , wh ich exceeds 49.7
cfs , s o t h e n cx[ t r ial velocit y mu s t be les s
t h an 4.5 fps : t r y 4.2 fps .
V = 4.2
= 0.92
= 0.90
= 10.83 s q ft , d = 1.9 ft
= (4.2 fps )(10.83 s q ft )
= 45.5 cfs
Q is gr ea t er t h a n t h e lower limit of 44.9
an d les s Lh an t h e h igh limit of 49.7. Th is
dit ch is wit h in t h e r a n ge a n d t h u s meet s
t h e dit ch wa t er dept h a n d velocit y r equ ir e-
men t s . En t er t h is va lu e of 9 on t h e dit ch
des ign wor k s h eet .
St ep 7. Det er min e if t h e dit ch is ap-
pr opr iat e. Th is pr oces s des cr ibes a s ym-
met r ica l, t r ia n gu la r dit ch in GMd s oil, wit h
a s lope of 0.0052 feet per foot an d 3:1 s ide
s lopes . It car r ies 45.5 cu bic feet per
s econ d r u n off wit h a wa t er dept h of 1.9 feet
an d a velocit y of 4.2 feet per s econ d.
Sin ce t h e velocit y in t h e dit ch is gr eat er
t h an 3 fps , t h e dit ch can be con s ider ed s elf-
clea n in g a n d r equ ir es lit t le ma in t en a n ce.
Peak r u n off will r emove an y s ilt bu ildu p
fr om t h e ch a n n el bot t om. Wit h V = 4.2 feet
per s econ d, t h er e may be s ome er os ion of
t h e dit ch , bu t it s h ou ld n ot be a s ign ifica n t
main t en an ce pr oblem. Th e s h ape, lin in g,
an d s lopes ar e accept able.
St ep 8. Det er min e t h e cu t t in g dept h . Th e
wa t er level in t h e dit ch s h ou ld be a t lea s t
0.5 foot below t h e edge of t h e dit ch a s a
s a fet y fa ct or . Accor din gly, t h e cu t t in g
dept h is t h e wa t er dept h plu s 0.5 foot of
fr eeboar d.
Cu t t in g dept h = d + fr eeboa r d
Us in g t h e r u t t in g dept h ju s t ca lcu la t ed,
Cu t t in g dept h = 1.9 + 0.5
= 2.4 ft
Sin ce t h er e ar e 2.5 feet (8.0 - 5.5 = 2.5) of
a va ila ble cu t t in g dept h a t t h e en d of t h e
dit ch , t h e des ign is accept able.
Con c lu s ion : Us e t h is dit c h .
Alt er n a Live Solu t ion (Ca lcu la t or Met h od):
If it is mor e con ven ien t t o u s e t h e ca l-
cu la t or met h od t h a n t h e n omogr a ph mo t h e fol-
lowin g pr ocedu r e is u s ed:
St ep 1. Select a dit ch . As befor e, t h e dit ch
is V- t ype a n d s ymmet r ica l. As s u me s ide
s lopes of 3:1 h ave been s elect ed for t h e
t r ia l cr os s s ect ion .
St ep 2. Select t h e velocit y. Th e as s u med
t r ial velocit y s h ou ld always be 1 feet per
s econ d les s t h a n t h e ma ximu m er os ion
velocit y of t h e s oil. In t h is cas e, it will be 4
feet per s econ d.
St ep 3. Det er min e t h e h ydr a u lic r a diu s , R
m
.
wh er e
V = 4 fp s
n = 0.024
S = 0.0052 ft / ft
Drainage 6-49
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
St cp 4. Det er min e t h e a r ea of wa t er ,
an d dept h of wat er , d. As explain ed in Fig-
u r e 6-28
= 1/ 2(xd + y d)d for a n y t r ia n gu la r dit ch .
For t h is pr oblem, x = 3, y = 3
= l/ 2(3d + 3d)d
= l/ 2(6d)d
= 3d
2
Figure 6-28. Determination of the area of a
triangular ditch
Th e wet t ed per imet er (wp), as explain ed in
Figu r e 6-29, is
w p . Cl + C2 = ( x d )
2
+ d + (yd )
2
+ d
Su bs t it u t in g va lu es of x a n d y
Figure 6-29. Determination of the wetted
perimeter of a triangular ditch
Th er efor e, t h e h ydr a u lic r a diu s (Rm) is
For dept h (d), t h e dept h of wa t er for t h e
con dit ion s a s s u me d in s t ep 3, is calcu lat ed.
Sin ce Rm = 0.848 fr om s t ep 3, a n d Rm is
a ls o equ a l t o 0.474d, t h e dept h of wa t er (d)
ca n bc compu t ed.
Th is a llows t o be compu t ed.
St ep 5. Ch eck for Q.
Th e Q ca lcu la t ed for t h e dit ch mu s t be
wit h in 5 per cen t of t h e des ign Q of 47.3
cfs , or bet ween 44.9 an d 49.7. Th e calcu -
lat ed dit ch Q is 38.4, wh ich is les s t h an
t h e lower limit an d is u n accept able. Sin ce
t h e ca lcu la t ed Q is below t h e lower limit ,
r a is e t h e velocit y for t h e n ext t r ia l ca lcu la -
t ion . For t h e s econ d t r ia l, t h e a s s u med
velocit y will be 4.5 feet per s econ d.
6-50 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
St ep 6. Ma ke a s econ d t r ia l ca lcu la t ion .
Q is t oo h igh ; t r y V = 4.2 fps .
St ep 7. Ma ke a t h ir d t r ia l ca lcu la t ion .
Q is accept able, becau s e it is bet ween t h e
limit s .
St ep 8. Det er min e t h e dit ch . Wit h t h e Q
bein g accept able, t h e dit ch will h ave a
wat er dept h of 1.92 feet an d s ide s lopes of
3:1. Addit ion a l dept h mu s t be a dded t o t h e
wa t er dept h for fr eeboa r d. Th is a ddit ion a l
dept h can be s elect ed depen din g u pon t h e
con dit ion s ext er n a l t o t h e dit ch bu t ca n n ot
be les s t h an 0.5 foot . Th er efor e
Cu t t in g dept h = wa t er dept h (d) + 0.5
= 1.92 + 0.5
= 2.42 ft or 2.4 ft
Th e velocit y of 4.2 feet per s econ d is accept -
a ble. Some er os ion ma y be a n t icipa t ed, bu t
it will n ot be s er iou s . In addit ion , becau s e
of t h e h igh velocit y, t h e flow will clea n ou t
t h e s edimen t fr om
-
pr eviou s low flow,
SPECIAL CHANNELS
Some facilit ies will h ave s pecial t ypes
ch an n els wh er e s u r face r u n off will be
cept ed an d r emoved. Th es e ch an n els
o f
in t er -
will
be s imilar t o open ch an n els , except t h ey
will t en d t o be ver y wide an d s h allow. To
det er min e r u n off ca pa cit y (in cfs ) in t h is
t ype of ch an n el, open ch an n el h ydr au lics ,
as pr eviou s ly dis cu s s ed, mu s t be modified.
Gu t t e r s
Gu t t er s a r e s h a llow, pa ved dr a in a ge ch a n -
n els u s ed in mor e per ma n en t con s t r u ct ion
a dja cen t t o pa ved or h a r d-s u r fa ced a r ea s .
Th ey pr ovide pos it ive r emoval of r u n off,
pr ot ect ion for eas ily er oded s oils adjacen t t o
t h e pa vemen t , a n d pr even t ion of s oft en in g
of t u r f s h ou lder a r ea s common ly ca u s ed by
a la r ge volu me of r u n off fr om a djoin in g
pa vemen t s .
A cr os s s ect ion of a t ypica l r u n wa y gu t t er is
s h own in Figu r e 6-30, page 6-52. Th is gu t -
t er con for ms t o US Air For ce s a fet y r equ ir e-
men t s a n d des ign ch a r t s of t h a t pa r t icu la r
gu t t er . Sa fet y a n d oper a t ion a l r equ ir e-
men t s for fa s t la n din g s peeds ma ke it
des ir able t o pr ovide a con t in u ou s , lon -
git u din a l gr a de in t h e gu t t er . Clos e con -
for mit y t o t h e r u n wa y gr a dien t r equ ir es t h e
u s e of s u mp in let s (dr op in let s cover ed by
gr a t in gs ). A s u fficien t n u mber of in let s
s h ou ld be pr ovided in t h e gu t t er t o pr even t
t h e dept h of flow fr om exceedin g 3 in ch es .
Me di a n Ch a n n e ls
Ch an n els will be placed down t h e cen t er of
media n s , du a l r oa ds , r u n wa ys , t a xiwa ys ,
a n d ot h er s imila r s t r u ct u r es . Th es e t h a n -
n els will be s ymmet r ical bu t ver y wide an d
s h a llow. Th e in pu t flow in t o s u ch ch a n n els
is fr om s u r fa ced a n d u n s u r fa ced a r ea s a d-
ja cen t t o t h e ch a n n el. Th e flow ca n be
det er min ed by t h e r a t ion a l met h od. Sin ce
t h e fa ct or s of s lope (S), Ma n n in gs n , flow
(Q), a n d t h e gen er a l widt h a r e kn own , t h e
dept h can be det er min ed by t r ial u s in g t h e
flow equ a t ion or n omogr a ph for flow in
open ch an n els .
BERMS
Th e u n con t r olled in flow fr om dr a in a ge a r ea s
a dja cen t t o open ch a n n els h a s been a
s ou r ce of n u mer ou s er os ion fa ilu r es . Com-
bat in g t h is pr oblem r equ ir es s pecial con -
s ider at ion du r in g t h e des ign of t h e s u r face
dr a in a ge s ys t em. Loca l r u n off in flow ca n
Dr a i na ge 6 - 5 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 332-8013, Vol 1
Figure 6-30. Typical run way gutter
be pa r t icu la r ly det r imen t a l. Beca u s e of n or -
ma l ir r egu la r it ies in gr a din g oper a t ion s ,
r u n off becomes con cen t r a t ed a n d ca u s es ex-
ces s ive er os ion as it flows over t h e s ides of
t h e ch a n n el. Exper ien ce s h ows t h a t con -
s t r u ct in g a ber m (r ais ed lip), Figu r e 6-31,
pr even t s t h is pr oblem. Place t h e ber m,
u s u a lly ma de of ea r t h , a t t h e t op edge of
t h e ch an n el. Th is ber m pr even t s in flow
in t o t h e ch a n n el except a t des ign a t ed
poin t s wh er e an in let , pr oper ly pr ot ect ed
again s t er os ion , is pr ovided.
Wh er e exca va t ed ma t er ia l is wa s t ed, a s in a
levee or dike par allel t o t h e ch an n el, t h er e
mu s t be fr equ en t open in gs t h r ou gh t h e
levee t o per mit in flow t o t h e ch a n n el. A
s u it a ble ber m a llows a min ima l a mou n t of
exca va t ed ma t er ia l t o flow ba ck in t o t h e
ch an n el. Th is pr even t s s lou gh in g fr om t h e
s poil ban k in t o t h e ch an n el.
Ru n off, Q, fr om t h e a r ea is det er min ed by
t h e r a t ion a l met h od. Th is r u n off is col-
lect ed an d con veyed by t h e ch an n el for med
6-52 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 6-31. Typical berm emplacement
by t h e ber m. Th e fa ct or s of Q, n , S, a n d
widt h a r e u s ed t o s olve for dept h by t h e
t r ia l met h od.
CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE
OF CHANNELS
Dit ch con s t r u ct ion n or ma lly r equ ir es eit h er
a gr a der or a s cr a per . Somet imes , t h es e
t wo it ems a r c u s ed in combin a t ion . Depen d
in g on t h e loca t ion , ot h er fa ct or s mu s t be
con s ider ed in des ign in g an d bu ildin g
dit ch es .
In t er cept or dit ch es s h ou ld be s et on gr ades ,
t h u s a llowin g for qu ick r emova l of wa t er
wit h ou t er os ion . Wh en t h e gr a de is n ot s u f-
ficien t t o per mit qu ick wa t er r emova l, t h e
dit ch ma y r equ ir e a n a s ph a lt or con cr et e
lin in g. Ber ms ma y be con s t r u ct ed on t h e
down h ill s ide of in t er cept or dit ch es , as
s h own in Figu r e 6-31, t o pr even t over flow
an d exces s ive er os ion of t h e down h ill s lopes .
Abr u pt ch a n ges in a dit ch 's n or ma l flow pa t -
t er n will in du ce t u r bu len ce an d cau s e exces -
s ive er os ion . Th es e con dit ion s develop mos t
fr equ en t ly a t ch a n n el t r a n s it ion s , ju n ct ion s ,
a n d s t or m dr a in ou t let s . Accor din gly, s pe-
cia l a t t en t ion mu s t be given t o t h es e loca -
t ion s du r in g des ign .
Drainage 6-53
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Ch a n n el ma in t en a n ce pr oblems exis t in a ll
dr ain age s ys t ems . Th e bas ic des ign of t h e
dit ch mu s t con s ider t h es e ma in t en a n ce
pr oblems befor e t h ey ar is e. Th er efor e, des ig-
n er s mu s t h a ve a t h or ou gh u n der s t a n din g
of t h e t wo ba s ic dit ch ma in t en a n ce pr ob-
lems : s edimen t a t ion a n d er os ion . Ch a n n el
pr ot ect ion an d dit ch s h ape, wh en u s ed
t oget h er , con t r ol ma in t en a n ce pr oblems
mos t effect ively.
SEDIMENT CONTROL
Wat er flowin g over lan d t en ds t o car r y s edi-
men t in t o a n y open ch a n n els . Wh en t h e
velocit y in t h e ch an n el is 3 fps or les s , t h is
s edimen t can be depos it ed in t h e ch an n el.
Sin ce mos t s t or ms a r e les s in t en s e t h a n t h e
des ign s t or m, t h e ch a n n el bot t om ma y a c-
cu mu la t e a la r ge volu me of loos e s edimen t .
Wh en peak flow does occu r , t h e velocit y
s h ou ld be gr ea t en ou gh t o s cou r t h e ch a n -
n el bot t om clea n of loos e s edimen t . If t h e
s edimen t is n ot r emoved, it will compa ct
a n d gr a du a lly r edu ce t h e dept h of t h e
dit ch . At pea k flow, t h e dit ch ma y over flow
a n d ca u s e da ma ge t o a dja cen t s t r u ct u r es
befor e t h e ch an n el is clean ed ou t ; t h er efor e,
t h e ch a n n el s h ou ld be kept clea n t h r ou gh
ma in t en a n ce.
Wh en des ign in g ch an n els , keep peak
velocit y flow above 3 fps . Th is keeps t h e
ch an n el s elf-clean in g. A h igh er velocit y is
pr efer r ed, bu t s u ch velocit y mu s t n ot ex-
ceed t h e ma ximu m velocit y for t h e s oil.
(See Table 6-8.) Wh en t h e s oil t ype r e-
qu ir es a ma ximu m a llowa ble velocit y u n der
3 fps , s edimen t a t ion will be a ma in t en a n ce
pr oblem. On e s olu t ion is t o lin e t h e dit ch
wit h a s ph a lt or con cr et e. Th is r edu ces t h e
coefficien t of fr ict ion , t h u s in cr ea s in g t h e
velocit y. Wh en s edimen t at ion is expect ed
an d lin in gs can n ot be u s ed, in cr eas e t h e al-
lowa ble fr eeboa r d t o elimin a t e over flow.
EROSION CONTROL
Wa t er flowin g t h r ou gh open ch a n n els is t u r -
bu len t . Th is t u r bu len ce in cr eas es as t h e
velocit y in cr eas es . Toget h er , velocit y an d
t u r bu len ce er ode a n d ca r r y a wa y t h e s oil of
t h e ch a n n el a n d en da n ger n ea r by s t r u c-
t u r es s u ch as r oads , br idges , an d cu lver t s .
Velocit y a n d t u r bu len ce ma y a ls o en da n ger
t h e ch an n el it s elf. In addit ion , t h e er oded
ma t er ia l ma y s omet imes be depos it ed wit h in
t h e ch a n n el in a r ea s wh er e it will ca u s e
da ma ge. In t h es e ca s es , ch a n n el ma in -
t en a n ce a n d r epa ir will be a con s t a n t con -
cer n .
Er os ion mos t common ly occu r s wh en t h e
velocit y of flow exceeds t h e velocit y at
wh ich t h e s oil of t h e ch an n el will er ode.
Ta ble 6-8 s h ows t h e ma ximu m velocit ies .
Er os ion can be pr even t ed by lower in g t h e
velocit y below t h e s oil-er os ion velocit y.
Th is can be accomplis h ed by lin in g t h e
n a t u r a l ch a n n el ma t er ia l wit h a mor e
er os ion -r es is t a n t ma t er ia l or by r edu cin g
t h e s ide s lopes . Table 6-9 s h ows t h e r ecom-
men ded s ide s lopes . Er os ion s h ou ld be con -
s ider ed an d accou n t ed for in t h e des ign of
ch a n n els .
Table 6-8. Suggested maximum velocities
6-54 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table 6-9. Recommended side slopes
De c r e a s i n g t h e Hydr a u li c Ra di u s
Redu cin g t h e h ydr au lic r adiu s will decr eas e
t h e velocit y. Th is decr eas e in h ydr au lic
r adiu s can be accomplis h ed by in cr eas in g
t h e wet t ed per imet er , wp, in r ela t ion t o t h e
a r ea , A (wh ile t h e Q r ema in s con s t a n t ).
Th is can be don e by widen in g t h e dit ch , flat -
t en in g t h e s ide s lopes , or widen in g t h e bot -
t om. Th is in cr ea s es t h e wet t ed per imet er
wit h ou t ma t er ia lly in cr ea s in g t h e a r ea . Th e
r equ ir ed ch an ges in dit ch des ign ar e det er -
min ed by t h e t r ia l a ppr oa ch , s in ce t h e
a mou n t of r u n off, Q, mu s t be r et a in ed
wh ile r edu cin g t h e velocit y.
Li n i n g t h e Ch a n n e l
Er os ion can be con t r olled by lin in g t h e bot -
t om a n d s ides of t h e ch a n n el.
Gr a s s or Tu r f
Sin ce n a t u r a l lin in gs t a ke con s ider a ble t ime
t o gr ow or effor t t o pla ce, t h ey a r e s eldom
u s ed in t h e TO.
Ripr a p
Ripr ap lin in g in volves placin g r ocks or r u b-
ble in t h e bot t om a n d on t h e s ides of t h e
dit ch t o pr even t s oil er os ion . Rocks s h ou ld
be h a n d-pla ced in a t lea s t t wo la yer s a n d
compa ct ed in dividu a lly. Ripr a p n ot on ly
pr even t s er os ion bu t decr eas es velocit y in
t h e ch an n el becau s e of it s h igh n valu e.
Ripr ap als o h elps pr even t er os ion wh en
ma kin g t r a n s it ion s fr om pa ved t o s oil
dit ch es or fr om ot h er h igh -velocit y dit ch es
t o t h os e in wh ich lower velocit y is r equ ir ed.
Ga bion s a r e a n ot h er met h od of lin in g
dit ch es . Det ails on r ipr ap an d gabion s ar e
given on pages 6-116 t h r ou gh 6-123.
Pa ve me n t
Wh en t h e des ign a n d con s t r u ct ion a r e don e
pr oper ly, pa vin g t h e dit ch wit h a s ph a lt or
con cr et e will pr even t er os ion . Becau s e of
t h e low n valu es of differ en t t ypes of pave-
men t , velocit y ma y in cr ea s e t oo mu ch , ca u s -
in g er os ion wh er e t h e pavemen t en ds . Spe-
cia l pr ot ect ion , s u ch a s a s t illin g ba s in or
r ock lin in g, ma y be r equ ir ed a t t h is poin t t o
s low t h e velocit y befor e a llowin g t h e flow t o
con t in u e in t o t h e n a t u r a l s oil ch a n n el. Be-
cau s e of pavemen 1s low n valu es , it can be
u s ed effect ively t o in cr eas e flow velocit ies if
t h ey a r e t oo low, t h u s pr even t in g depos it ion .
In s t a llin g Ch e c k Da ms
Th e wat er velocit y in a ch an n el can als o be
r edu ced by decr eas in g t h e s lope. However ,
except for local var iat ion s , bu ildin g dit ch es
a t s lopes ot h er t h a n t h a t of t h e s u r r ou n d-
in g gr ou n d is impr a ct ica l, On e met h od for
decr eas in g t h e s lope is t o in s t all ch eck
dams or weir s , as s h own in Figu r e 6-32,
page 6-56. Ch eck dams s h ou ld be con -
s ider ed wh en t h e s lope r an ges bet ween 2
an d 8 per cen t . Ch an n els wit h s lopes of 2
per cen t or les s gen er ally do n ot r equ ir e ex-
t en s ive er os ion con t r ols . Wit h s lopes in ex-
ces s of 8 per cen t , it is u s u ally mor e
econ omica l t o pa ve t h e dit ch wit h a s ph a lt
or con cr et e t h a n t o bu ild ch eck da ms .
De s i gn
Cor r ect s pacin g bet ween ch eck dams can be
det er min ed by u s in g t h e followin g for mu la :
wh e r e
S = s pacin g, in feet , bet ween ch eck dams
(Th is va lu e s h ou ld n ot be le s s t h a n 5 0
fe e t . )
H = h eigh t fr om t h e ch a n n el bot t om t o t h e
lower edge of t h e weir n ot ch (Th i s va l u e
s h ou ld n ot be gr e a t e r t h a n 3 fe e t u n le s s
t h e da m is t o be s t r u c t u r a lly de s ign e d.
To pr e ve n t u n n e c e s s a r y wor k , t h e pr a c t i -
c a l lowe r limit for H is 1 foot . )
Drainage 6-55
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 6-32. Check-dam design
6-56 Drainage
~
A - % grade of road centerline
-- ~
------ -
-- --
1
Spacing in feet
Spacing .. l00H -----------
A-B
H is expressed in feet
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
A = s lope of t h e or igin al dit ch in per cen t
B = des ir ed s lope in per cen t (Th i s va l u e
s h ou ld be s e t a t 2 pe r c e n t . Th is is t h e
ma ximu m s lope t h a t will n ot r e qu ir e a ddi-
t ion a l e r os ion c on t r ol. )
Exa mple:
Or igin al s lope = 5%
Des ir ed s lope = 2%
H = 3 ft
Fin d S.
Th e s pacin g bet ween ch eck dams is 100
feet . To pr even t er os ion of t h e s ides of t h e
ch a n n el a t t h e ch eck da m, a weir n ot ch is
bu ilt in t h e cen t er of t h e da m. Th e weir
n ot ch mu s t be des ign ed t o ca r r y t h e flow in
t h e dit ch . Weir -n ot ch dimen s ion s for
var iou s flow r at es ar e given in Table 6-10.
Ma i n t e n a n c e
Er os ion is a common pr oblem wit h ch eck
da ms . It u s u a lly occu r s wh en t h e weir
Table 6-10. Discharge for weir notches in check dams
Drainage 6-57
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
n ot ch is t oo s mall or is clogged wit h debr is
s o t h a t wa t er flows over t h e t op of t h e da m.
Scou r begin s on t h e a r ea expos ed t o t h e
h ydr a u lic ju mp. If a llowed t o con t in u e lon g
en ou gh , t h e er os ion will ext en d t o t h e a r ea
ar ou n d t h e dam, as s een in Figu r e 6-33. If
t h is occu r s , t h er e will be mor e da ma ge
ca u s ed t o a dja cen t s t r u ct u r es t h a n if t h e
dam h ad n ever been in s t alled.
Some pr ot ect ion u s u a lly t a kes t h e for m of
a n ext en ded h or izon t a l or s lopin g a pr on .
Scou r can als o be pr even t ed by an ch or in g
t h e s ides a n d bot t om in t o a t lea s t 2 feet of
compa ct ed ma t er ia l. Th en pla ce r ipr a p
a lon g a t lea s t 4 feet of t h e down s t r ea m
ch a n n el. Th es e con s t r u ct ion t ech n iqu es
will pr even t s cou r a n d u n der cu t t in g.
Figure 6-33. Check-dam maintenance
6-58 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
SECTION III. CULVERTS
A cu lver t is a n en clos ed wa t er wa y u s ed t o
pa s s wa ler t h r ou gh a n emba n kmen t or fill.
Th e flow in a cu lver t depen ds u pon s ever al
fact or s , in clu din g t h e lin in g, s lope, h ead-
wa lls , win g wa lls , a n d down s t r ea m con di -
t ion s . Accor din gly, cu lver t t ypes an d con -
s t r u ct ion pr ocedu r es ar e dis cu s s ed pr ior t o
con s ider in g cu lver t h ydr au lics an d des ign
fea t u r es .
CULVERT TYPES AND DESIGNS
PERMANENT CULVERTS
Per ma n en t s t r u ct u r es ca n be con s t r u ct ed
fr om cor r u ga t ed met a l pipe (CMP), con cr et e
mu lt iplat e pipe ar ch , vit r ified clay (VC),
polyvin yl ch lor ide (PVC], or ot h er mat er ial.
Cor r u ga t e d-Me t a l-Pi pe Cu lve r t s
Becau s e it is commer cially available in
n u mer ou s s h a pes , len gt h s , a n d dia met er s ,
CMP is common ly u s ed in milit a r y con s t r u c-
t ion . For TO con s t r u ct ion , CMP is ma de of
a n a lu min u m-a n d-s t eel a lloy. It comes in
n es t a ble h a lf s ect ion s t h a t , wh en a s -
s embled, give 2-foot effect ive len gt h s . It is
available in t h e diamet er s an d gages lis t ed
in Table 6-11. Th e min imu m dia met er
r ecommen ded is 18 in ch es for len gh t s u p t o
20 feet an d 24 in ch es for all ot h er len gt h s .
Sma ll dia met er s ma y become clogged wit h
debr is a n d a r e difficu lt t o ma in t a in .
Specific con s t r u ct ion t ech n iqu es a r e
employed in placin g CMP. A r et ain in g wall
ca lled a h ea dwa ll is pla ced a t t h e u ps t r ea m
en d of t h e cu lver t . Hea dwa lls a r c a lwa ys
u s ed u ps t r ea m; t h ey a r c des ir a ble bu t n ot
ma n da t or y for t h e down s t r ea m en d. Th e
h ea dwa ll s u ppor t s t h e s oil ma s s a t t h e en d
of t h e cu lver t a n d h elps t o pr ot ect a ga in s t
er os ion .
CMP join t s mu s t be la pped s o t h a t wa t er
flowin g t h r ou gh t h e cu lver t pa s s es over t h e
join t r a t h er t h a n in t o it . Fa ilu r e t o pr oper -
ly over lap t h e pipes will t en d t o for ce t h e
flowin g wa t er t h r ou gh t h e join t s a n d in t o
t h e fill. All join t s mu s t be s ealed, pr efer ab-
ly wit h ca u lk or bit u min ou s ma t er ia l. If
join t s ar e n ot s ealed, voids may be gen er -
a t ed a r ou n d cu lver t s , ca u s in g colla ps e of
t h e fill. To in cr eas e t h e velocit y for a
gr ea t er qu a n t it y of flow, lin e t h e cu lver t
wit h a s ph a lt . Commer cial CMP is available
wit h a s ph a lt lin in gs .
As s e mbli n g Ne s t a ble CMP
CMP h as flan ge-t ype fit t in gs wh ich ar c eas i-
ly fa s t en ed t oget h er by n u t s a n d bolt s t h a t
come wit h t h e s ect ion s . Vis e gr ips a n d a
r a t ch et s et ma ke a s s embly fa s t er a n d ea s ier .
Table 6-11. Sizes of corrugated metal pipe
Con c r e t e -Pipe Cu lve r t s
Wh en available, pr ecas t con cr et e pipe
s h ou ld be u s ed in s t ead of CMP for cu lver t s .
It h a s t wo a dva n t a ges over CMP. Fir s t , it is
s t r on ger a n d r equ ir es les s cover t h a n CMP
t o s u ppor t t h e s a me loa d, Secon d, t h e in t e-
r ior s u r fa ce of con cr et e pipe is s moot h er
(Ma n n in gs n = 0.013) t h a n CMP (Ma n n in gs
n = 0.024). Becau s e of t h es e advan t ages ,
con cr et e pipe of t h e s a me dia met er a n d
s lope as CMP will car r y a h igh er flow.
Con cr et e pipe is fabr icat ed in cir cu lar an d
n on cir cu lar cr os s s ect ion s , It is available
in ma n y len gt h s a n d widt h s . Sea l join t s be-
t ween t h e s ect ion s t o pr even t exces s ive
lea ka ge a n d s u bs equ en t wea ken in g of t h e
Drainage 6-59
FM 5-430-00-1/AFP 93-4, Vol I
fill s ect ion Su bs t a n t ia l h ea dwa lls a r e r e-
qu ir ed a t bot h en ds t o pr even t s epa r a t ion
a t t h e join t s . St a r t a s s embly down s t r ea m
a n d wor k u ps t r ea m, en s u r in g ma le en ds
poin t down s t r ea m.
Con c r e t e -Box Cu lve r t s
Con s ider con cr et e-box cu lver t s wh er e t h e
fu ll a r ea of t h e wa t er wa y mu s t be u s ed.
On e a dva n t a ge is t h a t t h e box ca n be
des ign ed t o wit h s t a n d ext er n a l loa ds wit h
lit t le or n o cover . Box cu lver t s ar e es pecial-
ly a da pt a ble t o r ock s it es , s in ce t h e bot t om
of t h e cu lver t can be placed dir ect ly on t h e
r ock.
Con cr et e-box des ign r equ ir es kn owledge of
con s t r u ct ion t ech n iqu es for r ein for ced con -
cr et e s t r u ct u r es . Box cu lver t s can be
pr eca s t , bu t con s t r u ct ion in t h e TO will
pr oba bly r equ ir e t h a t t h ey be ca s t in pla ce.
EXPEDIENT CULVERTS
Expedien t field-t ype cu lver t s ar e bu ilt of
ma t er ia l a va ila ble on -s it e s u ch a s logs , oil
dr u ms , an d s an dbags filled wit h a s an d-ce-
men t mixt u r e. Some exa mples of cu lver t s
bu ilt of t h es e ma t er ia ls a ppea r in Figu r es
6-34, 6-35 an d 6-36. Expedien t cu lver t s
bu ilt an d s ized pr oper ly s h ou ld s er ve u n t il
per ma n en t s t r u ct u r es ca n be bu ilt . For
eva lu a t in g h ydr a u lics , en d a r ea s equ iva len t
10 CMP can be u s ed for s imilar s lopes .
CULVERT CONSTRUCTION
Pr oper pla cemen t is on e of t h e mos t impor -
t a n t fa ct or s du r in g cu lver t con s t r u ct ion . It
is a ma jor con t r ibu t or t o s u r viva l of t h e
cu lver t u n der adver s e con dit ion s . Some
t h in gs t o con s ider in placin g cu lver t s ar c
cu lver t a lign men t : s lope; fill pla cemen t ; com-
pa ct ion u n der , a r ou n d, a n d over t h e
cu lver t ; cu lver t len gt h ; a n d pr ot ect ion
a ga in s t er os ion .
Ali gn me n t
Th e r ela t ion s h ip of t h e cu lver t t o t h e
s t r ea mbed is of ma jor impor t a n ce. Im-
pr oper loca t ion ca n ca u s e t h e s t r ea m t o
s eek a n a lt er n a t ive pa t h ot h er t h a n t h e cu l-
ver t . Th is cou ld qu ickly clos e a r oad or air -
field t o t r affic. To les s en t h is effect , u s e
t h e a lign men t t ech n iqu es s h own in Figu r e
6-37, page 6-62.
To ma in t a in a n exis t in g dr a in a ge pa t t er n ,
place t h e cu lver t dir ect ly in t h e s t r eambed,
as in view (A) of Figu r e 6-37. Even t h ou gh
t h is ma y be dia gon a l t o t h e fill, if t h e
h ydr a u lics of t h e ch a n n el a r e n ot ch a n ged,
t h e s t r ea m will n ot ch a n ge it s dir ect ion .
Pr even t t h e s t r ea m fr om s h ift in g it s cou r s e
a t t h e cu lver t in let or ou t let . Somet imes
t h e s t r u ct u r e will cu t a cr os s a s t r ea m
mean der as in view (B) of Figu r e 6-37
Th is lea ds t o dou bt a s t o wh er e t o la y t h e
cu lver t in t h e s t r ea mbed. In t h is ca s e, it is
bes t t o cu t a n ew ch a n n el 10 lea d t h e
s t r ea m a wa y fr om t h e s t r u ct u r e. Th e old
s t r ea mbed mu s t be filled a n d da mmed wit h
er os ion -r es is t a n t ma t er ia l a t t h e ju n ct ion of
t h e old an d n ew ch an n els . Th e dam can be
bu ilt of s a n dba gs , logs , r ipr a p, or ot h er
s imila r ma t er ia l.
Pr ovide a s moot h t r a n s it ion in t o a n d ou t of
t h e cu lver t . Th e s t r u ct u r e ma y cu t a cr os s
a ben d of t h e s t r eam, as in view (C) of Fig-
u r e 6-37, wit h a s t r a igh t r u n of t h e s t r ea m
t h r ou gh t h e s t r u ct u r e. If t h e ben d is clos e
t o t h e s t r u ct u r e, it is pr efer a ble t o r ecu t t h e
s t r ea m a s s h own , a n d la y t h e cu lver t in
t h e n ew s t r ea mbed. Ca r e s h ou ld be t a ken
t o fill in a n d da m t h e en t r a n ce t o t h e old
s t r ea mbed a n d t h e ju n ct ion of t h e t wo
s t r eambeds , as des cibed above.
Move t h e wa t er pa s t t h e pr oject a s qu ickly
as pos s ible. Wh en t h e ch an n el flows par al- -
lel. t o t h e s t r u ct u r e, er os ion will even t u a lly
occu r . To pr even t er os ion , dig a n ew ch an -
n el r ou t in g t h e flow t h r ou gh t h e cu lver t
a n d a wa y fr om t h e s t r u ct u r e, a s s h own in
view (D) of Figu r e 6-37. Again , be s u r e t O
fill a n d da m t h e old s t r ea mbed a t t h e ju n c-
t ion poin t .
Th e align men t of dit ch r elief cu lver t s is
s h own in Figu r e 6-38, page 6-63. Th e
a mou n t of flow a n d t h e s lope of t h e dit ch
det er min e t h e s pacin g bet ween cu lver t in -
let s . On a r oa d wit h a 5-per cen t gr a de,
r elief cu lver t s s h ou ld be s paced 500 feet
6-60 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 6-34. Oil-drum culvert
Figure 6-35. Landing-mat and sandbag culvert
Figure 6-36. Log culverts
Drainage 6-61
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 6-37. Culvert alignment
a pa r t . On a n 8-per cen t gr a de, s pa cin g
Slop e
s h ou ld be r edu ced t o 300 feet .
Cu lver t s n or ma lly s h ou ld be in s t a lled wit h
t h e in ver t of bot h t h e in let a n d t h e ou t let of
t h e cu lver t a t s t r ea mbed or ch a n n el eleva -
t ion . Th e in ver t is t h e lowes t poin t in t h e
6-62 Drainage
Erosion
channel
Use longer
culverts in
natural channel
Bad alignment Good alignment
(A) Maintain existing drainage pattern
Dam
(8) Prevent stream from
shHtlng Its course at Inlet
or outlet
Dam Fill old channel
Dig new channel
4-+--- --- . ----
Dam
--..... 11:,
I
(C) Ensure smooth transition
at Inlet and outlet
I I
I I
I
__ - - - 1 I ~ - I L ___ _
I I
, I
I I
Fill old channel
(0) Move water past project
as soon as possible
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 6-38. Ditch relief culverts
in t er n a l cr os s s ect ion of a n a r t ificia l ch a n -
n el or t h e bot t om of t h e cu lver t . Th e n or -
ma l gr a de of t h e cu lver t ca n be modified by
t wo t ech n iqu es , as s h own in Figu r e 6-39.
Dr op in let s ca n be u s ed t o lower t h e
in let of t h e cu lver t , Th is will t en d t o
r edu ce t h e s lope of t h e cu lver t . An ex-
ample of a dr op in let is s h own in view
(A) of Figu r e 6-39 an d a dis cu s s ion
begin s on page 6-89.
Figure 6-39. Changing normal grade of culvert
Th e ou t let of t h e cu lver t ca n be r a is ed
t o r edu ce t h e s lope, as s h own in view
(B) of Figu r e 6-39.
For cu lver t s t o be s elf-clean in g, flow
velocit y s h ou ld be at leas t 3 fps . To
a ch ieve t h is velocit y, t h e cu lver t s h ou ld n ot
be s et on les s t h an a 0.5 per cen t gr ade, if
pr act icable. To pr even t exces s ive ou t let
velocit y, t h e cu lver t gr a de s h ou ld n ot ex-
ceed 2 per cen t .
In gen er a l, fr ee-fa llin g ou t let s a n d cu lver t s
wit h s lopes of mor e t h an 2 per cen t will r e-
qu ir e ou t let er os ion pr ot ect ion . In mou n -
t a in ou s cou n t r y wh er e t h er e a r e exces s ive
s t r eam s lopes or in fills acr os s dr y valleys ,
cu lver t s ma y h a ve t o be s et a t gr a des ot h er
t h a n t h e t er r a in or s t r ea mbed s lope. In t h e
TO, it ma y be a dvis a ble t o a ccept t h e
er os ion pr oblem a n d in s t a ll t h e cu lver t wit h
a s lope for an exces s of 2 per cen t . Th is
will h elp t o pr even t a blockage cau s ed by
debr is pas s in g t h r ou gh t h e pipe.
De pt h of Fi ll
Th e dis t a n ce mea s u r ed fr om t h e cu lver t in -
ver t t o t h e edge of t h e s h ou lder or t op of
t h e fill, as s h own in Figu r e 6-40, page 6-
64, is t h e dept h of fill. Th e dept h of fill
mu s t be equ a l t o or gr ea t er t h a n t h e cover
plu s t h e pipe dia met er . Ot h er wis e, a
s ma ller dia met er cu lver t or a dr op in let
mu s t be u s ed. For a r oa d cu lver t ma de of
CMP, t h e la r ges t dia met er a llowa ble mu s t
equ a l t wo-t h ir ds t h e min imu m fill dept h .
Cove r
Th e dept h of compa ct ed s oil fr om t h e t op of
t h e cu lver t (cr own ) t o t h e fin is h ed con s t r u c-
t ion gr ade is called cover . Th e cu lver t an d
t h e s u r r ou n din g compa ct ed s oil mu s t h a ve
s u fficien t s t r en gt h t o ca r r y t h e compa ct ed
.
s oil backfill (dead loads ) an d t h e wh eel an d
impa ct loa ds (live loa ds ) of t h e t r a ffic. Live
loa ds a r e mor e da ma gin g t h a n dea d loa ds
on cu lver t s u n der s h allow cover , an d dead
loa ds a r e mor e da ma gin g t h a n live loa ds on
cu lver t s u n der deep cover . Accor din gly,
bot h min imu m pr ot ect ive cover a n d ma xi-
mu m per mis s ible dept h s of backfill mu s t be
in clu ded in des ign con s ider at ion s for cu l-
ver t s . Du r in g con s t r u ct ion , pr ovide
Drainage 6-63
FM 5-430-001/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 6-40. Culvert specifications for CMP
a dequ a t e a ddit ion a l cover t o pr ot ect t h e cu l-
ver t fr om da ma ge in pla ces wh er e h ea vy
con s t r u ct ion equ ipmen t will be cr os s in g fr e-
qu en t ly.
Th e min imu m cover r equ ir ed t o pr ot ect t h e
cu lver t pipe again s t live loads will depen d
u pon t h e t ype of loa d. For r oa d cu lver t s ,
t h e min imu m cover is on e-h a lf t h e dia met er
of t h e cu lver t , or 12 in ch es , wh ich ever is
gr ea t er . Th e cover over cu lver t s u s ed in air -
fields mu s t be s pecifically des ign ed for t h e
h ea vies t a ir cr a ft u s in g t h e fa cilit y. Ta ble
6-12 lis t s ch a r a ct er is t ics of US a ir cr a ft .
Us e t h is t a ble t o det er min e t h e la n din g-gea r
con figu r a t ion , wh eel loa ds , a n d cu lver t
weigh t t ype. Th is will, in t u r n , a llow you t o
s elect t h e pr oper fill r equ ir emen t s ca t egor y
in Table 6-13, page 6-66, or Table 6-14,
page 6-67.
Tables 6-13 an d 6-14 give t h e cover r equ ir e-
men t s for cu lver t s u n der air fields . Th es e
t a bles a r e compos ed of a s er ies of ch a r t s
ba s ed on a ir cr a ft loa d a n d gea r con figu r a -
t ion s . Ea ch of t h es e ch a r t s is h ea ded by a
cu lver t weigh t t ype. Th es e ch ar t s ar e good
for 5,000 pou n ds mor e t h an lis t ed. (For ex-
ample, t h e ch ar t h eaded 60,000-lb Sin gle-
wh eel is good for s in gle-wh eel loads u p t o
an d in clu din g 65,000 pou n ds .)
Ea ch ch a r t is s u bdivided in t o colu mn s
h eaded by cu lver t pipe diamet er s , in in ch es ,
a n d r ows ba s ed on t h e ga ge of t h e met a l.
Us e lin ea r in t er pola t ion for t h e in cr emen t a l
diamet er s n ot lis t ed. Th e body ch ar t gives
t h e cover r equ ir ed, in feet , for t h e dia met er
an d gage of pipe con cer n ed.
To u s e t h es e t a bles , fin d t h e ch a r t t h a t a p-
plies t o t h e pa r t icu la r a ir cr a ft wh eel or gea r
load an d lan din g-gear t ype. Th en u s e Table
6-12 t o fin d t h e appr opr iat e cu lver t t ype.
Wh en t h e pr oper ch ar t is locat ed, r ead
down t h e left colu mn of t h e t a ble t o det er -
min e t h e a ppr opr ia t e r ow for t h e ga ge con -
cer n ed. Wh en t h e pr oper r ow h as been
fou n d, r ea d h or izon t a lly t o t h e r igh t a n d
fin d t h e min imu m cover , in feet , u n der t h e
colu mn h ea ded wit h t h e pipe dia met er in
6-64 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table 6-12. Characteristics of US aircraft
Drainage 6-65
Load on main Culvert WT
Aircraft Name Max wt (kip) Gear type gear (klps) type
A7 Corsair 11 42 S 18 2
A10A (CAS) 51 S 23 2
A37B Dragonfly 15 S 7 1
F111A/D/E (VGF) 100 S 44 4
F111 F (VGF) 100 S 48 4
F4C/D/E/G Phantom I1 58 S 25 3
F14C Tomcat 72 S 34 4
F15A/B Eagle 56 S 25 2
F15C/D
...
68 S 30 2
F15E 81 S 35 2
F16A (LWF) 33 S 14 2
F-18 Hornet 20 S 9 1
A\ I ""f'"\.
Harrier 28 DUS(BiC) 10 2 I-\V-OC
AV-16A Advanced Harrier 30 11 2
B-1 (Adv S8) 477 T-TTA 222 15
B-52G/H Stratobomber 488 T-T 265 16
FB111A (VGSB) 114 Single 54 5
C-5B Galaxy 840 400 15
C9A Nightingale 108 Twin 52 7
C-17 580 T-TA-TR1 267 15
C-130E Hercules 175 S-TA 84 13
HC-130H Hercules 175 S-TA 84 13
KC-135A Stratotanker (707) 301 T-TA 142 14
t"_1.d 1 A IQ C+orlift.or TTA 1';:,) 1,4
,...,-- I""T I r'\IU VU;UUlLQ"1 vc;.v J - J f"\ l..Jv
VC-137B (707) 334 T-TA 167 14
E-3A (707 AWACS) 323 T-TA 155 14
E-4B (747 AABNCP) 800 DU-TTA 372 16
SR-71C (ASR) 170 Triple 77 9
OV-10A/B Bronco 14 DU-S(TA) 55 1
I1 UV-18A
Twin Otter 13 Single 6
11
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table 6-13. Minimum cover requirements, in feet, for airfields (CMP)
qu es t ion . Two exa mples of t h is t a bu la t ion 60,000-lb s in gle-t an dem12-gage pipe.
follow. (Us e 60,000-lb s in gle-t an dem as s embly
Exa mple 1:
C130E Her cu les 12-gage pipe; fr om Table
6-12, page 6-65, C130E r equ ir es cu lver t WT
t ype 13.
(assy), c h a r t 1 3 . )
6-66 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table 6-14. Minimum cover requirements, in feet, for airfields (reinforced concrete pipe)
Fr om ch a r t :
Exa mple 2: 60, 000-lb s in gle-wh eel8-ga ge
pipe. (Us e ch ar t 5 in Table 6-13,)
Drainage 6-67
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Th e maximu m per mis s ible dept h of fill as s h own in Figu r e 6-40, page 6-64. Th e
(cover ) for CMP is given in Table 6-15 for beddin g is for med an d s h aped t o fit t h e bot -
s t eel an d Table 6-16 for alu min u m alloy. t om of t h e cu lver t . In a ddit ion , t h e fou n da -
Rein for ced con cr et e pipe made u n der s t an d- t ion is camber ed (cu r ved s ligh t ly u pwar d),
ar d s pecificat ion s can be u s ed in fill u p t o as s h own in Figu r e 6-41 alon g t h e cen t er -
50 feet . lin e of t h e cu lver t t o a llow for s et t lemen t
a n d t o en s u r e t igh t n es s in t h e join t s . At
Be ddin g (Fou n da t ion s ) n o t ime s h ou ld t h e in ver t eleva t ion in cr ea s e
Th e min imu m beddin g dept h for pipe cu l-
a s t h e flow pr oceeds down s t r ea m.
ver t s is on e-t en t h t h e dia met er of t h e pipe
Table 6-15. Maximum permissible cover for CMP
6-68 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table 6-16. Maximum permissible cover for corrugated aluminum-alloy pipe
Cu lver t s a r e con s t r u ct ed on fir m, well-com-
pa ct ed fou n da t ion s . Th e compos it ion of t h e
s oil on t h e bot t om of t h e s t r ea m s h ou ld be
det er min ed. Good gr a n u la r ma t er ia l will be
r equ ir ed t o for m a pr oper compa ct ed a n d
s h aped bed. If a s t r ea m bot t om is com-
pos ed of poor ma t er ia l, s u ch a s or ga n ic ma t -
t er , mu ck, s ilt , or la r ge ma t er ia l t h a t cou ld
Figure 6-41. Elevation of center section of
pu n ct u r e t h e CMP, r emove a n d r epla ce t h e
ma t er ia l. Th e dept h of ma t er ia l t o be
culvert
Drainage 6-69
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
r emoved will depen d u pon in for ma t ion fr om
bor in gs . Wh en t h e bea r in g s t r en gt h of t h e
s oil is complet ely in adequ at e an d u n even
s et t lemen t is expect ed pr ovide cr adle
foot in gs . Th es e foot in gs ma y r equ ir e pilin g
as s h own in Figu r e 6-42, Foot in gs u s ed for
t imber cu lver t s as s h own in Figu r e 6-43,
can als o be adapt ed for var iou s t ypes of cu l-
ver t s an d s oils .
Cu lver t s can be placed on pr oper ly
pr epar ed r ock fou n dat ion s , Tr en ch t h e
r ock an d backfill wit h fir mly compact ed s oil
for beddin g t h e cu lver t , as s h own in Figu r e
6 -4 4 .
Figure 6-43. Footings for timber culverts
Figure 6-44. Concrete-culvert installation in
rock
Ba c k fi ll
Take car e in backfillin g ar ou n d t h e cu lver t ,
s in ce t h e backfill s u ppor t s t h e cu lver t
again s t s oil pr es s u r e gen er at ed by s u r face
loads as s h own in Figu r e 6-39, page 6-63.
Th e s oil s elect ed s h ou ld be placed car efu lly
in well-compa ct ed la yer s kept a t t h e s a me
eleva t ion on bot h s ides of t h e cu lver t . Com-
pact ion is don e in 6-in ch layer s if h an d- or
a ir -oper a t ed or if ot h er mech a n ica l t a mper s
ar e u s ed. If logs , h a n d t a mpin g, or ot h er
expedien t met h ods ar e u s ed, place t h e s oil
in 4-in ch la yer s . Ca r r y t h e compa ct ion
fr om t h e cu lver t bed ma t er ia l t o 12 in ch es
or on e-h a lf t h e dia met er a bove t h e t op of
t h e cu lver t (wh ich ever is gr eat er ).
Figure 6-42. Cradle footings
6-70 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Le n gt h
Cu lver t len gt h is det er min ed by t h e widt h
of t h e emba n kmen t or s oil ma s s t h r ou gh
wh ich t h e cu lver t ca r r ies wa t er . Cu lver t s
t h a t do n ot in clu de a down s t r ea m h ea dwa ll
mu s t be lon g en ou gh 10 ext en d a min imu m
of 2 feet beyon d t h e t oe of t h e emba n kmen t
t o pr even t er os ion .
He a dwa lls , Wi n g Wa lls , a n d Apr on s
Hca dwa lls a n d a pr on s a r c con s t r u ct ed t o
gu ide wa t er in t o t h e cu lver t , pr even t or con -
t r ol er os ion , r edu ce s eepage, h old t h e s oil
in place, an d s u ppor t t h e en ds of t h e cu l-
ver t . Hea dwa lls clos e t o r oa ds s h ou ld n ot
pr ot r u de above t h e s h ou lder gr ade. Th ey
s h ou ld be a t lea s t 2 feet ou t s ide t h e
s h ou lder s o t h ey do n ot pr es en t a t r a ffic
h a za r d.
Us e h ea dwa lls on t h e u ps t r ea m en d of a ll
cu lver t s . If pos s ible, u s e a h eadwall on t h e
down s t r ea m en d a s well. Wh en con cr et e
pipes a r c u s ed, h ea dwa lls a r e ma n da t or y a t
bot h en ds . Hea dwa lls , bot h u ps t r ea m a n d
down s t r ea m, s h ou ld h a ve win g wa lls or
r et a in in g wa lls s et a t a n a n gle 10 t h e h ea d-
wall, Th is will h elp s u ppor t t h e fill an d
d ir ect t h e wa t er flow t o pr even t er os ion .
Th e u ps t r ea m win g wa ll will gu ide t h e
wa t er in t o t h e cu lver t a n d a s s is t in impr ov-
in g t h e cu lver t h ydr a u lics . Th e down s t r ea m
win g wa ll, combin ed wit h a n a pr on , will
h elp r edu ce t h e velocit y of t h e s t r ea m, a n d
t h er eby les s en er os ion a l t h e ou t let
Ideally, h eadwalls an d win g walls s h ou ld be
r ein for ced con cr et e or mor t a r ed s t on e.
St an dar d des ign s ar e in t h e TM 5-302
s er ies man u als . Th ey can , h owever , be
ma de of expedien t ma t er ia l s u ch a s lu mber ,
logs , or s an dbags . Th es e s t r u ct u r es a r e
s h own in Figu r e 6-45. For s peedy con s t r u c-
t ion in t h e TO, s an dbags filled wit h a s oil-
a n d-cemen t mixt u r e ma y pr ovide t h e bes t
h eadwall pos s ible.
Wh en h ea dwa lls a r c n ot u s ed on t h e down -
s t r ea m en d, t h e cu lver t s h ou ld pr oject
beyon d t h e t oe of t h e fill a t lea s t 2 feet .
Us e r ipr a p t o pr ot ect t h e pr oject in g a r ea cu l-
ver t r ipr ap, as s h own Figu r e 6-46, page
6-72.
Figure 6-45. Headwalls and wing walls for
culverts
Drainage 6-71
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 6-46. Culvert outlets without headwalls
Er os ion Con t r ol
Cu lver t s dis ch ar gin g in t o open ch an n els
s h ou ld h a ve a n t is cou r pr ot ect ion t o pr even t
er os ion . Two t ypes of ch an n el in s t abilit y
ca n develop down s t r ea m fr om cu lver t a n d
s t or m-dr a in ou t let s . Th es e con dit ion s ,
kn own a s gu lly s cou r a n d s cou r h ole, a r e
s h own in Figu r e 6-46. Pr edict t h e t ype of
s cou r for a given field s it u a t ion by compa r -
in g t h e or igin al or exis t in g ch an n el s lope or
dr a in a ge ba s in down s t r ea m of t h e ou t let t o
wh a t is r equ ir ed for s t a bilit y.
Gu lly s cou r is expect ed wh en ch an n el flow
exceeds t h a t r equ ir ed for s t a bilit y. It
begin s a t a poin t down s t r ea m wh er e t h e
ch an n el is s t able an d pr ogr es s es u ps t r eam.
If s u fficien t differ en t ial in elevat ion exis t s
bet ween t h e ou t let a n d t h e s t a ble ch a n n el,
t h e ou t let s t r u ct u r e will be complet ely
u n der min ed. Er os ion of t h is t ype ma y be
con s ider able, depen din g on t h e locat ion of
t h e s t a ble ch a n n el s ect ion r ela t ive t o t h e
ou t let in bot h t h e ver t ica l a n d down s t r ea m
dir ect ion s . View (A) of Figu r e 6-47 illu s -
t r a t es t h is con dit ion .
A s cou r h ole or loca lized er os ion , a s s h own
in view (B] of Figu r e 6-47, is t o be expect ed
if t h e down s t r ea m ch a n n el is s t a ble. Th e
s ever it y of da ma ge t o be a n t icipa t ed
depen ds on exis t in g con dit ion s or t h os e
cr ea t ed a t t h e ou t let . In s ome in s t a n ces ,
t h e ext en t of t h e s cou r h ole ma y be in s u ffi-
cien t t o pr odu ce eit h er in s t a bilit y of t h e em-
ba n kmen t or s t r u ct u r a l da ma ge t o t h e ou t -
6-72 Drainage
Figure 6-47. Types of scour at culvert outlets
let . However , in ma n y s it u a t ion s , flow con -
dit ion s pr odu ce s cou r t h a t er odes t h e em-
ba n kmen t a n d ca u s es s t r u ct u r a l da ma ge t o
t h e apr on , en d wall, an d cu lver t . Th is t ype
of ou t let er os ion of t h e bot t om of t h e dit ch
an d of t h e s ide ban ks is s h own in Figu r e
6-48.
Er os ion is bes t con t r olled by t wo met h ods :
velocit y r edu ct ion a n d ch a n n el pr ot ect ion .
Redu cin g t h e s lope of t h e cu lver t r edu ces
t h e velocit y. Th is s olu t ion , h owever , ma y
r equ ir e a lar ger pipe s in ce it ch an ges t h e
ca pa cit y of t h e cu lver t .
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Headwalls , win g walls , or ch an n el lin in gs
ca n a bs or b t h e en er gy of flowin g wa t er a n d
r edu ce it s velocit y t o accept able levels .
Wh en win g walls ar e n ot pr ovided, lin e t h e
s t r ea m ba n k a n d bot t om for s ome dis t a n ce
down s t r ea m wit h r ipr a p or ot h er ma t er ia l.
Dit ch lin in gs wer e des cr ibed in gr eat er
det a il ea r lier in t h is ch a pt er .
CULVERT DESIGN
Th e h ydr au lic load on a cu lver t is t h e
a mou n t of wa t er t h a t will flow t o t h e u l-
ver t in let , eit h er a s dir ect s u r fa ce or ch a n -
n el-s t r ea m flow. Su r fa ce flow is det er min ed
by t h e r a t ion a l a n d ch a n n el-flow-equ a t ion s
met h ods dis cu s s ed ear lier .
Hydr a u lic s of Cu lve r t s
Cu lver t qu a n t it y of flow (Q) is t h e a mou n t
of wa t er t h e cu lver t will ca r r y in a u n it of
t ime. Th is capacit y is expr es s ed in cfs .
For a pa r t icu la r cu lver t of kn own s ize (A),
s h ape, an d in t er ior r ou gh n es s (n ), t h e dis -
ch ar ge capacit y is con t r olled by on e or
mor e of t h e followin g fa ct or s :
in let .
Heigh t of t h e wa t er a bove t h e cu lver t

Hydr a u lic gr a dien t (S) of t h e cu lver t .
Len gt h (L) of t h e cu lver t .
Eleva t ion of t h e t a ilwa t er a t t h e cu lver t
ou t let .
Figure 6-48. Outlet erosion
Drainage 6-73
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Th e t ype of in let is n ot gen er ally con s ider ed
in milit a r y cu lver t des ign . However , it
s h ou ld be r emember ed t h a t t h e dis ch a r ge
capacit y of a cu lver t will be in cr eas ed by a
s moot h , t r a n s it ion t ype of in let wit h h ea d-
wa lls a n d win g wa lls . For con s t r u ct ion in
t h e TO, t h e cu lver t s h ou ld h ave a des ign
ca pa cit y s u fficien t t o pa s s t h e pea k r u n off
fr om t h e des ign s t or m.
Hydr a u li c Gr a di e n t
Th e h ydr au lic gr adien t (S) of a cu lver t is
on e of t h e cu lver t dis ch ar ge capacit y con -
t r ols . It ca n be s a t is fa ct or ily es t ima t ed a s
t h e s lope in ft / ft . Th e gr a dien t is ca lcu -
lat ed by dividin g t h e h ead (H) on a cu lver t
by t h e cu lver t len gt h (L): S = H/ L. Th e
h ead is t h e differ en ce in elevat ion bet ween
t h e followin g:
Th e t wo en ds of a cu lver t , if bot h t h e
in let a n d t h e ou t let a r e n ot s u bmer ged.
Th e wa t er s u r fa ce dir ect ly a bove t h e
in let a n d t h e t op of t h e ou t let , if t h e
in let is s u bmer ged a n d t h e ou t let is n ot
s u bmer ged.
Th e h ydr au lic gr adien t an d h ead ar e
illu s t r at ed in Figu r e 6-49.
Th e n or ma l flow pa t t er n for cu lver t s , for
wh ich Table 6-17 is u s ed, is s h own by view
(A) of Figu r e 6-49, In t h is cas e, t h e wat er
is a t cr own eleva t ion a l t h e in let , a n d t h e
ou t let is fr ee-flowin g.
An a ccu mu la t ion of wa t er a t t h e in let of t h e
cu lver t is called pond ing. Wh en p en d in g
occu r s , t h e ou t let will n or ma lly be fr ee-flow-
in g, bu t t h e wa t er will be a t s ome dept h
a bove t h e in let . Wh en t h is dept h a t t h e
in let is 1.2D or les s (wh er e D is t h e dia-
met er of t h e cu lver t ), u s e Table 6-17 t o
dir ect ly det er min e Q a n d V. Wh en t h e
wa t er dept h a t t h e in let in ver t is gr ea t er
t h a n 1.2D a n d t h e ou t let is fr ee-flowin g,
u s e a n omogr aph (Figu r e 6-50, page 6-76)
t o det er min e Q, a n d u s e t h e con t in u it y
equ a t ion Q = VA t o det er min e t h e velocit y.
Wh en bot h t h e in let a n d t h e ou t let a r e com-
plet ely s u bmer ged, u s e Figu r e 6-50 ex-
clu s ively.
Th e wa t er s u r fa ce dir ect ly a bove t h e
in let a n d t h e ou t let , if bot h t h e in let a n d
ou t let a r c s u bmer ged.
Figure 6-49. Hydraulic gradient, S, and heads, H, for culverts
6-74 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table 6-17. Capacity and critical slope of culverts*
(Mannings n of 0.012, 0.018, and 0.024)
Drainage 6-75
SLOPE
4PERCENTJ
8 10 12 15 18 21
0 .
3 ~ 1 0*1 4 3 1 * I ~ 1
06 09 1.6 2.6 45 6.8 10
=... lit.
0.8
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1 0 . ' To' 2.'
0.6 I 11 I
2-
0.7
0.8
1.4 0.9 1.6
:: 1 :: I'" I
0.4 0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
7.5
4.5 7.1 11
2.4
DIAMETER Of PIPE 4INCHES)
24 30 36 42 48 54
n = 0.012
151
26
1
40 I
59
1 83 1
110
'
6- 7- 8- 9--- 10-
15 26 40 59 83 110
n = 0.01'
11 20 I
I
.a
1 92 1
23
I I I
I I
n = 0.024
72
60 66 72 78 84 90 98
140 '180 , 230 I
280
1330 1
400
,
470
120 I 160
1
9--
---
10=
... _-
~ - -
220 270 330 400 470
12
230
.J!2..
330 400 470
140 180 230
I I I
I
98 160 190 230 280 330
190 230 280 340 390
210 250 310 370 430
220 270 320 3 450
230
11
280 330 400
.!L
12
~
280 330 400 470
190 230 280
U 0.9 1.5 2.5 83 110
:: 1 ':: 1 :: tm :: ri: 1 :: 1 'f'I"1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
:: 1 :: 1 ~ :: 1"-1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
3.2
Culverts with free outlet with water Burface at inlet same elevation as top of pipe and outlet unsubmerged.
NOTES;
1. V.lue. ar. In cta.
3. StHper .'ope. than 'cr't,c." do not r ult In Incr d dl.ch.rge.
4. Numb.r.d '.t.pped" IIn Indlc.te .ppoxlm.t. v.locltle. In fp .
5. Manning'. n = 0.012 applle. to clay or concrete pipe; excellent condition of .urfaclng alignment.
8. M.nnlng'. n " 0.018 applle. to CMP; Inv.rt paved 10 50% of diameter.
7. Manning'. n .. 0.024 appll to CMP; .t.ndard unpaved.
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 6-50. Nomograph for culverts flowing full with ponding inlets
6-76 Drainage
0.25
03
0.5
-=
U
09
CD
UI
Cl
c
C
CD
-=
a.
0
"0
~
III
U
CD
I'll
~
CD
1::
~ ...
------ --.,Q
CD
.,.
> CD
"3 ..... Cl
()
....
.....
I'll
~
u
UI
'5
c
Cl
-iij
CD
0
3
The head al
entrance (h,'
muSI ellcead
4
velocIty head
plus entrance
loss.
5
Compute
i
V= -
A
Increase seClion
If necessary_
unlil hi > 0.022 V
2
for CMP hi > 0.017
V2 for others.
a
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
20
30
40
50
00008
CO' It),...
o
It)
8
N
o g ~ g 8
Allowable headwater
For free oullet. use H' for H, H' may
be approlllmated as H" less an assumed
vertIcal d,ameler
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Cr it ic a l Slope
For a given s ize, A, of t h e cu lver t a n d a
given h ead, H, on t h e cu lver t , t h e dis ch ar ge
ca pa cit y of t h e cu lver t will in cr ea s e a s t h e
h ydr a u lic gr a dien t in cr ea s es , Th is
con t in u es u n t il t h e h ydr a u lic gr a dien t
becomes equ a l t o or gr ea t er t h a n t h e
cr it ical s lope, Sc. As t h e h ydr au lic gr adien t
is in cr eas ed beyon d t h e cr it ical s lope,
cu lver t dis ch a r ge r ema in s con s t a n t . Th e
ar ea decr eas es becau s e t h e pipe does n ot
flow fu ll, a n d t h e velocit y of flow in t h e
cu lver t in cr ea s es beca u s e V = Q/ A. Th e
cr it ica l s lope is t h e ma ximu m dis ch a r ge.
Rou gh n e s s
For t h e s elect ion of t h e pipe r ou gh n es s
va lu es (n va lu es ) for flow det er min a t ion
r efer t o t h e foot n ot es t o Ta ble 6-17, pa ge
6-75.
Box-Cu lve r t Flow
Flow ch a r a ct er is t ics of box cu lver t s ma y be
differ en t fr om t h os e of pipe cu lver t s , even
t h os e wit h t h e s a me s lope, lin in g, a n d in let
a n d ou t let con dit ion s . Flow, Q, ca n be
det er min ed as pr eviou s ly n ot ed, for t h e
con dit ion s of in let a n d ou t let wa t er
elevat ion s .
As s u min g t h a t t h e wa t er eleva t ion of t h e
in let is a t t h e t op of t h e box a n d t h e ou t let
is fr ee-flowin g, t h e differ en ce in in flow
ch ar act er is t ics bet ween pipe an d box
cu lver t s of t h e s a me ma t er ia l a n d s lope is
n egligible. Box-cu lver t s izes can t h er efor e
be det er min ed by compu t in g t h e
cr os s -s ect ion al ar ea r equ ir ed for a pipe an d
t h en des gn in g a box of t h e s a me ma t er ia l,
s lope an d cr os s -s ect ion al ar ea.
Wh en t h e wa t er eleva t ion is a bove t h e t op
of t h e box in let , u s c t h e n omogr a ph in
Figu r e 6-50. In t h is ca s e, ma ke t r ia l
s olu t ion s u n t il t h er e is cor r ela t ion bet ween
t h e box s ize an d pen din g dept h .
De s i gn of Cu lve r t s wi t h Su bme r ge d In le t s
Su bmer gin g of t h e cu lver t in let r es u lt s in
pen din g at -t h e s it e. Th e eleva t ion of t h e
pon d s u r face, wh ich will det er min e t h e
dept h of s u bmer gen ce, is a fu n ct ion of t h e
ext en t of t h e pon d, t h e r equ ir emen t of
s a fet y t o t h e s t r u ct u r e, a n d t h e t ime it will
t a ke t o empt y t h e pon d. Th es e fa ct or s a r e
det er min ed by t h e r u n off r a t e, t h e pon d
volu me, a n d t h e cu lver t -flow r a t e. Th ey ar e
der ived u s in g t h e followin g s t eps :
St ep 1. Det er min e t h e r a t e of r u n off (Q)
t h e cu lver t mu s t dr a in or , in t h e ca s e of
pen din g, t h e in let dr a in ca pa cit y, Qd .
St ep 2. Det er min e t h e len gt h of t h e cu lver t .
St ep 3. Det er min e t h e h ea d on t h e cu lver t .
St ep 4. Us in g Figu r e 6-49, page 6-74,
det er min e t h e s ize an d t ype of pipe or box
cu lver t r equ ir ed t o h a n dle t h e qu a n t it y of
flow, Q.
To u s e t h is t a ble, en t er t h e n omogr a ph
(Figu r e 6-50) a t t h e in t er s ect ion of t h e
len gt h for t h e t ype a n d s ize of cu lver t (for
exa mple, poin t A in t h e n omogr a ph y).
Ext en d t h e lin e h or izon t a lly t o t h e
t u r n in g-poin t lin e (poin t B in t h e
n omogr a ph y), a n d ext en d t h e lin e t o t h e
cu lver t h ea d, H, in feet (poin t C in t h e
n omogr a ph y). Fin d t h e dis ch a r ge, Q, in
cu bic feet per s econ d, for t h e pipe s elect ed
a t t h e in t er s ect ion wit h t h e dis ch a r ge lin e.
St ep 5. Compu t e t h e dis ch a r ge velocit y, V,
in fps . Us e t h e equ a t ion , V = Q/ A. If t h e
dis ch a r ge velocit y is gr ea t er t h a n t h e
ma ximu m per mis s ible velocit y for t h e
ou t fa ll or t h e h eigh t of t h e wa t er , in feet ,
above t h e t op of t h e cu lver t in let is les s
t h a n 0. 022(V
2
) for CMP or 0.0 17(V
2
) for
con cr et e pipe or boxes , eit h er s elect pipes
of lar ger diamet er or decr eas e t h e s lope of
t h e cu lver t .
Exa mple (Su bmer ged In let , Un s u bmer ged
Ou t let ):
Det er min e t h e mos t econ omica l pipe s ize
an d n u mber of pipes r equ ir ed for a cu lver t
acr os s an air field. Th e followin g ar e kn own
con dit ion s :
Th e ou t fa ll fr om t h e cu lver t is a n a t u r a l
dr a in a ge ch a n n el wit h den s e t u r f in a
GP s oil.
Drainage 6-77
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013,
Th e des ign flow, Q, is 210 cfs .
Vol 1
42-in ch an d 48-in ch con cr et e pipes ar e
available.
Solu t ion :
St ep 1. Q = 210 cfs (given ).
St ep 2. L = 180 feet (given ).
St ep 3. Det er min e h ea d, H.
H 42-in = 598.6 ft - (593.0
= 2. 1 ft
H 48-in = 598.6 ft - (593.0
= 1.6 ft
ft + 3.5 ft ]
ft + 4.0 ft )
St ep 4. Det er min e t h e s ize a n d n u mber of
pipes r equ ir ed t o h a n dle t h e flow, Q.
(a ) On t h e ca s t -con cr et e-pipe por t ion of
t h e n omogr a ph , dr a w a h or izon t a l lin e fr om
t h e in t er s ect ion of t h e 180-ft L lin e a n d t h e
42-in pipe lin e (poin t A) t o t h e
t u r n in g-poin t lin e (poin t B). Fr om B, dr a w
a lin e t o a n H of 2.1 ft (poin t C). Th e
in t er s ect ion of t h is lin e wit h t h e Q por t ion
of t h e n omogr a ph s h ows t h e ma ximu m
dis ch ar ge of on e 42-in pipe t o be abou t 78
cfs . For 210 cfs , t h r ee wou ld be r equ ir ed.
(b) Similar ly, for t h e 48-in pipe, 180 ft
len gt h , a n d 1.6 ft H, pr oceed fr om D t o E
t o F an d fin d t h at on e 48-in pipe wou ld
h ave a capacit y dis ch ar ge of abou t 92 cfs .
Again , t h r ee wou ld be r equ ir ed for 210 cfs .
St ep 5. Compu t e t h e dis ch a r ge velocit y, V,
an d ch eck for exces s ive ou t let velocit y.
Ch eck s maller pipe.
(a) Sin ce t h r ee pipes ar e u s ed, as s u me
ea ch will ca r r y on e-t h ir d t h e t ot a l Q or 70
cfs , wh ich ever is gr eat er .
(b) If t h e pipe flows fu ll, t h e exit velocit y
is
(c) If t h e exit velocit y is bas ed on a des ign
flow of 70 cfs , t h e pipe wou ld be flowin g
on ly pa r t ia lly fu ll a n d t h e exit velocit y
wou ld be 9.2 fps . Th is velocit y is gr eat er
t h an wh en t h e pipe flows fu ll becau s e t h e
r es is t an ce t o flow decr eas es u n t il t h e pipe
is flowin g appr oximat ely 0.8 fu ll.
(e) Sin ce allowable ou t fall velocit y is ex-
ceeded an d < 0.017 u s e t h r ee 48-
in ch pipes a s t h e mos t econ omica l a va ila ble
s ize.
De s ign of Pipe Cu lve r t s wit h Un s u b-
me r ge d In le t s
Th e fact or s t o be applied t o t h e des ign of
t h es e cu lver t s ar c det er min ed as follows :
St ep 1. Det er min e t h e r a t e of r u n off. Us e
t h e a r ea t h e cu lver t mu s t dr a in . Th is will
be t h e r equ ir ed ca pa cit y, of t h e cu lver t .
St ep 2. Det er min e cu lver t u s e. Will it be
u s ed for a r oa d or for a n a ir field?
St ep 3. Ca lcu la t e t h e cr it ica l dimen s ion s
fr om t h e cr os s s ect ion s . See Figu r e 6-51.
Det er min e t h e len gt h in pla ce (LIP) a n d t h e
fill cr it ical
St ep 4. Det er min e t h e la r ges t pipe for t h e
fill. Begin fr om t h e cr os s s ect ion a t t h e
ou t s ide edge of t h e s h ou lder . Con s ider on ly
pipes t h at ar e available an d for wh ich cover
is a dequ a t e.
For r oa dwa y loa din gs , t h e ma ximu m cu lver t
dia met er is equ a l t o t wo-t h ir ds of t h e
min imu m fill (FT fr om Figu r e 6-51, page
6-79). Th e cover r equ ir ed for cu lver t
pr ot ect ion is equ a l t o on e-h a lf t h e dia met er
of t h e cu lver t or 12 in ch es (wh ich ever is
gr ea t er ).
For r u n wa ys a n d t a xiwa ys s u s t a in in g
air cr aft wh eel loads , r efer t o Table 6-12,
page 6-65, for t h e wh eel loads an d Table
6-78 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 3-8013, Vol 1
(Fill 1) = roadway elevation at the outer edge (EL

1
- the elevation at the toe of the slope (EL
2
),
(Slope horizontal distance on the Inlet side of the road) = Fill 1 x the X value (horizontal
component of the Inlet side slope ratio).
(Fill 2) = roadway elevation at the outer edge of the road on the outlet side ( EL
3
) the
elevatlon at the toe of the slope on the outlet end,
(Horizontal distance of the roadside slope on the outlet end) = Fill 2 x the Y value (horizontal
component of the outlet side slope ratio).
S (Slope) = the difference between EL
2
and EL
4
divided by the sum of S
1
+ TW (top width across the
road) + S
2
.
(Fill 3) = fill amount from the existing ground on the inlet side to the culvert inlet.
(Fill Total) = Fill 1 + Fill 3.
LIP (Length In Place) = S
1
+ TW + S
2
+ 2
1
.
(Fill Critical) = Fill total minus DP (diameter of the pipe).
Figure 6-51. Calculating cover
Drainage 6-79
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
6-13, page 6-66, or Table 6-14, page 6-67,
for t h e min imu m cover r equ ir ed.
St ep 5. Det er min e t h e cu lver t ca pa cit y,
a n d ou t let velocit y. Us e valu es bas ed on
cu lver t mat er ial an d s lope an d Table 6-17,
page 6-75.
St ep 6. Det er min e t h e n u mber of cu lver t
pipes r equ ir ed. Divide t h e ar ea r u n off, Q,
by t h e pipe ca pa cit y, Rou n d u p t o t h e
n ext wh ole n u mber .
St ep 7. Det er min e t h e or der len gt h (OL).
Th e OL is ca lcu la t ed by mu lt iplyin g t h e
n u mber of pipes (NP) t imes t h e LIP t imes a
wa s t e fa ct or of 1.15, (See s t ep 3 for t h e
LIP an d s t ep 6 for t h e NP.)
St ep 8. Det er min e t h e ma ximu m per mis -
s ible dis ch ar ge velocit y, Us e Table
6-6, page 6-44, t o calcu lat e for t h e
ch a n n el lin in g in t o wh ich t h e cu lver t ou t let
will dis ch ar ge. Det er min e t h e cor r ect pipe
t o be u s ed. Apply t h e followin g cr it er ia in
you r
ca lcu la t ion s :
Be s u r e t h e ou t let velocit y is equ a l t o or
les s t h a n t h e ma ximu m velocit y of t h e
ch a n n el lin in g in t o wh ich t h e cu lver t
ou t let will dis ch a r ge, If ou t let velocit y
exceeds t h e s oils t h e ou t let mu s t
be pr ot ect ed a ga in s t er os ion .
Us e t h e leas t n u mber of cu lver t pipes
pos s ible t o ca r r y t h e t ot a l flow a n d s t ill
be con s is t en t wit h t h e a bove cr it er ia .
Exa mple (Un s u bmer ged In let ):
Det er min e t h e mos t econ omica l pipe s ize
a n d t h e qu a n t it y of pipe r equ ir ed for a
cu lver t loca t ed u n der a r u n wa y, wit h t h e
gen er al dat a cr os s s ect ion given below. Th e
ma ximu m u s in g a ir cr a ft weigh t cIa s s for
t h is example will be an SR-71C.
No h eadwall will be con s t r u ct ed
down -s t r ea m. Th e followin g a r e kn own
con dit ion s :
Air cr aft SR-71C. (Refer t o Tables 6-12
an d 6-13, pages 6-65 an d 6-66.)
Cu lver t weigh t t ype = 9.
Q t o be h an dled by cu lver t = 32 cfs .
Soil t ype is ba r e SC; t h er efor e, t h e ma xi-
mu m a llowa ble ou t let velocit y = 3-4 fps .
Pipe s izes available: 24-, 30-, 36-, an d

42-in ch CMP, 10 gage.
Refer r in g t o Figu r e 6-52, n ot e t h a t t h e
followin g in for ma t ion is r equ ir ed befor e
des ign can be accomplis h ed:
Hor izon t a l len gt h of on e cu lver t , L.

Slope of cu lver t pipe n eeded t o det er -
min e t h e flow ch a r a ct er is t ics of va r iou s
pipe diamet er s (s ee Table 6-17, page 6-
75) a n d wh ich is a por t ion of t h e
cr it ical fill dept h ,
Cr it ical fill dept h , in or der t o det er -
min e if t h e cover over t h e pipe meet s
t h e r equ ir emen t s of Table 6-13.
Solu t ion :
St ep 1. Det er min e t h e r u n off r a t e. Given
for t h is exa mple, Q = 32 cfs .
St ep 2. Det er min e air field cu lver t u s e.
St ep 3. Ca lcu la t e t h e cr it ica l dimen s ion s .
Compu t a t ion s s h ou ld be ma de in t h e
followin g s equ en ce (s ee Figu r es 6-52 an d
6-53):
Det er min e t h e differ en ce in elevat ion be-
t ween t h e edge of t h e r u n wa y a n d t h e
cu lver t u ps t r ea m in ver t .
= 607.00 - 600.80 = 6.20 ft
Det er min e t h e h or izon t a l dis t a n ce be-
t ween t h e cu lver t in ver t a n d t h e
s h ou lder edge.
= F1 x X
= 6.20 X 10 = 62 ft
6-80 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 6-52. Unsubmerged inlet culvert problem
(Fill 1) = roadway elevation at the outer edge (EL

1
the elevation at the toe of the slope
(Slope horizontal distance on the Inlet side of the road) = Fill 1 x the X value (horizontal
component of the inlet side slope ratio).
(Fill 2) = roadway elevation at the outer edge of the road on the outlet side (EL
3
) the
elevation at the toe of the slope on the outlet end.
(Horizontal distance of the roadside slope on the outlet end)
= Fill 2 x the Y value (horizontal
component of the outlet side slope ratio).
S (Slope) = the difference between EL
2
and EL
4
divided by the sum of S, + TW (top width across the
road) + S
2
.
(Fill 3) = fill amount from the existing ground on the inlet side to the culvert inlet
(Fill Total) = Fill 1 + Fill 3.
LIP (Length In Place) = S
1
+ TW + S
2
+ 2
1
.
(Fill Critical) = Fill total minus DP (diameter of the pipe).
Figure 6-53. Calculating cover (sample problem)
Drainage 6-81
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Det er min e t h e differ en ce in elevat ion be-
t ween t h e edge of t h e r u n wa y a n d t h e
cu lver t ou t let an d fill s lope.
607.00 - 599.62 = 7.38 ft
Det er min e t h e h or izon t a l dis t a n ce be-
t ween t h e edge of t h e r u n wa y a n d t h e in -
t er s ect ion of t h e cu lver t a n d fill.
7.38 X 10 = 73.8 ft
Det er min e t h e a ct u a l s lope of t h e cu l-
ver t .
S =
E L
2
- EL4
S 1 + T W + S2
S =
600.8 - 599.62 1.18
62 + 100 + 73.8 235. 8
= 0.005 or 0.5%
Det er min e t h e in cr emen t a l eleva t ion dif-
fer en ce bet ween t h e eleva t ion of t h e
u ps t r ea m in ver t a n d t h e in ver t of t h e
cu lver t a t t h e cr it ica l fill s ect ion .
0.005 ft / ft = 0.5 per cen t
62 X 0.005 = 0.31 ft
Det er min e t h e dept h of cr it ical fill s ec-
t ion .
6.2 + 0.31 = 6.51 ft (Len glh of h or izon
t a l pr oject ion of t h e cu lver t .) Th e
u ps t r ea m in ver t eleva t ion t o down s t r ea m in -
ver t eleva t ion is
LIP
LIP = 62 + 100 + 73.8 + 2 = 237.8 ft :
(Rou n d Up t o 238 ft )
NOTE: Th e s e c ompu t a t ion s de pic t t h e
c r os s s e c t ion a n d Figu r e 6 -5 3 , pa ge 6 -8 1 ,
s u mma r ize s t h e c a lc u la t ion s .
Fr om t h es e ca lcu la t ion s , it h a s been
det er min ed t h a t
Th e a ct u a l len gt h of t h e cu lver t is
235.8 feet , r ou n ded u p t o an even
valu e of 236 feet . A 2-foot pr oject ion
is added becau s e t h er e is t o be n o
down s t r ea m h ea dwa ll. Th is gives a
cu lver t len gt h of 238 feet for a s in gle
pipe.
Th e s lope of t h e cu lver t is 0.005 foot
per foot or 0.5 per cen t .
Th e dept h of fill a t t h e cr it ica l s ect ion
is 6.5 feet (r ou n ded t o t h e n ea r es t
t en t h of a foot ).
St ep 4. Det er min e t h e la r ges t pipe for t h e
fill. Pr epar e a t able as s h own in Table
6-18 an d fill in all kn own valu es . St a r t by
en t er in g t h e la r ges t pipe a va ila ble, in t o
t h e t a ble. Su bt r a ct Dp fr om t ot a l fill, F-T, t o
get fill cr it ical, r epr es en t s t h e
a ct u a l cover over t h e pipe a t t h e cr it ica l
s ect ion . Compa r e t o cover r equ ir ed,
To fin d for air cr aft , r efer t o Table 6-12,
page 6-65, wh ich in dicat e t h at an SR-71C
a ir cr a ft h a s a cu lver t weigh t t ype (WT) of 9.
Th e CMP available is 10 gage. Wit h t h is
in for mat ion , r efer t o Table 6-13, page 6-66,
an d s elect ch ar t 9, cor r es pon din g t o cu lver t
WT 9. Th e diamet er s an d cover ar e given
in ch a r t 9 u n der t h e 10-ga ge lin e. St a r t in g
wit h t h e lar ges t pipe available, 42-in ch or
3.5 feet , is 4.0 feet (in t er polat ed bet ween
pipe diamet er s .) En t er t h is valu e in Table
6-18. Th e 42-in ch pipe (3.5 feet ) can n ot be
u s ed becau s e it s act u al cover is 3.01 feet
a ga in s t a r equ ir ed cover of 4.0 feet . Repea t
t h e pr oces s u s in g t h e n ext s maller pipe
available, 36-in ch pipe. It h as a of 3.51
feet an d a of 3.5 feet . Th is pipe will
wor k.
St ep 5. Det er min e t h e cu lver t ca pa cit y.
Us e Table 6-17, page 6-75, t o fin d t h e
capacit y an d velocit y for t h e 36-in ch pipe.
6-82 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table 6-18. Unsubmerged inlet sample data
Th e s lope of t h e cu lver t is 0.5 per cen t .
En t er in g t h e gr a ph fr om t h e t op (pipe
da met er ), move down t h e colu mn u n t il you
in t er s ect wit h t h e s lope in t h e left -h a n d
colu mn . Th is will s la t e t h e qu a n t it y of flow
in t h e pipe. Th e velocit y of flow is s h own
by followin g t h e r es pect ive s h aded or
u n s h a ded a r ea s down a n d t o t h e left u n t il
it en ds in t h e velocit y colu mn , 4 feet per
s econ d.
Th e 36-in ch pipe h as a capacit y of 27.5
cu bic feel per s econ d for t h e 0.5 per cen t
s lope. Th e velocit y in dicat ed is 4 feet per
s econ d.
St ep 6. Det er min e t h e n u mber of pipe
r equ ir ed t o car r y t h e flow by dividin g t h e
t ot al (Q) of 32 cu bic feet per s econ d (s t ep 1)
by t h e pipe capacit y, 27.5 cu bic feet per
s econ d (s t ep 5) an d r ou n din g u p t o t h e
n ext wh ole pipe. For t h is exa mple, t h e
n u mber of pipe r equ ir ed is 32/ 27.5 = 1.2
or t wo 36-in ch diamet er pipes .
St ep 7. Th e n ext s t ep is det er min in g t h e
len gt h of pipe t o be or der ed. Th e or der
len gt h is calcu lat ed by mu lt iplyin g NP
(St ep 6) t imes LIP (s t ep 3) t imes a wa s t e
fa ct or (WF). Sin ce pieces of mat er ial will
be da ma ged in ma n u fa ct u r in g, h a n dlin g,
t r a n s por t in g, a n d a s s emblin g, a n a ddit ion a l
a mou n t over t h e a ct u a l in -pla ce len gt h will
be r equ ir ed. Th is valu e h as been
det er min ed t o be 15 per cen t of t h e t ot a l
len gt h of pipe r equ ir ed. For t h is pr oject ,
t h e pipe s elect ed will be 36 in ch es in
dia met er wit h a len gt h in pla ce of 476 feet .
Th e len gt h t o or der will be
NP x LIP x WF
2 x 476 x 1.15 = 1,094.8 ft
Th e pipe comes in 2-foot in cr emen t s ;
t h er efor e, t h e valu e of 1,094.8 is r ou n ded
u p t o t h e n ext even va lu e, or 1,096 feet of
pipe.
Drainage 6-83
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
PONDI NG AREAS
Ponding is t h e a ccu mu la t ion of r u n off a t
t h e in let of a dr a in a ge s t r u ct u r e r es u lt in g
fr om t h e in a bilit y of t h e s ys t em t o
dis ch a r ge mor e of t h e r u n off t h a n t h e r a t ed
ca pa cit y of t h e s t r u ct u r e.
Milit a r y dr a in a ge s t r u ct u r es in t h e TO a r e
des ign ed t o dis ch ar ge t h e r u n off bas ed on
t h e 2-year des ign s t or m wh ich , by
defin it ion , is expect ed t o be equ aled or
exceeded at leas t on ce in t h e des ign per iod.
Th u s , a s t or m mor e s ever e t h a n t h e des ign
s t or m ma y occu r a n d gen er a t e exces s ive
r u n off, over loa din g t h e dr a in a ge s t r u ct u r es .
In a n t icipa t ion of t h is even t , des ign t h e
a r ea s a r ou n d t h e in let s of dr a in a ge
s t r u ct u r es t o a ccommoda t e a cer t a in
a mou n t of pen din g.
In s ome ca s es , du e t o limit a t ion s in cu lver t

cover an d s pace, t er r a in con dit ion s , t ime,
ma t er ia ls , or ot h er con dit ion s , a s ys t em
ma y n ot be a ble t o t a ke ca r e of t h e r u n off
fr om t h e des ign s t or m. To pr ovide for t h is ,
in clu de s u fficien t pen din g ar eas in t h e
or igin a l pla n t o pr even t floodin g of vit a l
ar eas . Th e pen din g ar eas s t or e exces s
r u n off u n t il t h e in t en s it y of t h e s t or m
decr ea s es a n d t h e s t r u ct u r e ca n h a n dle t h e
flow.
Wh en pos s ible, milit ar y dr ain age s ys t ems
a r c des ign ed t o pa s s t h e r u n off fr om t h e
des ign s t or m wit h ou t pen din g. However ,
s ome pr ovis ion for pen din g may be made in
t h os e a r ea s wh er e floodin g for a per iod of
t ime will n ot a ffect t h e fa cilit ys oper a t ion a l
s t a t u s .
Th e followin g s pecificat ion s ar e gen er ally
adh er ed t o in t h e des ign of pen din g ar eas
for milit a r y in s t a lla t ion s :
Th e edge of t h e pon d mu s t be a t lea s t
75 feet fr om t h e edge of t h e pa vemen t
wh en u s ed for r u n wa y a n d t a xiwa y
des ign .
Wh en a pon d is u s ed wit h r oad fills or
emba n kmen t s , t h e dept h of t h e pon d
will be det er min ed by t h e por os it y of t h e
fill, t h e a mou n t of fr eeboa r d r equ ir ed t o
pr even t over t oppin g of t h e r oa d, t h e
h eigh t of t h e h ea dwa ll a n d win g wa ll,
a n d t h e t ime a llowed for t h e pon d t o
empt y. Wh en pen din g is an t icipat ed,
t h e adjacen t fill s ide s lope s h ou ld be
made les s s t eep t o pr even t t h e s lou gh -
in g of s a t u r a t ed fill.
Th e pon d mu s t be dr ain ed befor e
da ma gin g in filt r a t ion of t h e s u bgr a de
ca n occu r . Th e a ct u a l t ime du r in g
wh ich pen din g is allowable will depen d
u pon t h e t ype a n d con dit ion of t h e s oil
in t h e pen din g a r ea a n d t h e emba n k-
men t . In gen er al, t h is per iod will be n o
mor e t h a n fou r h ou r s fr om t h e s t a r t of
t h e s t or m.
In des ign in g pen din g ar eas , t h e followin g
a s s u mpt ion s a r e ma de t o s implify t h e
ca lcu la t ion s a n d t o r et a in s a t is fa ct or y
a ccu r a cy:
A cu lver t dis ch ar ges it s des ign capacit y
befor e r u n off s t a r t s t o a ccu mu la t e a t
t h e in let a n d for m a pon d.
An in cr eas e in t h e h ead becau s e of
pen din g does n ot in cr eas e t h e dis ch ar ge
ca pa cit y of t h e cu lver t .
Th e det er min at ion of per mis s ible volu me,
t h e pr epa r a t ion of r u n off cu r ves , a n d t h e
s oil an alys is mu s t be don e befor e des ign in g
pen din g ar eas t o meet t h e above s pecifica-
t ion s a n d a s s u mpt ion s .
PERMISSIBLE VOLUME
Th e volu me of per mis s ible pen din g is
det er min ed by t h e eleva t ion s of t h e a r ea
available for s u ch pen din g an d t h e
s u r r ou n din g a r ea s . A con t ou r ma p s h owin g
t h e fin a l gr a din g pla n is r equ ir ed t o
compu t e t h e volu me of per mis s ible pen din g.
By in s pect ion , a con t ou r lin e ma y be
s elect ed t o pr ovide a pen din g ar ea locat ed a
s a fe dis t a n ce or eleva t ion fr om t h e
pa vemen t . Pen din g volu mes ma y be
compu t ed fr om t h e con t ou r ma p by t h e
a ver a ge-en d-a r ea met h od. Th is met h od is
6-84 Drainage
t h e a ver a ge of t h e a r ea s , in s qu a r e feet ,
en clos ed by t wo a dja cen t con t ou r lin es a n d
mu lt iplied by t h e con t ou r in t er va l in feet .
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
feet . Th e 64-foot con t ou r lin e en clos es
10,000 s qu ar e feet . It s h ou ld be n ot ed t h a t
t h e con t ou r s a r e con cen t r ic: t h e 66-foot
con t ou r -lin e a r ea in clu des t h e a r ea
bou n ded by t h e 64-foot con t ou r lin e.
wh er e
V = volu me
A = a r ea of
feet
B = a r ea of
feet
b = ver t ica l
in cu bic feet
t h e fir s t con t ou r in s qu a r e
t h e n ext con t ou r in s qu a r e
dis t an ce, in feet , bet ween
con t ou r s (con t ou r in t er va l)
As a n exa mple of compu t in g t h e volu me for
pen din g, con s ider t h e con t ou r s s h own in
Figu r e 6-54. Wat er can be s afely pon ded t o
t h e 66-foot con t ou r lin e. Th e bot t om of t h e
in let en d of t h e cu lver t is a t a n eleva t ion of
62 feet . Us e a pla n imet er , or a n y ot h er
met h od, t o det er min e t h e t ot a l a r ea
en clos ed by ea ch con t ou r . In t h is ca s e, t h e
66-foot con t ou r lin e en clos es 25,000 s qu ar e
Th e t ot a l volu me of t h e pen din g a r ea is
10,000 + 35,000 = 45,000 cu bic feet
A fu r t h er exa mple of t h e compu t a t ion of
pen din g volu mes by t h e aver age-en d-ar ea
met h od is s h own in Figu r e 6-55, page 6-86.
As s u me t h a t t h e pen din g a r ea ext en ds t o
t h e 68-foot con t ou r lin e. Det er min e t h e
volu me of t h e pon d. Th e 68-foot lin e
en clos es a t ot a l a r ea of 30,000 s qu a r e feet .
Figure 6-54. Pending area
Drainage 6-85
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Volu me 62-64 = 10,000 cu bic feet
Pr epa r e a cu mu la t ive r u n off cu r ve ba s ed on
Volu me 64-66 = 35,000 cu bic feet
Volu me 66-68 = 2 x
30,000 + 25,000
2
= 55,000 cu bic feet
Th e t ot al volu me available for pen din g will
be 10,000 + 35,000 + 55,000 = 100,000
cu bic feet , if t h e pen din g ar ea ext en ds t o
t h e 68-foot con t ou r lin e.
RUNOFF CURVES
TO det er min e t h e a mou n t of wa t er a n a r ea
will con t r ibu t e t o a pon d, a cu mu la t ive
r u n off cu r ve mu s t be plot t ed. Th e
followin g exa mple s h ows h ow s u ch a cu r ve
is pr epar ed:
Exa mple:
An ar ea h as 33.3 acr es , con s is t in g of 23.3
acr es of imper viou s s oil an d 10 acr es of
paved s u r face. Th e weigh t ed C valu e is
0.75, t h e TOC is 13 min u t es , an d t h e loca-
t ion in t en s it y is 2.2 in ch es per h ou r for a
1-h ou r s t or m wit h a 2-yea r fr equ en cy.
Figure 6-55. Pending area enlarged
t h e-da t a given . Pen din g may be r equ ir ed
r edu ce t h e cu lver t s ize.
Ta bu la t i on of Da t a Ra t i on a l Me t h od
All da t a r equ ir ed t o plot a cu mu la t ive
t o
r u n off cu r ve, u s in g t h e r a t ion a l met h od, is
s h own in Table 6-19. Each colu mn is
pr epar ed as follows :
Colu mn 1 is a t a bu la t ion of t ime in
min u t es . An y s imila r combin a t ion of t ime
in cr emen t s can be u s ed as lon g as en ou gh
pr oper ly s paced poin t s ar e obt ain ed t o plot
a s moot h cu r ve. Th e cu mu la t ive r u n off
cu r ve is con s t r u ct ed by plot t in g t ime, in
min u t es (colu mn 1), a ga in s t volu me in
cu bic feet (colu mn 6).
Colu mn 2 is t h e pr odu ct of t h e r u n off
coefficien t , C (a s det er min ed for t h e a r ea
u s in g t h e r a t ion a l met h od), a n d t h e a r ea in
acr es .
Colu mn 3 is t h e in t en s it y, in in ch es per
h ou r , for ea ch on e of t h e min u t e va lu es of
colu mn 1. Th es e valu es ar e obt ain ed fr om
t h e s t a n da r d in t en s it y-du r a t ion cu r ve
n u mber 2.2 in Figu r e 6-4, page 6-9. Th e
va lu e of 2.2 is t h e loca t ion in t en s it y, in
in ch es per h ou r , of t h e 1- h ou r , 2-year
s t or m as s pecified in t h e given con dit ion s .
Colu mn 4 is t h e r a t e of r u n off, Q, in cfs ,
for t h e en t ir e in t er va l of t ime s h own in
colu mn 1. It is obt a in ed by mu lt iplyin g
colu mn s 2 a n d 3 (Q = CIA).
Colu mn 5 is t h e t ime, in s econ ds , given in
colu mn 1.
Colu mn 6 is t h e qu a n t it y of wa t er s u pplied
t o t h e pon d for t h e t ime given in colu mn 1.
For t h e fir s t five min u t es of r a in fa ll, t h e
qu a n t it y of wa t er en t er in g t h e pon d is given
by
Colu mn 6 = (colu mn 4)(colu mn 5)
Colu mn 6 = (163)(300) = 48,900 cu bic feet
6-86 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table 6-19. Cumulative runoff data tabulation, rational method
Aft er 20 min u t es fr om t h e s t a r t of r a in fa ll,
t h e volu me of wa t er wou ld be equ a l t o
105 x 1,200 or 126,000 cu bic feet , if n o
wa t er wa s r elea s ed fr om t h e pon d.
Pr e pa r a t i on of Cu mu la t i ve Ru n off Cu r ve
Th e cu mu la t ive r u n off cu r ve is obt a in ed by
plot t in g t h e volu me (colu mn 6, Table 6-19)
obt a in ed by t h e r a t ion a l met h od, on t h e ver -
t ica l a xis a n d t h e t ime, in min u t es (colu mn
1, Table 6-19), on t h e h or izon t al axis . Th e
cu mu la t ive r u n off cu r ve for t h e da t a lis t ed
in Table 6-19 is s h own in Figu r e 6-56, page
6-88.
An a lys is of Cu mu la t ive Ru n off Cu r ve
Ba s ed u pon t h e da t a given in t h e pr oblem,
t h e flow for t h e cu lver t des ign s h own in Fig-
u r e 6-55 wou ld be det er min ed as follows :
Q = CI A
wh er e
C = 0.75
I = 4.9 for a TOC of 13 min u t es a n d a
loca t ion in t en s it y of 2,2 in ch es per h ou r for
t h e 1-h ou r , 2-yea r s t or m
A = 33.3 acr es
Q = 0.75 x 4.9 x 33.3 = 122.4 cfs . Th e
n u mber of cu lver t s a t a s lope of 1.2 per cen t
(Figu r e 6-55) wh en Q = 122.4 wou ld be as
follows :
30-in ch pipe at 24 cfs = 6 pipes
Th es e pipes in t h e above s izes an d qu an -
t it ies will pa s s t h e flow wit h ou t pen din g.
ANALYSIS FOR PONDING
Th e s afe volu me for pen din g is 100,000
cu bic feet . Th e r equ ir emen t is t o r edu ce
t h e flow pa s t t h e ou t let poin t by u s in g a
s in gle cu lver t an d allowin g pen din g at t h e
in let .
Table 6-17, page 6-75, r eveals t h at a
30-in ch CMP cu lver t (n = 0.024) on a
1.2-per cen t s lope dis ch ar ges 24 cfs . As s u m-
in g t h a t t h e pipe a lwa ys dis ch a r ges a t t h e
r a t ed ca pa cit y, t h e cu mu la t ive dis ch a r ge is
a s t r a igh t -lin e fu n ct ion for a n y t ime in t er va l
wit h a lin e pa s s in g t h r ou gh t h e or igin .
Drainage 6-87
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 6-56. Cumulative runoff curve
Con t in u e t h es e s t r a igh t lin es s o t h a t t h ey
in t er s ect t h ew cu mu la t ive r u n off cu r ve. At
t h e poin t of in t er s ect ion . t h e cu mu la t ive
fu n ff will h a ve equ a led t h e cu mu la t ive
a mou n t of wa t er pa s s ed by t h e cu lver t .
Fr om t h en on , t h er e will be n o pen din g.
Kn owin g h ow lon g t h e pon d will exis t be-
h in d t h e in let , n ext det er min e wh et h er or
n ot t h e pen din g ar ea is lar ge en ou gh . Fig-
u r e 6-56 s h ows t h a t t h e gr ea t es t ver t ica l
dis t a n ce bet weem t h e cu mu la t ive r u n off
cu r ve an d t h e 30-in ch cu mu lat ive dis ch ar ge
volu me is lin e P. Lin e P r epr es en t s t h e max-
imu m volu me of wa t er pon ded beh in d t h e
30-in ch cu lver t .
Meas u r in g lin e P by t h e ver t ical s cale u s ed
in Figu r e 6-56 in dica t es t h a t t h e ma ximu m
pen din g volu u n e will be 115,000 cu bic feet .
a 42 min u t es t h e cu mu la t ive s u pply cu r ve
s h ows t h at 175,000 cu bic feet of wat er h ave
been s u pplied t o t h e pon d by t h e r ain -
s t or m. At t h e en d of 42 min u t es , t h e
30-in ch cu lver t h as t h eor et ically been able
t o dis ch ar ge 60,000 cu bic feet . Th er efor e,
t h e differ en ce bet ween t h e qu a n t it y s u p-
plied (175,000 cu bic feet ) an d t h e qu an t it y
dis ch ar ged (60,000 cu bic feet ) is 115,000
cu bic feet , wh ich mu s t s t ill be in t h e pon d.
In view of t h e fa ct t h a t t h e s a fe pen din g
volu me is on ly 100,000 cu bic feet , 30-in ch
CMP is u n s a t is fa ct or y beca u s e t h e s a fe
pen din g volu me wou ld be exceeded.
Ma ke t h e s a me ca lcu la t ion s for 36-in ch cu l-
ver t . In t h is cas e, t h e pon d volu me will be
75,000 cu bic feet wit h a pon d t ime of 95
min u t es . Sin ce t h e s a fe pen din g volu me of
100,000 cu bic feet an d t h e 4-h ou r limit on
t h e pen din g t ime a r c n ot exceeded t h e
36-in ch cu lver t is s at is fact or y. In addit ion ,
t h e exces s volu me of 25,000 cu bic feet will
be a va ila ble for s t or ms t h a t ma y exceed t h e
des ign s t or m.
6-88 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
ADVANTAGES OF PONDING
Alt h ou gh pen din g is an added s afegu ar d
a ga in s t t h e effect s of s t or ms mor e s ever e
t h a n t h e des ign s t or m, it s pr ima r y u s e is a s
a n econ omy mea s u r e. Pen din g allows for
r edu ct ion s in t h e s ize of cu lver t pipe n eces -
s a r y t o h a n dle r u n off. However , if a ddit ion -
a l pipe or ot h er con s t r u ct ion is r equ ir ed for
pen din g, ch eck t h e addit ion al cos t again s t
t h e s avin gs in r edu ct ion of pipe s ize. Pon d-
in g appr eciably r edu ces pipe s izes for ar eas
t h a t h a ve a s h or t TOC. For lon ger TOCs ,
pen din g h as lit t le or n o effect on pipe s izes .
Th e u s e of pen din g a s a n econ omy mea s u r e
is oft en r es t r ict ed by t h e a r ea a va ila ble for
pen din g. Th is ar ea s h ou ld be s u fficien t t o
s a t is fy t h e r equ ir emen t s of t h e des ign
s t or m, It s h ou ld als o h ave en ou gh r es er ve
ca pa cit y t o t a ke ca r e of s t or ms mor e in -
t en s e t h a n t h e des ign s t or m, Fa cilit ies for
pen din g s h ou ld be cou pled wit h in it ial gr ad-
in g oper at ion s , if pos s ible, t o s ecu r e t h e
mos t efficien t u s e of per s on n el an d equ ip-
men t .
DROP I NLETS AND GRATI NGS
Dr op in let s , ver t ica l en t r a n ces t o a cu lver t
or a s t or m dr a in , ma y be u s ed t o lower t h e
eleva t ion of t h e cu lver t in let below dit ch
elevat ion . Th is is don e wh er e fill does n ot
pr ovide s u fficien t cover or wh er e dis ch ar ge
velocit y is er os ive an d can be con t r olled
on ly by ch a n gin g t h e s lope. For s t or m
dr ain s (u n der gr ou n d cu lver t s or con du it s
des ign ed t o car r y s u r face r u n off), dr op in -
let s a r e u s ed t o collect s u r fa ce r u n off fr om
pa ved a n d t u r fed a r ea s , s t r eet gu t t er s , a n d
dit ch es . A t ypical dr op in let is s h own in
Figu r e 6-57, page 6-90.
A fr a mewor k of ba r s , or a per for a t ed pla t e
ca lled a gr a t in g] pa s s es t h e s t or m r u n off
in t o a dr op in let . Th e gr at in g s er ves as
bot h a filt er a n d a cover for t h e in let . Gr a t -
in gs ar c s h own in Figu r e 6-58, page 6-91.
CONSTRUCTION OF DROP INLETS AND
GRATINGS
Dr op in let s s h ou ld a lwa ys be pr ot ect ed wit h
s ome t ype of gr a t in g. An expedien t gr a t in g
can eas ily be fabr icat ed u s in g r ein for cemen t
bar s welded t oget h er . Th es e gr at in gs
s h ou ld be s paced t o r eadily admit debr is
wh ich will pa s s u n obs t r u ct ed t h r ou gh t h e
cu lver t . A dr op in let ma y be con s t r u ct ed of
con cr et e, br ick, t imber , or CMP s ect ion s .
In let gr a t in g s h ou ld be fa br ica t ed of s t eel
bar s , s t eel plat e, cas t ir on , or r ein for ced
con cr et e wit h a dequ a t e s t r en gt h t o wit h -
s t a n d t h e a n t icipa t ed loa d. Th e loa ds ma y
r an ge fr om t h e weigh t of debr is collect ed
over t h e gr a t in g t o veh icle or a ir cr a ft wh eel
loads .
In let gr at in g s h ou ld be placed 0.2 foot
below t h e gr ade. Th is will allow for t h e s et -
t lemen t of t h e a r ea a r ou n d t h e gr a t in g a n d
will pr ovide a s u mped ar ea t o en s u r e com-
plet e dr a in a ge a r ou n d t h e gr a t in g a n d pos i-
t ive in t er cept ion of s u r fa ce a n d gu t t er
r u n off.
To det er min e t h e pr oper s ize of gr a t in g-
1. Det er min e t h e pea k r a t e of r u n off,
fr om t h e a r ea t h a t dr a in s in t o t h e dr op
in let . Th is will be t h e r equ ir ed dis ch ar ge
ca pa cit y, Q, of t h e gr a t in g.
Q,
2. Det er min e t h e loa d (dept h of wa t er or
h ea d) on t h e gr a t in g a t t imes of pea k
r u n off. Wh en a dr op in let is u s ed in a
dit ch , gu t t er , or pen din g a r ea , t h e h ea d will
be t h e dept h of wa t er r u n n in g in t h e dit ch
or gu t t er , or t h e dept h of t h e pon d.
3. Kn owin g t h e h ea d, H, a n d t h e des ign
dis ch ar ge capacit y, Q, r efer t o Table 6-20,
pa ge 6-91, t o s elect t h e min imu m s ize gr a t -
in g r equ ir ed.
4. Mu lt iply t h e r equ ir ed gr a t in g s ize by
t h e a ppr opr ia t e s a fet y fa ct or t o det er min e
t h e a ct u a l gr a t in g s ize t o u s e.
Drainage 6-89
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
A s a fet y fa ct or of 50 per cen t (1.5 x t ot a l
gr at in g ar ea) for paved ar eas an d 100 per -
cen t (2 x t ot a l gr a t in g a r ea ) for t u r fed a r ea s
s h ou ld be a dded t o t h e gr a t in g-a r ea mea s -
u r emen t t o compen s a t e for debr is ca u gh t in
t h e open in gs .
Gr at in g open in gs s h ou ld be at leas t 18 in -
ch es lon g an d s h ou ld be placed par allel t o
t h e dir ect ion of flow.
Th e ar ea of t h e gr at in g open in gs is es -
t ima t ed a t 50 per cen t of t h e t ot a l gr a t in g
ar ea. Wh en u s in g bar s wit h lar ge open in gs ,
det er min e t h e a r ea of gr a t in g open in gs .
Figure 6-57. Drop inlets
6-90 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 6-58. Grating heads
MAINTENANCE OF DROP INLETS AND
GRATINGS
Dr op in let s a n d gr a t in gs r equ ir e con t in u ou s
ma in t en a n ce beca u s e debr is collect s a t t h e
open in gs . A ma in t en a n ce s ch edu le mu s t be
es t ablis h ed t o ch eck an d clean debr is fr om
t h e in let s a n d gr a t in gs . If t h es e open in gs
a r e n ot kept clea n , a pon d cou ld for m a t
t h e in let , r es u lt in g in da ma ge t o n ea r by
s t r u ct u r es . Th is damage cou ld con s is t of
s a t u r a t ion of t h e s u bgr a de by t h e pon d or
dir ect floodin g of adjacen t ar eas . Per iodic
main t en an ce of dr op in lels s h ou ld in clu de
r emovin g t h e cover an d in s pect in g an d
clea n in g t h e ch a mber .
Expedien t dr op in let s of t h e t ype s h own in
Figu r e 6-39, view (A), page 6-63, mu s t be
cover ed wit h bar s , If t h e box is left open , it
will t en d t o fill wit h debr is makin g clean in g
difficu lt , es pecially if a pon d h as developed.
Table 6-20. Discharge capacity of square grate inlets
Drainage 6-91
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE
SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE CRITERIA
Wh en s u r fa ce fa ilu r es pr ove t h a t n a t u r a l
s u bs u r face dr ain age is in adequ at e, it be-
comes n eces s a r y t o det er min e if a s u bs u r -
face dr ain age s ys t em is n eeded, an d if s o,
wh a t t ype t o in s t a ll. Gen er a lly, s u bs u r fa ce
dr ain age may be divided in t o t h r ee clas s es :
bas e dr ain age s u bgr ade dr ain age, an d in t er -
cept in g dr ain age.
Bas e drainage gen er ally con s is t s of s u bs u r -
face dr ain pipes laid par allel an d adjacen t t o
pa vemen t edges wit h per viou s ma t er ia l join -
in g t h e bas e an d t h e dr ain . Figu r e 6-59
s h ows a t ypica l s ect ion of ba s e dr a in a ge.
Ba s e dr a in a ge is r equ ir ed wh er e fr os t a ct ion
occu r s in t h e s u bgr ade ben eat h t h e pave-
men t a n d wh er e gr ou n d wa t er r is es t o t h e
bot t om of t h e ba s e cou r s e t h r ou gh n a t u r a l
con dit ion s or fr om pon din g of s u r fa ce
r u n off. Wh er e pa vemen t becomes t emper -
ar ily in u n dat ed an d t h er e is lit t le pos s ibilit y
t h a t t h e wa t er will dr a in fr om t h e ba s e in t o
t h e s u bgr ade bas e dr ain age will be r e-
qu ir ed. Table 6-21, page 6-94, es t ablis h es
t h e cr it er ia t o follow in t h es e ca s es .
Ba s e dr a in a ge is a ls o r equ ir ed a t t h e low
poin t of lon git u din al gr ades in exces s of 2
per cen t wh er e t h e s u bgr ade coefficien t of
per meabilit y is les s t h an 1 x 10
-3
f p m . Th e
coefficien t of per mea bilit y, a pr oper t y of
each s oil t ype, is defin ed as t h e dis ch ar ge
velocit y a t a u n it h ydr a u lic gr a dien t . Det er -
min e t h e coefficien t of per meabilit y exper i-
men t a lly, eit h er by la bor a t or y t es t or by a n
act u al field t es t of t h e s oil in volved. Th e
coefficien t is expr es s ed in u n it s of velocit y
s u ch as fpm or cen t imet er s per s econ d
(cm/ s ee). Bas e dr ain age is r equ ir ed if t h e
s u bgr ade coefficien t of per meabilit y is
s ma ller t h a n t h e coefficien t of per mea bilit y
in dicat ed in Table 6-22, page 6-94.
Subgrade drainage is r equ ir ed for per -
ma n en t con s t r u ct ion wh en s ea s on a l flu ct u a -
t ion s of gr ou n dwa ler ma y be expect ed t o
r is e t o les s t h a n 1 foot below t h e bot t om of
t h e cou r s e. Figu r e 6-60, page 6-95, s h ows
a t ypica l exa mple of a s u bgr a de dr a in a ge
s ect ion . Figu r e 6-61, page 6-96, will s er ve
as a gu ide for s pacin g dr ain s . Th es e
dr a in s , a lt h ou gh s imila r t o ba s e dr a in s ,
h a ve a la r ger a r ea of filt er ma t er ia l in con -
t a ct wit h t h e s u bgr a de.
Intercepting drainage is r equ ir ed wh en
wat er s eepin g in t o a per viou s layer will
r a is e t h e gr ou n dwa t er loca lly t o a dept h of
les s t h a n 1 foot below t h e bot t om of t h e
bas e cou r s e. Th is con dit ion is oft en en -
cou n t er ed in t h in , per viou s s oil layer s ; in ex-
pos ed r ock cu t s ; or in s eepage fr om
s pr in gs . A t ypical in t er cept in g dr ain age s ec-
t ion is s h own in Figu r e 6-62, page 6-97.
SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE TECHNIQUES
Su bs u r fa ce wa t er ca n be con t r olled t h r ou gh
a combin a t ion of t ech n iqu es . Th e t ech n i-
qu es a n d combin a t ion s depen d on t h e
con dit ion s exis t in g in t h e a r ea t o be
dr ain ed. Th e t ech n iqu es t h a t follow s h ou ld
be con s ider ed wh en plan n in g an d des ign in g
s u bs u r face dr ain age.
De pt h of Ba s e Cou r s e
Th e bas e cou r s e may be bu ilt u p t o a s peci-
fied dept h a bove t h e gr ou n dwa t er t a ble.
Gen er a lly, t h e fin is h ed gr a de mu s t be a t
lea s t 5 feet a bove t h e mea n gr ou n dwa t er
t able level. Th is t ech n iqu e is feas ible
wh en
A gr a vit y dr a in a ge s ys t em is impr a ct ica l.
Th e con dit ion t o be con t r olled is limit ed
t o a s ma ll a r ea s u ch a s a n a r r ow s wa mp
cr os s in g.
Adequ a t e ba s e-cou r s e ma t er ia l is a va il-
able.
De e p Di t c h
Wh er e dit ch es will n ot in t er fer e wit h oper a-
t ion s or become a h a za r d t o t r a ffic, deep V-
dit ch es wit h fr ee ou t fall may be feas ible.
Eas ily bu ilt an d r eadily en lar ged, t h es e
dit ch es pr ovide pos it ive in t er cept ion an d
6-92 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 6-59. Typical base drainage installations
dr a in a ge of s u bs u r fa ce wa t er befor e it
r ea ch es t h e a r ea t o be pr ot ect ed. Er os ion ,
ma in t en a n ce, t r a ffic, a n d r igh t -of-wa y a r e
fact or s t o be con s ider ed befor e u s in g t h is
s olu t ion ,
Na t u r a l Dr a i n a ge Ch a n n e ls
Wh er e pos s ible an d pr act ical, wat er in exis t -
in g n a t u r a l dr a in a ge ch a n n els s h ou ld be
lower ed wh en cor r es pon din g effect ive
lower in g of t h e gr ou n dwa t er t a ble will
occu r . Th is t ech n iqu e ma y be pa r t icu la r ly
effect ive in per viou s s oil.
Drainage 6-93
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-801 3, Vol 1
Table 6-21. Base drainage criteria for K
Bli n d Dr a i n s
Blin d or French dr a in s a r e con s t r u ct ed by
fillin g a dit ch or t r en ch wit h br oken or
cr u s h ed r ock. Th e t op s u r fa ce of t h e r ock
ma y be left expos ed s o t h a t t h e t r en ch will
a ct a s a combin a t ion s u r fa ce a n d s u bs u r -
face dr ain , or t h e r ock may be cover ed by a
r ela t ively imper viou s s oil s o t h a t n o s u r fa ce
wa t er ca n pen et r a t e. Th e la t t er is t h e
gen er al pr act ice. In gen er al, Fr en ch dr ain s
a r e n ot r ecommen ded for per ma n en t con -
s t r u ct ion beca u s e t h ey t en d t o s ilt u p over
t ime, In TO con s t r u ct ion ,
oft en u s ed a s a s u bs t it u t e
open -join t pipe or on filt er
wit h s u ch pipin g.
t h es e dr ain s ar e
for per for a t ed or
ma t er ia ls u s ed
Su bs u r fa c e Pi pe
In ca s es wh er e a V-t ype or ot h er open -dit ch
t ype dr a in a ge s ys t em is n ot pr a ct ica l, it
ma y be n eces s a r y t o r es or t t o con s t r u ct ion
of s u bs u r face dr ain age. Failu r e of t h e s u b-
s u r fa ce s ys t em s t emmin g fr om impr oper
con t r ol of t h e gr ade, t h e beddin g, t h e pipe
pla cemen t , t h e pla cemen t of filt er ma t er ia l,
or ot h er in s t a lla t ion wor k gives n o wa r n in g
pr ior t o fa ilu r e. Su ch fa ilu r e is ext r emely
difficu lt t o r epair wh en dis cover ed.
Th e mos t common for m of s u bs u r fa ce dr a in -
age is per for at ed pipe. Wh er e t h e per for a-
t ion s do n ot ext en d complet ely a r ou n d t h e
cir cu mfer en ce of t h e pipe, t h e pipe is gen er -
a lly la id wit h t h e h oles down a n d t h e join t s
clos ed. Ma t er ia ls u s ed in ma n u fa ct u r in g
t h is t ype of pipe a r c cor r u ga t ed met a l, ca s t
ir on , vit r ified clay, n on r ein for ced con cr et e,
bit u min ized fiber , a n d a s bes t os cemen t .
Bell an d s pigot pipes can be laid wit h open
join t s . If t h e filt er ma t er ia l h a s been pr oper -
ly des ign ed, collar s ar e n ot n eeded over t h e
join t s . Th is t ype of pipe is gen er ally made
of vit r ified clay, n on r ein for ced con cr et e, or
ca s t ir on .
Table 6-22. Drainage characteristics of soil
6-94 Drainage
Figure 6-60. Typical subgrade drainage installation
Por ou s con cr et e pipe is laid wit h clos ed
join t s . It collect s wa t er by s eepa ge t h r ou gh
t h e wall of t h e pipe an d s h ou ld n ot be u s ed
wh er e s u lfa t ed wa t er s ma y ca u s e dis in t egr a -
t ion of t h e con cr et e.
Fa r m t ile is la id wit h bu t t join t s s ligh t ly
s epa r a t ed t o per mit collect ion of wa t er
t h r ou gh t h e join t . Becau s e of it s low r es is -
t a n ce t o h igh -impa ct loa ds , fa r m t ile is n ot
r ecommen ded for u s e on air fields .
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Ma t er ia ls common ly u s ed in ma n u fa ct u r in g
fa r m t ile a r e cla y or con cr et e.
Combin a t ion Dr a in a ge Sys t e m
Combin a t ion dr a in s , wh ich a t t empt t o h a n d-
le bot h s u r fa ce r u n off a n d s u bs u r fa ce wa t er
in t h e s a me pipe s ys t em, a r e r ecommen ded.
Su r fa ce r u n off oft en ca r r ies s edimen t a n d
s oil fr om t h e dr a in ed a r ea in t o t h e s ys t em.
Th is clogs t h e s ys t em an d cau s es flow s t op-
pa ge. For t h is r ea s on , s u bs u r fa ce dr a in a ge
s ys t ems u s in g s ome for m of pipin g a r e
Drainage 6-95
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-80133 Vol 1
Figure 6-61. Types of subsurface drainage
gen er a lly s ea led s o t h a t s u r fa ce r u n off ca n -
PIPE-LAYING CRITERIA
n ot en t er . Th e on ly dr a in a ge s ys t em wh ich
will s a t is fa ct or ily h a n dle bot h s u r fa ce
Th er e ar e es s en t ially fou r differ en t t ypes of
r u n off a n d s u bs u r fa ce wa t er is t h e open
pipe available for s u bs u r face dr ain age, as
ch a n n el or dit ch .
pr eviou s ly men t ion ed. Th ey s h ou ld be laid
accor din g t o t h e followin g s pecificat ion s :
6-96 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 6-62. Typical intercepting drainage installations
Th e min imu m s lope for s u bdr a in a ge
pipe is a 0.15-foot dr op in elevat ion per
100 feet of len gt h , Th e elevat ion of a
pipe a t a n y pa r t icu la r loca t ion is gen er -
ally s pecified by t h e in ver t elevat ion , in
wh ich t h e in ver t is defin ed as t h e lowes t
poin t in t h e in t er n a l cr os s s ect ion of t h e
pipe a t t h e pa r t icu la r loca t ion .
Man h oles s h ou ld be pr ovided at in t er -
va ls of n ot mor e t h a n 1,000 feet , wit h
flu s h in g r is er s bet ween man h oles an d
at dead en ds as s h own in Figu r e 6-60,
page 6-95.
Pipe s h ou ld be at leas t 6 in ch es in dia-
met er wit h 6-in ch pipe bein g u s ed for
all dr ain s . Wit h lon g in t er cept in g lin es
Drainage 6-97
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
or ext r emely s ever e gr ou n dwa t er con di-
t ion s , 8-in ch or lar ger pipe may be
n eces s ar y.
Th e cen t er of s u bgr ade dr ain s s h ou ld be
loca t ed a t lea s t 1 foot below t h e bot t om
of t h e ba s e cou r s e a n d n ot les s t h a n 1
foot below t h e gr ou n dwa t er t a ble. Nor -
mally, s u bgr ade dr ain s ar e r equ ir ed
on ly a t t h e edges of pa vemen t a r ea s
wh er e t h e s oil is per viou s an d dr ain s
well. However , local gr ou n dwat er con di-
t ion s an d bas e an d s u bgr ade s oil ch ar -
a ct er is t ics ma y r equ ir e clos er s pa cin g of
t h e dr ain s , Wh en t h e dr ain dis ch ar ges
in t o a cu lver t or a n y con s ider a bly la r ger
pipe, it s h ou ld dis ch ar ge above t h e
wat er level in t h e lar ger pipe. Wh en t h e
dr ain dis ch ar ges in t o a pipe of equ al or
on ly s ligh t ly lar ger s ize, it is gen er ally
bet t er 10 br in g t h e dr ain in above t h e
r eceivin g dr ain an d make a ver t ical con -
n ect ion bet ween t h e t wo. Th is will pr e -
ven t t h e wa t er fr om ba ckin g u p in t h e
dr ain age pipe s in ce t h es e pipes r ar ely
flow fu ll
Wh en t h e imper viou s la yer is a t a
r eas on able dept h , in t er cept in g dr ain s
s h ou ld bwe placed in t h e imper viou s
layer below t h e in t er cept ed s eepage
s t r a t u m. Th e qu a n t it y of wa t er col-
lect ed by an in t er cept in g dr ain is dif-
ficu lt t o det er min e, bu t in gen er a l, 6-
in ch pipe is s u fficien t for len gt h s u p
1,000 feet .
VERTICAL WELLS
Ver t ica l wells a r c s omet imes con s t r u ct ed
a llow t r a pped s u bs u r fa ce wa t er t o pa s s
t h r ou gh a n imper viou s s oil or r ock la yer
t o
t o
t o
a lower , fr eely dr ain in g s oil layer . If dr ain -
age is obs t r u ct ed, addit ion al wells ar e bu ilt
or t h e pocket is dr ain ed wit h an eas ily
ma in t a in ed la t er a l s u bdr a in s ys t em. Ver t i-
cal wells S a r e oft en u s ed in n or t h er n la t i-
t u des wh er e deep fr eezin g is common .
Th ey per mit fa s t r u n off fr om melt in g s n ow
t o get t h r ou gh t h e fr ozen s oil a n d r ea ch a
per viou s s t r a t u m. Un der s u ch con dit ion s ,
t h e bot t oms of t h es e wells a r e t r ea t ed wit h
ca lciu m ch lor ide or a la yer of h a y t o
pr even t fr eezin g.
FILTER MATERIAL
A la yer of filt er ma t er ia l a ppr oxima t ely 6
in ch es deep s h ou ld be placed ar ou n d all
s u bs u r face pipin g s ys t ems . Th e s elect ion of
t h e pr oper filt er ma t er ia l is ver y impor t a n t
s in ce it det er min es , t o a gr ea t ext en t , t h e
s u cces s or fa ilu r e of t h e dr a in a ge s ys t em.
Th e impr oper s elect ion of filt er ma t er ia l ca n
ca u s e t h e dr a in a ge s ys t em t o become in -
oper a t ive in on e of t h r ee wa ys :
Th e pipe may become clogged t h r ou gh
in filt r a t ion of s ma ll s oil pa r t icles .
Pa r t icles in t h e pr ot ect ed s oil ma y move
in t o or t h r ou gh t h e filt er s , ca u s in g in -
s t a bilit y of t h e s u r fa ce.
Fr ee gr ou n dwa t er ma y n ot be a ble t o
r each t h e pipe.
Cr it er ia h ave been developed, bas ed u pon
t h e mech an ical-an alys is s oil cu r ve, t o pr e-
ven t t h e a bove fa ilu r es .
A gr ea t dea l ca n be lea r n ed a bou t gr a da t ion
ch ar act er is t ics of a par t icu lar s oil by obs er v-
in g t h e s oil cu r ves on t h e mech a n ica l
an alys is ch ar t . Well-gr aded s oils gen er ally
h a ve a s moot h , gr a in -s ize cu r ve wit h gr a d-
u al ch an ges of s lope. Poor ly-gr aded, u n i-
for m s oils gen er ally h ave a ver y s t eep gr ain -
s ize cu r ve. Skip-gr aded s oils h ave a gr ain -
s ize cu r ve wit h a ch a r a ct er is t ic h u mp in it .
Th e filt er mat er ial in s kip-gr aded s oil t en ds
t o s egr ega t e du r in g pla cemen t . Th e gr a in -
s ize cu r ves in Figu r e 6-63 s h ow var iou s
gr a da t ion ch a r a ct er is t ics .
A coefficien t of u n ifor mit y, va lu e of les s
t h an 20 is des ir able t o pr even t s egr egat ion
of coar s e an d fin e-gr ain par t icles , es pecially
du r in g pla cemen t . For t h e s a me r ea s on ,
s kip-gr aded mat er ial s h ou ld n ot be u s ed.
Pla cin g t h e filt er ma t er ia l wh ile it is wet
can r edu ce s egr egat ion .
Filt er ma t er ia l ca n clog a pipe by movin g
t h r ou gh t h e per for a t ion s or open in gs .
6-98 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 6-63. Mechanical analysis curves for filter material
Pr even t t h is by u s in g t h e followin g s pecifica-
t ion s :
For a slotted opening
For a cir cu la r h ole
Use the following methods to prevent par-
ticles from the protected soil from moving
into or through the filter or filters:
and
To per mit fr ee wa t er t o r ea ch t h e pipe, t h e
filt er ma t er ia l mu s t be ma n y t imes mor e
per viou s t h an t h e pr ot ect ed s oil. Th is con -
dit ion is fu lfilled wh en
If it is n ot pos s ible t o s ecu r e a mech a n ica l
a n a lys is of a va ila ble filt er ma t er ia ls a n d
pr ot ect ed s oil, con cr et e s a n d wit h mech a n i-
cal-an alys is limit s as s h own in Figu r e 6-63
may be u s ed. Exper ien ce h as in dicat ed
t h a t a well-gr a ded con cr et e s a n d is s a t is fa c-
t or y a s a filt er ma t er ia l in mos t s a n dy, s ilt y
s oils .
Drainage 6-99
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
STEPS IN FILTER DESIGN
Obt a in a mech a n ica l a n a lys is of ea ch s a n dy
s oil fr om s ever al r eadily available s ou r ces .
Obt a in a mech a n ica l a n a lys is of t h e s u b-
gr a de s oil (pr ot ect ed s oil) a t t h e bot t om of
t h e t r en ch wh ich will be in con t a ct wit h t h e
filt er ma t er ia l.
Plot t h e mech a n ica l a n a lys is of ea ch s oil on
s emiloga r it h m pa per a n d dr a w a cu r ve for
each s oil.
Fr om t h e mech a n ica l-a n a lys is cu r ve for
ea ch s oil, det er min e t h e dia met er , in mil-
limet er s (mm), of t h e pa r t icle of ea ch
s ample. Ten per cen t of t h es e par t icles ar e
fin er (by weigh t ) Th e s u bs cr ipt 10
in dica t es t h e per cen t a ge, by weigh t , of t h e
s oil s ample wh ich is fin er (s maller in
dia met er ) t h a n t h e pa r t icle in size
Simila r ly, det er min e t h e a n d
par t icle s ize for each s oil.
Det er min e t h e s lot widt h or h ole dia met er ,
in millimet er s , of t h e t ype of pipe t o be
u s ed.
Ch eck t h e coefficien t of u n ifor mit y, CU, t o
en s u r e
Ch eck t h e des ign cr it er ia for cloggin g of
pipe open in gs t o en s u r e
(1)
(2)
Ch eck t h e des ign cr it er ia for movemen t of
par t icles fr om t h e pr ot ect ed s oil (s u bgr ade)
t h r ou gh t h e filt er ma t er ia l t o en s u r e
(1)
(2)
Ch eck t h e des ign cr it er ia for r elat ive per -
viou s n es s t o en s u r e
Select t h a t filt er ma t er ia l wh ich bes t meet s
t h e a bove cr it er ia .
In s t all pipe t o gr ade, bedded an d s u r -
r ou n ded wit h t h e s elect ed filt er ma t er ia l a s
s h own in Figu r e 6-58, 6-59, or 6-60, pages
6-91, 6-93, an d 6-95, r es pect ively.
SELECTING FILTER MATERIALS
Filt er ma t er ia l s h ou ld be s elect ed wit h a
view t owa r d t h e s imples t con s t r u ct ion a n d
t h e lowes t cos t . To fu r t h er t h is en d, t r y t o
u s e on ly on e layer . If s ever al layer s of filt er
ma t er ia l a r e r equ ir ed, on e la yer s h ou ld be
con fin ed t o t h e r egion ar ou n d t h e pipe open -
in gs an d an ot h er layer placed bet ween it
a n d t h e pr ot ect ed s oil, a s s h own in Figu r e
6-59, page 6-93. In t h is cas e, t h e des ign er
s elect s a filt er ma t er ia l for u s e a r ou n d t h e
pipe accor din g t o t h e filt er des ign for mu las .
Th e s econ d filt er mat er ial is t h en des ign ed
t o pr ot ect bot h t h e in n er filt er ma t er ia l a n d
t h e s u r r ou n din g s oils . In ot h er wor ds , t h e
des ign of a mu lt ila yer filt er for a s u bdr a in
s ys t em s h ou ld pr oceed ou t wa r d fr om t h e in -
s ide filt er ma t er ia l t o t h e s u bgr a de s oil
bein g pr ot ect ed.
Exa mple (Select in g Filt er Ma t er ia l):
A s u it a ble filt er ma t er ia l mu s t be s elect ed
for a 6-in ch pipe wit h 1/ 4-in ch diamet er
per for a t ion s t o pr ot ect a s u bgr a de s oil wit h
an E cu r ve (s h own in Figu r e 6-63, page
6-99). Th e s oils r epr es en t ed by cu r ves A
an d B ar e r eadily available fr om local bor -
r ow pit s .
Ta bu la t e da t a fr om t h e mech a n ica l-a n a lys is
cu r ves .
6-100 Drainage
Ch eck t h e coefficien t of u n ifor mit y of bot h
s oils .
Soil A
Soil B
Th u s , bot h s oils A a n d B s a t is fy t h e r equ ir e
men t t h a t t h e coefficien t of u n ifor mit y be
les s t h an 20.
Apply des ign cr it er ia t o s oil A,
Sh ou ld be 5 t o
pr even t movemen t
s u bgr ade s oils
t h r ou gh t h e filt er .
2. 2
0.09
= 2 4 . 4 wh ich is n ot < 5.
Soil A is u n s u it a ble beca u s e movemen t of
of
t h e s u bgr a de s oil t h r ou gh t h e filt er ma t er ia l
is pos s ible.
Apply des ign cr it er ia t o
(filt er )
(pr ot ect ed s oil)
s oil B.
Sh ou ld be 5 t o
pr even t movemen t of
s u bgr ade s oils
wh ich is < 5.
(filt er ) Sh ou ld be 25 t o
(pr ot ect ed s oil) pr even t movemen t of
s u bgr ade s oils
1.0
0 0 4 2
=
2 3 . 8
wh ich is < 25.
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Sh ou ld be 5 t o
per mit wa t er move-
men t t h r ou gh t h e
filt er .
0.30
0 . 0 1
= 30 wh ich is > 5.
Sh ou ld be > 1.0
t o pr even t cloggin g
of t h e pipe.
Not e t h a t t h e s oil pa r t icle s ize is u s u a lly
given in millimet er s , wh ile t h e h ole s ize is
u s u ally given in in ch es . Th e t wo dimen -
s ion s mu s t be expr es s ed in compat ible
u n it s befor e t h e pr ecedin g for mu la is u s ed.
To ma ke t h is con ver s ion , mu lt iply t h e s ize
of t h e pipe per for at ion s , in in ch es , by 25.4
wh ich r epr es en t s t h e n u mber of millimet er s
per in ch . For example, wit h s oil B u n der
dis cu s s ion
wh ich is > 1.0.
Th u s , s oil B s at is fies all t h e cr it er ia for a
good filt er ma t er ia l wh ile s oil A dot s n ot .
INSTALLATION OF A SUBDRAINAGE
SYSTEM
Th e mos t efficien t a n d mos t pr a ct ica l t ype
of s u bdr ain age s ys t em is on e wh ich ade-
qu a t ely per for ms t h e oper a t ion s for wh ich it
was in t en ded an d, in addit ion , was in s t alled
wit h t h e ca r e a n d s kill con s is t en t wit h it s
pu r pos e. An y a t t empt t o lower t h e qu a lit y
of con s t r u ct ion or t o u s c a s ket ch y or in a de-
qu a t e s u bdr a in a ge s ys t em ca n r es u lt in dis -
a s t r ou s fa ilu r es . Con ver s ely, a n y a t t empt
t o in s t a ll a n ela bor a t e s ys t em of u n der -
gr ou n d pipin g wh er e a s imple V dit ch
wou ld s er ve as well is in advis able.
Drainage 6-101
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
SECTION IV. SURFACE DRAINAGE DESIGN IN ARCTIC AND
SUBARCTIC REGIONS
APPLICABILITY
Th is s ect ion dis cu s s es t h e pr oblems in -
volved in t h e des ign of dr ain age facilit ies in
ar ct ic an d s u bar ct ic r egion s . Wh ile t h e
des ign dat a pr es en t ed h as been developed
pr ima r ily for Ala s ka , t h e met h ods u s ed a r e
gen er ally applicable t o ot h er ar ct ic an d s u b-
a r ct ic r egion s .
Ar c t i c
Ar ct ic is defin ed as t h e n or t h er n r egion
wh ich t h e mea n t emper a t u r e for t h e
wa r mes t mon t h is 50 Fa h r en h eit (F) or
les s , a n d t h e mea n a n n u a l t emper a t u r e
in
i s
below 32 F. In gen er al, t h e ar ct ic coin -
cides wit h t h e t u n dr a r egion n or t h of t h e
limit s of t r ees .
Su ba r c t i c
Su bar ct ic is defin ed as t h e r egion adjacen t
t o t h e a r ct ic wh er e t h e mea n t emper a t u r e is
32 F or below for t h e coldes t mon t h a n d
50 F or a bove for t h e wa r mes t mon t h , a n d
wh er e les s t h a n fou r mon t h s h a ve a mea n
t emper a t u r e a bove 50 F. In gen er a l, t h e
subarctic coincides with the circumpolar
belt of dominant coniferous forests.
HYDRAULIC CRITERIA FOR COLD
CLIMATES
Ra i n fa l l
A s t u dy of r a in fa ll in t en s it y-fr equ en cy da t a
r ecor ded a t a r ct ic s t a t ion s in dica t es a con -
s ider able var ian ce bet ween t h e aver age in -
t en s it y of r a in fa ll for a per iod of on e h ou r
a n d t h e a ver a ge pr ecipit a t ion r a t es of com-
pa r a ble fr equ en cy for a du r a t ion of les s
t h an on e h ou r . Th is is eviden ced wh en
compa r ed wit h s imila r r a in fa ll in t h e con -
t in en t a l Un it ed St a t es (CONUS). Even
wit h in t h e a r ea of Ala s ka , t h er e wa s a
n ot iceable differ en ce bet ween t h e r ain s at
J u n ea u a n d t h os e a t Fa ir ba n ks . Th e
h igh er va lu es for r a in fa ll in t en s it y wer e
u s ed t o develop des ign in t en s it y-du r at ion
(s u pply) cu r ves , wh ich ar e s h own in Figu r e
6-64, For des ign pu r pos es , a min imu m
r a in fa ll r a t e of 0.2 in / h r is r ecommen ded,
even wh er e maps of in t en s it y-fr equ en cy
Figure 6-64.
6-102 Drainage
Intensity-duration curves, arctic and subarctic
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Des ign-s torm ind ex. On e-h ou r r a in fa ll in t en -
s it ies h avin g var iou s aver age fr equ en cies of
occu r r en ce in t h e a r ct ic a n d s u ba r ct ic
r egion s of Ala s ka a r e s h own on ma ps in Fig-
u r e 6-65, page 6-104. Th is figu r e, on
wh ich r ain fall dept h cu r ves ar e s u per im-
pos ed, is kn own as a des ign -s t or m in dex.
Th e cu r ves ar e labeled by t h e on e-h ou r
a mou n t s of r a in fa ll t h a t a r e r epr es en t ed;
t h es e, in t u r n , a r e coor din a t ed wit h t h e in -
t en s it y-du r at ion or s u pply cu r ves of Figu r e
6-12, page 6-17, Figu r es 6-64 an d 6-65,
u s ed in combin a t ion , pr ovide a mea n s
wh er eby r ain fall in t en s it ies s u fficien t ly ac-
cu r a t e for r u n off compu t a t ion s for a n y du r a -
t ion ma y r ea dily be det er min ed.
Elevaton and phy s iographic orientation.
Pr es en t in for ma t ion is in s u fficien t t o es t a b-
lis h qu a n t it a t ive con clu s ion s of t h e effect s
of eleva t ion a n d ph ys iogr a ph ic or ien t a t ion
for a ll loca t ion s . At t h e t ime a s it e is
u n der in ves t iga t ion , it wou ld be h elpfu l t o
obt a in even a s h or t r ecor d of r a in fa ll t h er e.
Su ch a r ecor d ma y be compa r ed wit h t h e
con cu r r en t por t ion of a n ea r by lon g r ecor d
an d pr oper fr equ en cy valu es as s ign ed t o
even t s in t h e s h or t r ecor d, For exa mple, a
t empor a r y ga ge migh t h a ve a ma ximu m
h ou r ly va lu e of 0.60 in ch s ome s u mmer ,
a n d t h e s a me s t or m migh t pr odu ce t h e
s u mmer s ma ximu m h ou r ly va lu e of 0.40 a t
a n ea r by lon g-r ecor d s t a t ion . Simila r com-
pa r is on of ot h er s t or ms for t h e br ief pa r a llel
r ecor d migh t con fir m t h e r a t io of 6 t o 4 a s
an expr es s ion of t h e differ en ce in t h e or ien -
t a t ion , expos u r e, a n d eleva t ion of t h e t wo
s t a t ion s . Th is r at io cou ld t h en be applied
t o t h e kn own 2-yea r , 1-h ou r va lu e of t h e
lon g-r ecor d s t a t ion t o get t h e es t ima t ed
2-year , 1-h ou r valu e for t h e s h or t -r ecor d
s t a t ion , If t h e lon g-r ecor d s t a t ion h a s a
2-yea r , 1-h ou r va lu e for t h e con s t r u ct ion
s it e, it wou ld be 6/ 4 of 0.5 or 0.75. Ar r an -
gemen t s u s u a lly ca n be ma de for bor r owt n g
a r a in ga u ge for t empor a r y u s e fr om t h e
met eor ologica l a gen cy of t h e a r ea in wh ich
t h e pr oject is t o be loca t ed.
In fi lt r a t i on
In per ma fr os t a r ea s , in filt r a t ion for des ign
pu r pos es s h ou ld be con s ider ed zer o. In
ot h er a r ea s , a good gu ide ma y be obt a in ed
wh en t es t bor in gs a r e ma de, Va lu es n or ma l-
ly wou ld n ot exceed abou t 0.5 in ch per
h ou r for coa r s e s a n ds a n d gr a vels a n d
wou ld be as low as 0.1 in ch per h ou r for
clayey s oils wit h low per meabilit y.
STORM-DRAIN DESIGN
Th e t ype a n d ca pa cit y of s t or m-dr a in
facilit ies r equ ir ed ar e det er min ed pr imar ily
by t h e pr ompt n es s wit h wh ich des ign -s t or m
r u n off mu s t be r emoved in or der t o a void
s er iou s in t er r u pt ion or h a za r d in t h e u s e of
impor t a n t oper a t ion a l a r ea s a s well a s
pr even t s er iou s da ma ge t o pa vemen t s u b-
gr a des . It is pr es u med t h a t a ll ph a s es of
s it e r econ n ais s an ce h ave been car efu lly com-
plet ed a n d t h a t in for ma t ion is a va ila ble
wh ich s h ows t opogr a ph y, n a t u r a l dr a in a ge
pa t t er n s , gr ou n dwa t er con dit ion s , a n d
s ea s on a l fr os t a n d per ma fr os t levels .
Ba s ic Con s ide r a t ion s
Even t h ou gh r a in fa ll ma gn it u des a r e s ma ll
in ar ct ic an d s u bar ct ic r egion s , dr ain age is
a n impor t a n t fa ct or in s elect in g a n a ir field
s it e a n d pla n n in g t h e con s t r u ct ion . Th e
plan n er s h ou ld be awar e of s ever al feat u r es
r ela t ed t o dr a in a ge in or der t o en s u r e a s u c-
ces s fu l des ign . Th es e feat u r es in clu de t h e
followin g:
Sit es s h ou ld be s elect ed in ar eas wh er e
cu t s or t h e pla cemen t of ba s e-cou r s e
fills will n ot in t er cept or block obviou s
exis t in g n a t u r a l dr a in a ge wa ys ,
Ar ea s wit h fin e-t ext u r ed, fr os t -s u s cep-
t ible s oils s h ou ld be avoided, if pos s ible,
In a r ct ic a n d s u ba r ct ic r egion s , mos t
s oils a r e of s in gle-gr a in s t r u ct u r e wit h a
ver y s mall per cen t age of clay. As a con -
s equ en ce, coh es ive for ces bet ween gr ain
pa r t icles a r e ver y s ma ll a n d t h e ma t er ia l
er odes eas ily. Fr ozen , fin e-t ext u r ed s oil
pr ofiles ma y a ls o con t a in la r ge a mou n t s
of ice len s es an d wedges .
If t h e u pper s u r fa ce of t h e per ma fr os t
layer is deep an d if pr ovis ion s ar e made
for lower t emper a t u r es , des ign fea t u r es
of a dr a in a ge s ys t em ma y be s imila r t o
Drainage 6-103
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
NOTES:
1. Observation of rainfall at National Weather Service stations provides the basic data for this figure. These
stations are not located in the more elevated regions; consequently, wide deviations from the charted values may
exist at altitudes above 2,500 feet.
2. The influence of local topographic characteristics should be taken into account and evaluated at the time of
drainage design.
3. The lines of equal half-hour rainfall magnitudes correspond to the intensity-duration curves shown in Figure 6-64.
4. The once-in-50-years amount can be estimated by multiplying the once-in-2-years amount by the factor 2.2
Figure 6-65. Design-storm index for Alaska
6-104 Drainage
............ ". ' ... " ........... ' ......... ':.:::.:'.:.:.' ..
Once In 2 years Once In 5 years
Once In 10 years
Once In 20 years
Legend
Approximate southern limit of the Arctic
Approximate southern limit of the permafrost
Approximate southern limit of area covered
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
t h os e u s ed in fr os t r egion s of t h e Un it ed
St a t es .
Th e flow of wa t er in a dr a in a ge ch a n n el
h a s a n a cceler a t in g effect on t h e t h a w-
in g of fr ozen gr ou n d. Th is ma y ca u s e
t h e s u r fa ce of t h e per ma fr os t t o dip con -
s ider a bly ben ea t h s t r ea ms or ch a n n els
wh ich con vey wa t er . Ba n k s lou gh in g
an d s ign ifican t ch an ges in ch an n el
gr ades become pr omin en t . Slou gh in g is
oft en man ifes t ed by wide cr acks par allel-
in g t h e dit ch es . For t h is r ea s on ,
dr ain age dit ch es s h ou ld be locat ed as
fa r a s pr a ct ica ble fr om r u n wa y a n d r oa d
s h ou lder s .
In ma n y s u ba r ct ic r egion s , fr eein g
dr ain age ch an n els of dr ift ed s n ow be-
comes a s ign ifican t t as k befor e br eaku p
each s pr in g. In t h es e ar eas , it is ad-
va n t a geou s t o h a ve dit ch s h a pes a n d
s lopes s u fficien t ly wide an d flat t o ac-
commoda t e h ea vy s n ow-movin g equ ip-
men t . In ot h er loca t ion s wh er e flow com
t in u es year r ou n d, n ar r ow, deep dit ch es
ar e pr efer able t o avoid icin gs .
Lar ge, cu t s ect ion s s h ou ld be avoided in
pla n n in g t h e dr a in a ge la you t . Th a wed
zon es or wa t er -bea r in g s t r a t a ma y be en
cou n t er ed a n d la t er ca u s e s er iou s
icin gs . Veget a t ive cover in per ma fr os t
ar eas s h ou ld be pr es er ved t o t h e maxi-
mu m degr ee pr act icable. Wh er e dis -
t u r bed, it s h ou ld be r es t or ed as s oon as
con s t r u ct ion per mit s ,
In let s t o clos ed con du it s a r e common ly
s ealed befor e fr eeze-u p an d open ed
pr ior t o br eaku p each s pr in g.
Fin e-gr ain ed s oils immediat ely above a
r ecedin g fr os t zon e a r c ver y u n s t a ble.
Con s equ en t ly mu ch s lidin g an d cavin g
is t o be expect ed on u n pr ot ect ed dit ch
s ide s lopes in s u ch s oils .
Loca t in g dit ch es over a r ea s wh er e per -
mafr os t lies on a s t eep s lope s h ou ld be
avoided if pos s ible. Slides may occu r
beca u s e of t h a win g a n d con s equ en t wet -
t in g of t h e s oil a t t h e in t er fa ce bet ween
fr ozen a n d u n fr ozen gr ou n d.
Ma in t en a n ce equ ipmen t for dr a in a ge
facilit ies s h ou ld in clu de h eavy s n ow-
r emovin g a ppa r a t u s a n d a s t ea m boiler
wit h a cces s or ies for s t ea m t h a win g of
s t r u ct u r es wh ich h ave become clogged
wit h ice. Pipes for t h is pu r pos e ar e
oft en fas t en ed in s ide t h e u pper por t ion s
of cu lver t s pr ior t o t h eir pla cemen t .
Gr a d i n g
Pr oper gr a din g is a ver y impor t a n t fa ct or
con t r ibu t in g t o t h e s u cces s of a dr a in a ge
s ys t em. Th e developmen t of gr adin g an d
dr ain age plan s mu s t be car efu lly coor din -
a t ed. In a r ct ic a n d s u ba r ct ic r egion s , it is
n eces s a r y t o elimin a t e s oft , s oggy a r ea s .
Te mpor a r y St or a ge
Tr u n k dr ain s an d lat er als s h ou ld h ave s u ffi-
cien t ca pa cit y t o a ccommoda t e t h e pr oject
des ign r u n off. Do n ot con s ider s u pplemen -
t ar y pen din g above t h e dr ain in let s in air -
field dr ain age des ign s for t h e ar ct ics an d
s u ba r ct ic. For mu la t e pla n s in s u fficien t
det a il t o a void floodin g even du r in g t h e t ime
of a ct u a l con s t r u ct ion .
ICINGS
An icing is an ir r egu lar s h eet or field of ice
wit h n o u n ifor mit y a s t o s h a pe, t h ickn es s ,
or s ize. All icin gs a r e s imila r wit h r ega r d
t o la min a t ed s t r u ct u r es , in dica t in g t h a t ir -
r es pect ive of s h ape, t h ickn es s , s ize, or
ca u s e, t h e a ct u a l pr oces s of for ma t ion is
t h e s a me. Th in films of wa t er t r a ver s e over
la yer s of ice or ot h er ma t er ia l a n d, wh en ex-
pos ed t o t h e cold a ir , fr eeze a n d for m t h e
fir s t or a n a ddit ion a l la yer of ice. As wa t er
flow con t in u es , t h e pr oces s is r epeat ed, an d
a n icin g wit h h or izon t a l la min a t ion s con -
t in u es t o gr ow u n t il eit h er t h e s ou r ce of
wa t er s u pply is deplet ed or wa r mer wea t h er
begin s .
Type s of Ic in gs
For t h e pu r pos e of an alys is , icin gs may be
divided in t o t h r ee gr ou ps , depen din g
on t h e n a t u r e of t h e s ou r ce of wa t er
Drainage
lar gely
6-105
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
s u pply For icin gs for med alon g r iver s or
s t r ea ms a n d a dja cen t a r ea s h a vin g a s ou r ce
of wa t er a bove or below t h e r iver bed, t h e
t er m r iver icing applies . If t h e s ou r ce is
Ir om gr ou n dwa t er flow a bove per ma fr os t ,
gr ou n d icin g is t h e t er m mos t common ly
u s ed Th is t er m s h ou ld n ot be con fu s ed
wit h gr ou n d ice. wh ich is oft en en cou n t er ed
in t h e a r ct ic a n d s u ba r ct ic a s depos it s in
fin e-gr ain cd s oils . Th e t er m s pring icing
s h ou ld be con fin ed t o wh en t h e s ou r ce of
wa t er is fr om s u bper ma fr os t levels or s u b-
per ma fr os t wa t er u n der h ydr os t a t ic pr es -
s u r e. Spr in g icin gs a r e common ly la r ge
an d t h ick. Hu ma n a ct ivit y ca n dis t u r b t h e
gr ou n d r egime s u fficien t ly t o ca u s e or a c-
celer a t e t h e for ma t ion of a ll t ypes of icin gs .
River icings . Mos t a r ct ic a n d s u ba r ct ic
s t r ea ms ca r r y la r ge loa ds of s edimen t wh ich
a r e n ot fed in t o t h e ch a n n els in u n ifor m
qu a n t it ies Con s equ en t ly, t h e r iver s a r e
qu it e wide a n d r ela t ively s h a llow. Ma n y
r iver s h ave a br aided pat t er n of s ever al
s ma ller s t r ea ms wit h in t h e con fin es of t h e
ma in ch a n n els . Th es e s t r ea ms fr equ en t ly
s h ift in t r a n s ver s e pos it ion a n d oft en do s o
du r in g on e per iod of h igh flow. Win t er flow
is or din ar ily ver y s mall an d s h allow. Fr eez-
in g pen et r a t es t o t h e bot t om of s h a llow
s t r ea ms qu it e r ea dily, bu t t h e r iver dis - -
ch a r ge con t in u es a s gr ou n dwa t er flow
ben ea t h t h e r iver bed. Beca u s e of t h er ma l
effect s of flowin g wa t er , t h e s oil below
s t r ea mbeds is u n fr ozen t o gr ea t er dept h s
t h a n s oil loca t ed els ewh er e Con s equ en t ly,
It h er e is a la r ge s pa ce for gr ou n dwa t er
s t or a ge a n d flow a bove t h e per ma fr os t a n d
below all r iver beds . Th e h ea d mot iva t in g
gr ou n d wa t er flow is or din a r ily qu it e la r ge
an d can r es u lt in lar ge pr es s u r es above s ec-
it ion s wh er e t h e gr ou n dwa t er flow is
r et ar ded.
Gr ou n dwa t er -flow r et a r da t ion is a n a t u r a l
pr oces s at man y r iver s ect ion s becau s e r iver
beds a r c n ot h omogen eou s in wa t er -ca r r y -
in g ca pa cit y. Fr eezin g of t h e wa t er r edu ces
ch a n n el a r ea a n d ca pa cit y in s ome s ect ion s
mor e t h a n in ot h er s . Th e for ma t ion of
a n ch or ice on t h e bot t om of t h e s t r ea mbed
r es u lt s in fu r h er con s t r ict ion of t h e ch a n -
n el cr os s -s ect ion a r ea . Th e wa t er t h en
fin ds aven u es of es cape t o t h e t op of t h e ice
via weak poin t s , cr acks , an d fis s u r es .
Her e, expos ed t o t h e cold a t mos ph er e, t h e
wat er qu ickly fr eezes in t h in s h eet s . Th is
act ion is pr ogr es s ive, an d icin g con t in u es t o
in cr eas e in t h ickn es s u n t il t h e s u pply of
wa t er is exh a u s t ed or fin ds a n ew ou t let , or
u n t il t h e begin n in g of wa r mer wea t h er . A
br idge ma y s h a de t h e s t r ea mbed a n d a ls o
pr even t t h e depos it ion of s n ow. Fr eezin g
t h en wou ld be mor e r a pid ben ea t h t h e
br idge t h a n a t eit h er u ps t r ea m or down -
s t r ea m loca t ion s . Su bs equ en t pen et r a t ion s
of fr os t wou ld dimin is h gr ou n dwa t er -flow
capacit y at t h e br idge s ect ion an d in du ce
t h e for ma t ion of a n icin g a bove or a t t h e
s it e. Th es e icin gs can be of var iou s s h apes
an d s izes , depen din g u pon t h e valley t opog-
r a ph y, t h e dept h of t h e s n ow, t h e in t en s it y
of cold, t h e wa t er s u pply, a n d ot h er fa ct or s .
Ground icings . Gr ou n d icin gs ma y t a ke t h e
for m of mou n ds h avin g con s ider able t h ick-
n es s bu t s ma ll a r ea s . Th ey ma y a ls o for m
a s cr u s t a t ion s if gr ou n dwa t er flow is in -
du ced t o t h e s u r fa ce a t poin t s wh ich a r e
n ot of gr ea t la t er a l s pa cin g bu t a r e of a bou t
equ a l eleva t ion , In a ddit ion t o a s u pply of
wa t er , t h er e is a n ot h er r equ is it e t o t h e for -
ma t ion of a n icin ga n a r ea wh er e t h e
wa t er ca n be expos ed t o t h e cold a t mos -
ph er e. A pavemen t kept clear of s n ow of-
fer s an excellen t s it e over wh ich flowin g
wa t er ca n s pr ea d ou t in t o a t h in film a n d
t h en fr eeze. Icin gs fr om gr ou n dwa t cr a bove
t h e per ma fr os t a r c n ot likely t o occu r in t h e
a r ct ic, a s t h e per ma fr os t t h er e is t oo clos e
t o t h e s u r fa ce t o per mit a n y a ppr ecia ble
s t or age in t h e act ive layer . Th is occu r r en ce
is mos t s ever e in t h e s ou t h er n zon es of t h e
s u bar ct ic an d on s lopes wh ich face s ou t h .
Gr ou n dwa t er flow ma y be in du ced t o t h e
s u r fa ce in va r iou s wa ys . It is n ot es s en t ia l
t h a t t h e s ea s on a l fr os t r ea ch t h e per ma -
fr os t , alt h ou gh t h is ver y effect ively blocks
gr ou n dwa t er flow. Pa r t ia l fr eezin g of t h e a c-
t ive la yer r edu ces t h e a r ea of t h e s ect ion
wh ich gr ou n d wa t er mu s t pa s s . Th e pa t h of
lea s t r es is t a n ce ma y lea d t o t h e gr ou n d
s u r fa ce via a fr os t cr a ck or fis s u r e or
t h r ou gh h oles wh ich h ave pr eviou s ly been
ma de by bu r r owin g a n ima ls Wa t er comin g
t o t h e s u r fa ce in t h is wa y ma y flow
6-106 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
considerable distances down slopes beneath
a snow blanket without freezing.
Various met hods have been tried to prevent
the occurrence of such icings. Some of
these have met with partial success. The
frost belt or dam has been advocated by
Russian investigators, but this method is
effective for only a few years. The thawing
in summer is accelerated at the site of the
frost dam, and eventually the permafrost
degrades sufficiently to permit groundwater
flow below the frost dam. Fences and bar-
riers have been used quite effectively under
special circumstances.
Spring icings . Icin gs t h a t occu r fr om a r -
t es ia n , s u bper ma fr os t wa t er a n d s pr in gs a r e
or din ar ily qu ilt t h ick an d cover con s ider -
a ble a r ea . Refer en ce is oft en ma de t o t h e
icin g in t h e Momy River Va lley of Siber ia .
Th is s pr in g icin g is abou t 15 miles lon g
an d 3 miles wide, wit h an aver age t h ick-
n es s of a bou t 12 feet . It does n ot melt a n d
for m each year . Spr in g icin gs can be con -
t r olled qu it e r ea dily. Th e t emper a t u r e of
t h e wa t er emer gin g fr om t h e gr ou n d is or -
din a r ily qu it e h igh a n d t h e wa t er does n ot
fr eeze qu ickly if con fin ed t o a con du it . In
s ome ca s es , a n in s u la t ed con du it ma y be r e-
qu ir ed t o con vey t h e s pr in g wa t er t o loca -
t ion s wh er e t h e for ma t ion of icin g will do
n o da ma ge.
Me a s u r e s Aga i n s t Ic i n gs
River icings . In t h e cas e of r iver icin gs ,
dept h s t o per ma fr os t a r e or din a r ily t oo
lar ge t o be blocked effect ively by acceler at ed
fr eezin g s u ch as is in du ced by t h e fr os t
da m or
-
bell, In addit ion , t h e s u bbed r iver
flow is oft en in exces s of wh a t ca n be
s t or ed a s ice a bove t h e loca t ion of t h e
br idge t o be pr ot ect ed. Th e con t r ol of r iver
icin gs t h en mu s t be con cer n ed wit h a n in -
s u la t ion of s t r ea mbeds a t t h e cr it ica l s ec-
t ion .
Ground icings . Gr ou n d icin gs can be con -
t r olled t o s ome ext en t by in du cin g t h e ice
t o for m u ps t r ea m fr om t h e s it e in qu es t ion .
Th is can be accomplis h ed by t h e in s t alla-
t ion of fr os t belt s . In open t er r a in , s ome
s u cces s can be ach ieved by mer ely keepin g
s n ow r emoved fr om a s t r ip cr os s in g t h e a f-
fect ed a r ea in a dir ect ion t r a n s ver s e t o
gr ou n dwa t er flow. Gr ou n dwa t er flow will
be blocked by fr eezin g an d for ced t o t h e s u r -
fa ce u ps t r ea m fr om t h e clea r ed a r ea . Th e
s n ow-fr ee ar ea als o pr ovides a cold s pace
on wh ich s u r fa ce flow ca n s pr ea d ou t a n d
fr eeze. If n eces s ar y, t h e dept h of s t or ed ice
can be in cr eas ed by er ect in g s ome bar r ier
t o t h e flow, s u ch a s a n or din a r y wooden -
s t a ve s n ow fen ce on t op of t h e ice in it ia lly
for med a t t h e s it e of t h e fr os t belt . Be-
ca u s e t h e pr oces s employs t h e r emova l of
s n ow, it is es s en t ia l t o s h ift t h e pos it ion of
t h e belt fr om yea r t o yea r in or der n ot t o
u n du ly in flu en ce t h e dept h t o per ma fr os t .
In t imber ed r egion s , it is obviou s ly n eces -
s a r y t o ma in t a in t h e fr os t belt a t on e loca -
t ion t o s a ve t h e expen s e of t r ee r emova l.
Spring icings . If t h e s ou r ce of wa t er for m-
in g t h e icin g is a s pr in g, t h en it is n eces -
s a r y t o r es or t t o dr a in a ge or diver s ion t o
con t r ol t h e occu r r en ce. Th is s omet imes r e-
qu ir es in s u la t ed ch a n n els . In t h e ca s e of
s pr in gs , flows ar e or din ar ily t oo lar ge t o per -
mit a s t or a ge of icc a t or u ps t r ea m fr om t h e
s it e.
FORDS, DIPS, CAUSEWAYS, AND BRIDGES
FORDS
s it u a t ion , a n d t h e t er r a in con figu r a t ion
A for d is a s h a llow pla ce in a wa t er wa y
ma ke it s u s e n eces s a r y a n d pr a ct ica l.
wh er e t h e bot t om, eit h er n a t u r a lly or by
h u ma n impr ovemen t , per mit s t h e pa s s a ge
An in cr ea s e in wa t er dept h ca n clos e a for d
for a con s ider a ble t ime. St r ea ms in mou n -
of per s on n el an d veh icles . A for d is u s ed
t a in ou s a n d des er t cou n t r y a r e s u bject t o
in s t ea d of a br idge wh en t ime limit a t ion s ,
t h e la ck of s t r u ct u r a l ma t er ia ls , t h e t a ct ica l
s u dden ch an ges in dept h . Th e in cr eas e in
Drainage 6-107
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
dept h can be s o s u dden as t o en dan ger per -
s on n el or veh icles in t h e for d.
St r ea m bot t oms ca n be of s u ch ma t er ia l
t h a t mu ch effor t is r equ ir ed t o ma ke for ds
u s able.
Re c on n a i s s a n c e
Rou t e r econ n a is s a n ce s h ou ld in clu de t h e
s elect ion of pos s ible for d s it es . Special em-
ph as is is placed on t h e r equ ir emen t s t o be
dis cu s s ed in t h is s ect ion , For d r econ n ais -
s an ce an d r equ ir ed r epor t s ar e cover ed in
FM 5-36.
Re qu i r e m e n t s
Th e ch a r a ct er is t ics of a good for d a r e a
s low cu r r en t (u s u ally les s t h an 2 miles per
h ou r ); low, s lopin g ban ks ; good appr oach es ;
a n d a u n ifor mly in cr ea s in g bot t om dept h
wit h a fir m bot t om ma t er ia l. Requ ir emen t s
of widt h dept h , an d ban k s lopes for for ds
ar e given in Table 6-23.
Location. A des ir able locat ion for a for d is
in t h e r ea ch of t h e s t r ea m bet ween ben ds .
At t h is loca t ion , t h e bot t om dept h is con -
s t a n t bet ween t h e ba n ks wit h on ly a s ligh t
ch an n el in t h e cen t er . Th e in flu en ce of
ly a da pt a ble for impr ovemen t . In a ddit ion ,
t h e va r ia t ion in t h e s h a pe of t h e ba n ks is
n ot a s pr on ou n ced in t h e r ea ch a r ea a s it
is a t t h e ben d.
Bottom Material. For a n a t u r a l for d, t h e bot -
t om ma t er ia l s h ou ld be h a r d, du r a ble, a n d
in t er lockin g. Su ch ma t er ia l will r es is t cu t -
t in g by wh eeled t r affic an d er os ion . Th e
gen er a l t er r a in will det er min e t h e bot t om
con dit ion , a s follows :
In mou n t a in ou s cou n t r y, s u dden
fr es h et floods ca n t r a n s por t la r ge
bou lder s a n d s t on es a lon g t h e bot t om.
Th is mat er ial is depos it ed at t h e pas s -
in g of h igh wa t er or a t loca t ion s wh er e
t h e widen in g of t h e s t r ea m r edu ces t h e
velocit y. It ma y be n eces s a r y t o r emove
t h is ma t er ia l befor e t r a ffic ca n cr os s t h e
for d,
In t er r a in of moder a t e or gen t le s lopes ,
t h e velocit y will t en d t o pr even t depos i -
t ion of fin e ma t er ia l. Th is t en den cy a n d
t h e s cou r in g a ct ion of t h e wa t er will
lea ve a good, fir m bot t om. Th e bot t om
ma t er ia l ma y be dis t u r bed by t r a ffic a n d
will r equ ir e pr ot ect ion .
r iver act ion on pos s ible for din g locat ion s is
In s ligh t ly s lopin g or fla t t er r a in ,
s h own in Figu r e 6-66. Becau s e of t h e in -
cr eas ed velocit y of t h e wat er , ben ds r es u lt
s t r ea ms mea n der a n d h a ve low velocit y.
in a deep ch a n n el t h a t is difficu lt t o im-
In a ddit ion , t h er e is s omet imes a h igh
pr ove. In t h e r ea ch , t h e cen t er ch a n n el is
wa t er t a ble. In s u ch ca s es , t h e bot t om
n ot s o deep or s h ar p an d t h er efor e is r eadi-
ma t er ia l ma y be ver y s oft . Su ch
Table 6-23. Requirements for military fords
6-108 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
ma t er ia l will r equ ir e a complet ely im-
pr oved for d wit h s pecial emph as is on
bot t om r equ ir emen t s , Timber , lu mber ,
ma t t in g, gr a vel, or ga bion s ca n be u s ed
t o impr ove t r a ffica bilt y.
High-Water Determination. Table 6-23 in di-
ca t es t h a t a ma ximu m wa t er dept h of 2 feet
is a llowa ble for t r u ck t r a ffic. To en s u r e
ma ximu m u s c of t h e for d, it is n eces s a r y t o
det er min e t h e dept h a t wh ich t h e s t r ea m
will flow a t fr equ en t ly r ecu r r in g t imes . Es -
in Figu r e 6-67, page 6-110, can be made by
dir ect s t r ea m obs er va t ion , a s follows :
Bas e Flow . Ba s e flow is t h e n or ma l flow
t h a t occu r s in a s t r ea m wh en t h er e h a s
been n o r ecen t r ain . Th e dept h of t h is flow
is depen den t u pon t h e qu a n t it y of
gr ou n d wa t er .
High-Water Flow . Du r in g t h e yea r , ma n y
r a in fa lls n or ma lly occu r t h a t ca u s e flows
above t h e bas e level, Th e velocit y of s u ch
t ima t es of va r iou s dept h s of flow, a s s h own flows gen er a t es a s ligh t er os ion cu t , a s
Figure 6-66. River action
Drainage 6-109
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 6-67. Stream cross section
s h own in Figu r e 6-67. Th e occu r r en ce of
s u ch flows t en ds t o pr even t t h e gr owt h of
veget a t ion . Sin ce t h es e flows can occu r
wit h r ela t ive fr equ en cy du r in g t h e yea r , t h e
dept h of t h es e flows cou ld con t r ol t h e u s e
of t h e for d. In t h e even t t h e dept h is
gr ea t er i n pla c e s t h a n t h e for din g dept h of
t r u cks (s ee Table 6-23, page 6-108), it may
be n eces s ar y t o fill t h es e gaps wit h r ock or
gr avel, However , s u ch fillin g migh t cau s e
t h e velocit y of flow over t h e for d t o be in -
cr ea s ed t o t h e poin t t h a t veh icles wou ld
h ave difficu lt y u s in g t h e for d.
Flood Flow . In t h e abs en ce of r ecor ds , it is
n eces s a r y t o ch eck s t r ea m ba n ks for
eviden ce of floodwat er levels . Th e h igh es t
level of flood t h a t occu r s wit h in a per iod of
t wo yea r s is of pa r t icu la r in t er es t . Th e
ben d of a s t r ea m, es pecia lly wit h a h igh
ba n k on t h e ou t s ide of t h e ben d, wou ld
s h ow a n er os ion cu t t h a t ca n be u s ed t o
det er min e t h e flood level, as s h own in Fig-
u r e 6-67.
Approaches . Ca r efu lly n ot e t h e h eigh t of
t h e ba n k a n d t h e t ype of s oil. Th is in for ma -
t ion h elps t o det er min e con s t r u ct ion r equ ir e-
men t s .
Stream Velocity . Th e n or ma l s t r ea m velocit y
at t h e for din g s it e s h ou ld n ot exceed 3 fps .
Th is velocit y wou ld, in mos t ca s es , occu r a t
low or moder a t e levels .
Cros s Section. Ma ke a cr os s s ect ion of a
for d locat ion s imilar t o Figu r e 6-66, page
6-109 an d Figu r e 6-67. In clu de fu ll det ails
of ba n k s lopes , bot t om s lopes , bot t om va r ia -
t ion s , a n d wa t er dept h . In a ddit ion , det er -
min e t h e a ver a ge velocit y of t h e s t r ea m
fr om mea s u r emen t s t a ken a t equ a l in t er va ls
a cr os s t h e s t r ea m.
Channel Cond ition. Ma ke a r ecor d of t h e
ch a r a ct er of t h e s t r ea mbed. In clu de veget a -
t ion den s it y a n d t ype, wh et h er or n ot t h e
ch an n el is s cou r ed, an d t h e t ype of s oil.
Th is in for ma t ion will det er min e t h e va lu e of
Ma n n in gs n.
CONSTRUCTION
Two ph a s es of con s t r u ct ion a r e r equ ir ed for
for ds t h e developmen t of t h e a ppr oa ch es
a n d t h e pr epa r a t ion of t h e bot t om.
Th e ma ximu m s lopes for for d a ppr oa ch es
s h ou ld be as r ecommen ded in Table 6-23.
Pla ce ma t er ia l cu t fr om t h e ba n ks off t o t h e
s ide a n d n ot in t h e s t r ea m, wh er e it ma y
for m a n obs t r u ct ion . Beca u s e t r a ffic will
wet t h e s lopes a n d ca u s e even t u a l det er ior a -
t ion , pr ovis ion s h ou ld be ma de for pr ot ect -
in g t h e s u r fa ce.
6-110 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
For d-bot t om pr epa r a t ion will depen d u pon
s it e con dit ion s . Fill s h or t , deep gaps wit h
r ock or gr avel, pr efer ably r et ain ed by wir e
mes h . Soft , mu d bot t oms ca n be impr oved
by cover in g t h e bot t om fir s t wit h willow,
br u s h ma t t r es s es , or t imber s , a n d s u b-
s equ en t ly wit h met a l pla n kin g, r ock, or
coar s e gr avel. Even a h a r d a n d t en a ciou s
bot t om det er ior a t es u n der t r a ffic con dit ion s
a n d r equ ir es pr ot ect ive ma in t en a n ce.
Con s ider t h es e fa ct or s wh en r a is in g t h e bot -
t om of t h e for d:
Th e dept h u ps t r ea m fr om t h e for d in -
cr ea s es in pr opor t ion t o t h e a mou n t of
r is e of t h e bot t om of t h e for d.
Th e velocit y of flow over t h e for d in -
cr eas es at an in cr eas ed for din g dept h s o
t h a t veh icles ma y be difficu lt t o oper a t e
a n d con t r ol.
MARKING
Pla ce ma r kin g pos t s a t ea ch en d of t h e for d
a n d a t a s ma n y in t er media t e poin t s a s ma y
be n eces s ar y. Ma r k a pos t a t ea ch en d
wit h a n in dex t o in dica t e dept h . Wa r n in g
n ot ices s h ou ld be clear ly an d pr omin en t ly
pla ced t o a ler t dr iver s t h a t floodin g ca n
occu r s u dden ly a n d wit h ou t wa r n in g.
MAINTENANCE
Exa min e for ds a ft er ea ch floodin g. Repa ir
s cou r da ma ge u ps t r ea m a n d down s t r ea m
wit h r ipr a p, Remove bou lder s a n d ot h er
debr is t o pr ovide a clear pas s age for
veh icles ,
DIPS
Dips ar e paved for ds u s ed for t h e cr os s in g
of dr y, wide, an d s h allow ar r oyos in s emi-
ar id r egion s s u bject t o flas h floods .
Re c on n a i s s a n c e
Th e pr efer r ed locat ion of a dip is in t h e
s t r a igh t r u n of a n a r r oyo or wa s h , Det er -
min e t h e widt h bet ween t h e ba n ks a n d t h e
t op eleva t ion of t h e ba n ks . In a ddit ion ,
ch eck t h e ar ea above t h e dip s it e t o det er -
min e if pen din g will occu r an d t o wh at level.
Det er min e t h e t ype of s oil in t h e ba n ks a n d
bot t om for con s t r u ct ion r equ ir emen t s . In
a ddit ion , n ot e t h e s ize a n d t ype of bot t om
r ock. Th is t ype of in for mat ion gives an in -
dica t ion of t h e volu me a n d velocit y of fla s h
floods wh ich move or ca r r y la r ge ma t er ia l.
In ves t iga t e t h e a r ea , es pecia lly t h e ba n ks ,
t o det er min e t h e gen er a l fla s h -flood h igh
wa t er ma r k. Th is in for ma t ion on t h e a r ea of
t h e wa t er wa y, a lon g wit h a n a ppr oxima t ion
of velocit y a s in dica t ed by t h e r ock or ot h er
debr is on t h e bot t om, gives s ome in dica t ion
of t h e volu me of flow. Th is in for ma t ion will
be n eces s ar y if br idgin g is r equ ir ed.
Con s t r u c t i on
Th e s u bgr ade s h ou ld be of er os ion -r es is t an t
ma t er ia l or a r ock-compa ct ed ba s e, a n d it
s h ou ld be s et bet ween t h e cu t off r et a in in g
walls . Th e pavemen t s h ou ld be of con cr et e
or compa ct ed ma ca da m. Th e gen er a l con -
s t r u ct ion is s h own in Figu r e 6-68.
Ot h er fa ct or s of impor t a n ce a r e a s follows :
Th e s it e s h ou ld be in t h e r each of t h e
s t r ea m a n d well a wa y fr om a n y ben ds .
Th er e is mor e er os ion in ben ds t h an in
s t r a igh t s t r et ch es . If a ver y s ever e flood
occu r r ed, a s t r u ct u r e placed in a ben d
migh t be des t r oyed.
Th e s t r u ct u r e s h ou ld be s et a t r igh t
a n gles t o t h e flow t o r edu ce s cou r .
Figure 6-68. Cross section of dip section
Drainage 6-111
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Th e s t r u ct u r e mu s t be s et a t t r u e dr y-
s t r eambed level t o avoid s cou r er os ion
or s ilt in g. Un der n o cir cu ms t a n ces
s h ou ld t h e s t r u ct u r e be s et a bove dr y-
s t r eambed level.
Ma r k i n g
Th e ma r kin g for dips is t h e s a me a s for
for ds .
Dips , like for ds , mu s t be exa min ed a ft er
ea ch floodin g, a n d s cou r da ma ge u ps t r ea m
a n d down s t r ea m s h ou ld be r epa ir ed wit h
r ipr ap, Remove bou lder s an d ot h er debr is .
Wh en ma ca da m is u s ed, it ca n be a n -
t icipa t ed t h a t h oles ma y be s cou r ed in t h e
r oadway. Con s ider s t ockpilin g r ock ad-
ja cen t t o t h e a r ea for immedia t e ma in -
t en a n ce r epa ir .
CAUSEWAYS
Wh en it is es s en t ial t o keep a r oadway open
du r in g floods of mediu m in t en s it y, a r a is ed
cau s eway can be u s ed in place of a for d or
dip, Th is t ype of s t r u ct u r e mu s t be well
s it ed, car efu lly des ign ed t o pas s t h e flow,
a n d s t r on gly bu ilt , It mu s t in cor por a t e a
s u fficien t wa t er wa y a t s t r ea mbed level t o
per mit t h e pa s s a ge of t h e des ign volu me of
flow befor e t h e flood level r each es t h e t op of
t h e s t r u ct u r e. A t ypical des ign is s h own in
Figu r e 6-69, Th e main des ign feat u r es of a
ca u s ewa y follow.
Cr os s -Se c t ion a l Ar e a
A s u fficien t cr os s -s ect ion a l a r ea mu s t be
pr ovided t o en s u r e t h at t h e flood level will
n ot s u bmer ge t h e s t r u ct u r e. Con s ider t h e
followin g bas ic elemen t s :
Th e s ize a n d n u mber of cu lver t s or
ot h er elemen t s mu s t be s u fficien t t o
pa s s t h e flow. Wh en t h e wa t er eleva t ion
u ps t r ea m a n d down s t r ea m is a bove t h e
cu lver t cr own , pipe equ at ion s s h ou ld be
u s ed for flow des ign ,
Th e in ver t s or lowes t pa r t s of t h e cu l-
ver t s mu s t be s et a t s t r ea mbed level.
Th e cover over t h e s t r ea m mu s t be s u ffi-
cien t t o pr ot ect t h e wa t er wa y a ga in s t
t r a ffic loa ds ,
Figure 6-69. Overflow (causeway)
6-112 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Em ba n k m e n t
Pr ot ect bot h t h e u ps t r ea m a n d down s t r ea m
fa ces of t h e emba n kmen t a ga in s t s cou r a n d
er os ion . Heavy floodin g or over t oppin g of
t h e s t r u ct u r e will r equ ir e complet e pr ot ec-
t ion in t h e for m of a con cr et e or r ock-
gabion facin g. To fu r t h er pr even t exces s ive
s cou r a n d er os ion , ca r r y t h e pr ot ect ive
facin gs below t h e s t r eambed an d pr ovide
t h em wit h a pr on s . An ch or t h e en ds of t h e
s t r u ct u r e s ecu r ely in t o t h e ba n ks in s u ch a
wa y t h a t t h er e is min imu m obs t r u ct ion t o
wa t er flow.
Gu a r d r a i l s
Pr ovide gu ar dr ails t o gu ide an d dir ect t r af-
fic. Becau s e t h e s t r u ct u r e can be over -
t opped, be s u r e t o pr ovide for r eady r eplace-
men t of t h e gu a r dr a ils .
In s pect t h e s t r u ct u r e for s cou r or er os ion
a ft er ea ch flow (h a t ca u s es pa r t ia l s u bmer -
gen ce or over t oppin g. Repa ir a n y da ma ge
immedia t ely ot h er wis e, a t t h e n ext h ea vy
flow, t h e s t r u ct u r e cou ld be des t r oyed.
St ockpilin g of h eavy r ock an d gabion s at
ea ch en d of a s t r u ct u r e ma y be r equ ir ed.
BRIDGES
Th is s ect ion pr es en t s elemen t s of br idge
des ign ot h er t h a n t h e r equ ir emen t s for
s t r u ct u r a l des ign Br idges mu s t con for m t o
t h e r equ ir emen t s of s t r ea m h ydr a u lics in
t h e s a me wa y a s a ll cr os s -s t r ea m s t r u ct u r es
s u ch as for ds , dips , an d cau s eways .
Loc a t i on
Th e locat ion of a br idge s h ou ld be away
fr om ben ds in t h e s t r a igh t s ect ion or r ea ch
of t h e s t r eam (Figu r e 6-66, page 6-109). In
t h is loca t ion , t h er e a r e moder a t e, even
dept h s fr om ban k t o ban k. Th e deep ch an -
n el t en ds t o be in t h e cen t er . Abu t men t s
will be placed on t h e edge of t h e s t r eam.
Becau s e of t h e even dis t r ibu t ion of flow,
s cou r a n d er os ion a t t h e s t r ea m pier a n d
ba n k a bu t men t s a r c n ot expect ed t o be s o
exces s ive a s t o ca u s e ma in t en a n ce pr oblems .
He i gh t
Th e h eigh t of a br idge depen ds u pon t h e
flood-flow, h igh wa t er ma r k. Th e h eigh t of
t h a t ma r k will det er min e t h e pr ofile or s u - -
per s t r u ct u r e level of t h e br idges as follows :
Wh en t h e flood-flow, h igh wa t er ma r k is
above t h e ban ks , a h igh -pr ofile or h igh -
level br idge mu s t be con s t r u ct ed t o
keep t h e s u per s t r u ct u r e above t h e flood
level. Th is t ype of br idge is well above
ban k level an d may r equ ir e a con s ider -
a ble len gt h a n d h eigh t of a ppr oa ch .
Wh en t h e flood-flow, h igh wa t er ma r k is
below ban k level. a low-pr ofile or low-
level br idge can be con s t r u ct ed. Th is
t ype of br idge pr es en t s fewer pr oblems
t h an t h e h igh -level br idge, s in ce ap-
pr oa ch r a mps will n ot h a ve t o be con -
s t r u ct ed.
Abu t m e n t s
Th e locat ion of br idge abu t men t s depen ds
u pon a n a n a lys is of t h e flood level a n d t h e
cr os s s ect ion of t h e s t r eam (Figu r e 6-70).
An alys is pr oceeds as follows :
Abu t men t s pla ced a t 1A a n d 1B of Figu r e
6-70 pr es en t t h e mos t dir ect s olu t ion be-
ca u s e t h ey a r e loca t ed on h igh , dr y gr ou n d,
Figure 6-70. Waterway cross section at bridge site
Drainage 6-113
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Us e of t h es e locat ion s , h owever , may n eces -
s it a t e mor e con s t r u ct ion effor t beca u s e of
t h e in cr eas ed len gt h of t h e br idge. Th is in -
cr eas ed len gt h cou ld r es u lt in t h e n eed for
in t er media t e pier s a n d s pa n s . Wit h t h is
met h od, t h e fu ll r iver wa t er wa y will be u s ed
for t h e pa s s a ge of flood wa t er .
Abu t men t s pla ced a t 2A a n d 2B wou ld
r edu ce con s t r u ct ion t ime becau s e fewer in -
t er mediat e pier s an d s pan s wou ld be r e-
qu ir ed. In addit ion , t h e fill in ar eas 1A-2A
an d 1B-2B cou ld be accomplis h ed as t h e
br idge is con s t r u ct ed. As can be s een fr om
t h e figu r e, t h is pla cemen t r edu ces t h e cr os s
s ect ion of t h e wa t er wa y, Th e followin g t ech -
n iqu es cou ld be u s ed t o a ccommoda t e t h is
r edu ct ion in an available cr os s -s ect ion al
a r ea :
Th e elevat ion of t h e br idge s u per s t r u c-
t u r e cou ld be r a is ed t o a ccou n t for t h e
r is e in t h e flood level. In t h is cas e, u s e
s u bs t a n t ia l a bu t men t s t h a t a r e well
pr ot ect ed a ga in s t en d s cou r .
Th e s u per s t r u ct u r e elevat ion cou ld be
left s u bs t a n t ia lly a t t h e or igin a l level,
a n d a ppr oa ch r a mps over a r ea s 1A-2A
an d 1B-2B cou ld be con s t r u ct ed as
ca u s ewa ys t o a llow for flow. Ca r e mu s t
be t a ken t o en s u r e t h a t t h er e is n o ex-
ces s ive s cou r or er os ion below t h e cu l-
ver t ou t let t h a t wou ld a ffect t h e r oa d-
wa y.
Th e r oadway appr oach es in ar eas 1A-2A
an d 1B-2B cou ld be depr es s ed below
t h e s u per s t r u ct u r e level. In t h is ca s e,
t h e exces s flood flow wou ld pas s over
t h e r oa dwa y a ppr oa ch es , t h u s r elievin g
EROSION
Er os ion mu s t be con t r olled t o ma in t a in a n
effect ive a n d clea r dr a in a ge s ys t em wit h a
min imu m of ma in t en a n ce a n d t o r edu ce h a z-
a r dou s du s t con dit ion s . Er os ion ma y occu r
a t a n y poin t wh er e t h e for ce of movin g
wa t er exceeds t h e coh es ive s t r en gt h of t h e
ma t er ia l wit h wh ich t h e wa t er is in con t a ct .
Pr oper des ign of s ide s lopes in cu t an d fill
s ect ion s (bas ed on t h e t ype of s oil) will
6-114 Drainage
t h e br idge flow. If t h is a ct ion is t a ken ,
t h e r oa dwa y ma y n ot be u s a ble a t a ll
t imes . Sin ce over flow is a n t icipa t ed, t h e
con s t r u ct ion of t h es e a ppr oa ch es is
s imila r t o con s t r u ct ion of ca u s ewa ys
wit h ou t t h e cu lver t s . If t h e br idge is
des ign ed pr oper ly, wit h for din g dept h s
as ou t lin ed in Table 6-23, page 6-108, it
may be u s able du r in g floods u n der ex-
t r eme con dit ion s .
Wh en a depr es s ed r oadway or an ele-
va t ed s u per s t r u ct u r e is u s ed, t h e a p-
pr oa ch t o t h e br idge mu s t h a ve a gen t le
s lope t o pr even t veh icle impact on t h e
a bu t men t a n d t o en s u r e t r a ffic vis ibilit y.
Dr a i n a ge
Th e s oil beh in d br idge abu t men t s can be-
come s a t u r a t ed beca u s e of r a in or ot h er con -
dit ion s . Th is s a t u r a t ion ca n t a ke pla ce
wh et h er t h e a ppr oa ch r oa d is a t t h e n a t u r a l
gr ade of t h e s oil or it is a filled appr oach .
Wh en s a t u r a t ion occu r s , s t a t ic h ydr a u lic
pr es s u r e on t h e ba ck fa ce of t h e a bu t men t
gen er a t es a ddit ion a l over t u r n in g movemen t .
Wit h wood a bu t men t s , t h is con dit ion is
r elieved n at u r ally. However , if con cr et e
a bu t men t s a r e u s ed, t h e pr es s u r es ca n be
r elieved as follows :
St ep 1. Us e weep h oles t o pier ce t h e
men t s wit h ba gged gr a vel ba ckin g on
s oil s ide.
a bu t -
t h e
St ep 2. Place gr avel backin g again s t t h e
lower pa r t of t h e a bu t men t dr a in ed by a per -
for a t ed pipe a t t h e foot in g eleva t ion . Set
t h e pipe t o dr a in ou t a t t h e s ides of t h e
a bu t men t .
CONTROL
r edu ce t h e n eed for ext en s ive er os ion con -
t r ol mea s u r es . However , a ddit ion a l con t r ol
is u s u ally r equ ir ed. Mos t met h ods of con -
t r ol ar e bas ed on dis s ipat in g t h e en er gy of
wa t er , pr ovidin g a n er os ion -r es is t a n t s u r -
fa ce, or s ome combin a t ion of t h es e t ech n i-
qu es . Th is ch a pt er a cqu a in t s t h e milit a r y
en gin eer wit h t h e mea n s a va ila ble t o r edu ce
or elimin a t e t h e er os ive for ce of wa t er .
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
NONUSE AREAS AND OPEN CHANNELS
Ter r a cin g is a con t r ol mea s u r e des ign ed t o
dis s ipat e t h e en er gy of over lan d flow in n on -
u s e a r ea s . Tu r fin g, pavin g, Gu n it e lin in g,
a n d pla cin g r ipr a p a r e con t r ol met h ods
des ign ed t o cau s e t u r bu len ce an d t o in -
cr ea s e r et a r da t ion , t h er eby dis s ipa t in g t h e
en er gy of flow in open ch an n els s u ch as
dit ch es an d pjpe ou t falls . In cas es wh er e
even r ipr ap will be er oded, t h e u s e of
gabion s is a s peedy an d r elat ively in expen -
s ive mean s of dis s ipat in g en er gy.
TERRACING
A t er r ace is a low, br oad-bas ed ear t h levee
con s t r u ct ed a ppr oxima t ely pa r a llel t o t h e
con t ou r s of t h e t opogr a ph y. A t er r a ce
eit h er in t er cept s a n d h olds t h e wa t er u n t il
it in filt r a t es t h e s oil or moves it a s over la n d
flow t o a s u it a ble dis ch a r ge poin t . A h a r dy,
vigor ou s t u r f s h ou ld be pla n t ed t o h old t h e
Figure 6-71. Terrace spacing and gradients
dis t u r bed s oil in place. Ver t ical s pacin g
a n d lon git u din a l gr a dien t s of t er r a ces a r e
given in Figu r e 6-71.
TURFING
Dit ch es a r e oft en pr ot ect ed by pla cin g
s t r ips of s od (h eld in place by wooden
boar ds or s t akes ) per pen dicu lar t o t h e flow
pa t h a t in t er va ls a lon g t h e dit ch , a s s h own
in Figu r e 6-72.
PAVING AND GUNITE LINING
Dit ch es h avin g gr ades in exces s of 5 per -
cen t u s u a lly r equ ir e pa vin g or a Gu n it e
lin in g. Wh er e a s lope equ als or exceeds 5
per cen t , pavin g mu s t be ext en ded down
s lope a t lea s t t o t h e poin t in t h e dit ch a t
wh ich t h e er os ive en er gy of t h e wat er is con -
t r olled or a bs or bed wit h ou t er os ion da ma ge.
Figure 6-72. Erosion-control checks
Drainage 6-115
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Pa vin g wit h eit h er a s ph a lt or por t la n d-ce-
men t con cr et e pr ovides s u per ior er os ion -
r es is t a n t lin in gs in gu t t er s , dit ch es , a n d ou t -
fa ll s t r u ct u r es .
Gu n it e lin in g of dit ch es con t r ols er os ion ef-
fect ively. Gu n it e is a mixt u r e of por t la n d ce-
men t a n d s a n d wit h wa t er a dded ju s t
befor e t h e mixt u r e is s pr a yed fr om a h igh -
pr es s u r e n ozzle on t o t h e s u r fa ce bein g pr o-
t ect ed. Th e Gu n it e lin in g is for med over
s t eel mes h pla ced over t h e bot t om a n d
s ides of t h e dit ch . Gu n it e is s pr a yed t o a
t h ickn es s of 1 t o 1 1/ 2 in ch es , wit h t h e
s t eel mes h loca t ed midwa y in t h e t h ickn es s .
Hu ma n r es ou r ces , t ime, ma t er ia l a n d equ ip-
men t expen s es u s u a lly limit t h e u s e of
pa vin g or Gu n it e lin in gs t o on ly t h e mos t
deman din g con dit ion s in TO air field con -
s t r u ct ion .
PLACING RIPRAP
Ripr ap pr ot ect ion s h ou ld be pr ovided ad-
ja cen t t o a ll h ydr a u lic s t r u ct u r es . Wh en
placed on er odible s u r faces , it pr even t s
s cou r - a l t h e en ds of t h e s t r u ct u r e. Th is
pr ot ect ion is r equ ir ed on t h e bed an d ban ks
for a s u fficien t dis t a n ce t o es t a blis h velocit y
gr adien t s an d t u r bu len ce levels at t h e en d
of t h e r ipr a p.
Ripr ap can als o be u s ed for lin in g t h e ch an -
n el ba n ks t o pr even t la t er a l er os ion a n d u n -
des ir able mean der in g. Pr ovide an expan -
s ion eit h er h or izon t a lly or ver t ica lly (or
bot h ) immedia t ely down s t r ea m fr om
h ydr a u lic s t r u ct u r es s u ch a s dr op s t r u c-
t u r es or en er gy dis s ipat or s . Th e expan s ion
a llows t h e flow t o expa n d a n d dis s ipa t e it s
exces s en er gy in t u r bu len ce r a t h er t h a n
dir ect ly on t h e ch a n n el bot t om a n d s ides .
Ripr a p h a s been kn own t o fa il fr om-
Movemen t of t h e in dividu a l s t on es
a combin a t ion of velocit y a n d t u r -
bu len ce.
fr om
Movemen t of t h e n a t u r a l bed ma t er ia l
t h r ou gh t h e r ipr a p, r es u lt in g in s lu mp-
in g of t h e bla n ket .
Un der cu t t in g a n d levelin g of t h e r ipr a p
fr om s cou r a t t h e en d of t h e bla n ket .
Con s ider at ion mu s t be given t o t h e s elec-
t ion of a n a dequ a t e s ize of s t on e, t h e u s e of
a dequ a t ely gr a ded r ipr a p, t h e pr ovis ion of a
filt er bla n ket , a n d t h e pr oper t r ea t men t of
t h e en d of t h e r ipr a p bla n ket .
Se le c t i on of Si ze
Cu r ves for t h e s elect ion of s t on e s ize r e-
qu ir ed for pr ot ect ion , wit h Fr ou de n u mber s
a n d dept h s of flow in t h e ch a n n el s h own ,
ar e s h own in Figu r e 6-73.
Two cu r ves ar e given . On e is for r ipr ap s u b-
ject ed t o dir ect flow or a dja cen t t o
h ydr au lic s t r u ct u r es s u ch as s ide in let s ,
con flu en ces , an d en er gy dis s ipat or s , wh er e
t u r bu len ce levels ar e h igh . Th e ot h er is for
r ipr a p on t h e ba n ks of a s t r a igh t ch a n n el
wh er e flows a r e r ela t ively qu iet a n d pa r a llel
t o t h e ba n ks .
Wit h t h e dept h of flow a n d a ver a ge velocit y
in t h e ch a n n el kn own , t h e Fr ou de n u mber
ca n be compu t ed fr om t h e followin g equ a -
t ion :
va lu e ca n be det er min ed fr om t h e a p-
pr opr iat e cu r ve.
Cu r ves for det er min in g t h e r ipr ap s ize r e-
qu ir ed t o pr even t s cou r down s t r ea m fr om
cu lver t ou t let s wit h s cou r h oles of va r iou s
dept h s ar e s h own in Figu r e 6-74, page
6-118. Make t h e t h ickn es s of t h e r ipr ap
bla n ket equ a l t o t h e lon ges t dimen s ion of
t h e ma ximu m s ize of s t on e or 1.5 t imes
wh ich ever is gr eat er .
Wh en t h e u s e of lar ge r ock is des ir able bu t
impr a ct ica l, s u bs t it u t in g a gr ou t ed r ea ch of
s maller r ock in ar eas of h igh velocit ies or
t u r bu len ce ma y be a ppr opr ia t e. Gr ou t ed
r ipr ap s h ou ld be followed by an u n gr ou t ed
r ea ch .
A well-gr aded mixt u r e of s t on e s izes is
pr efer r ed t o a r ela t ively u n ifor m s ize of
r ipr a p. A r ecommen ded gr a da t ion is s h own
in Figu r e 6-75, page 6-119. In cer t ain loca-
t ion s , t h e a va ila ble ma t er ia l ma y dict a t e t h e
gr a da t ion of r ipr a p t o be u s ed. Th e
6-116 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 6-73. Recommended riprap sizes for open channels
gr a da t ion s h ou ld r es emble t h e r ecom-
plot . If t h e gr a da t ion of t h e a va ila ble r ipr a p
men ded mixt u r e as clos ely as pos s ible.
is s u ch t h a t movemen t of n a t u r a l ma t er ia l
Con s ider in cr eas in g t h e t h ickn es s of t h e
t h r ou gh t h e r ipr ap blan ket wou ld be likely,
r ipr a p bla n ket wh en loca lit y dict a t es u s in g
place a filt er blan ket of s an d, cr u s h ed r ock,
gr a da t ion s wit h a la r ger per cen t a ge of s ma ll
gr a vel, or s yn t h et ic clot h u n der t h e r ipr a p.
s t on e t h a n s h own by t h e r ecommen ded
Th e u s u al blan ket t h ickn es s is 6 in ch es ,
Drainage 6-117
0.7
0.5
0.1
0.05
Energy
dlsslpators
d
\j
Open
channels
Stone diameter
(50. percent size)
Depth of flow
Average velocity
In channel
0.01 L.-_____ -L ___ _____ ..J
0.1
0.716\7

05
2
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 6-74. Recommended riprap sizes for culvert outlets
although a greater thickness is sometimes
necessary.
De s i gn
An ideal riprap design would provide a
gradual reduction in riprap size until the
downstream end of the blanket blends with
the natural bed material. Unless this is
done, turbulence caused by the riprap is
likely to develop a scour hole at the end of
the riprap blanket. However, the extra ef-
fort required to provide gradual reduction
in riprap size is seldom justified. Double
the thickness of the riprap blanket at the
downstream end to protect against under-
cutting and unraveling. An alternative is a
rubble blanket of constant thickness and
suitable length, dipping below the natural
streambed to the estimated depth of bottom
scour.
6-118 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 6-75. Recommended gradation of stones for riprap
GABIONS
Gabion s ar e lar ge, s t eel, wir e-mes h bas ket s ,
u s u a lly r ect a n gu la r a n d va r ia ble in s ize,
des ign ed t o s olve er os ion pr oblems at a low
cos t , Widely u s ed in Eu r ope, gabion s ar e
n ow a ccept ed in t h e Un it ed St a t es a s a va lu -
a ble a n d pr a ct ica l con s t r u ct ion a n d ma in -
t en an ce t ool. Th ey can be u s ed in place of
s h eet pilin g, ma s on r y con s t r u ct ion , or cr ib-
bin g.
De s c r ipt ion a n d As s e mbly
Ga bion s a r e s u pplied fr om ma n u fa ct u r er s
in flat , folded bu n dles . For eas e in h an d-
lin g an d s h ippin g, t h e n u mber of gabion s
per bu n dle var ies accor din g t o t h e s ize of
t h e ga bion s . Th e box ga bion is a r ect a n -
gu la r ca ge or ba s ket for med of woven ,
h exa gon a l, ga lva n ized s t eel, wir e mes h wit h
4- t o 8-in ch open in gs an d divided by dia-
ph r a gms in t o cells . To as s emble, r emove a
s in gle ga bion fr om t h e bu n dle a n d u n fold it
on a h a r d, fla t s u r fa ce t o s t r a igh t en u n -
n eces s ar y cr eas es an d kin ks . Fold t h e
Drainage 6-119
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
fr on t , ba ck, a n d en d pa n els t o a r igh t a n gle
t o for m a box, a s s h own in Figu r e 6-76.
Secu r ely lace t h e ver t ical edge an d
diaph r agms wit h bin din g wir e,
Figure 6-76. Assembly of a gabion
In s t a l l a t i on
Befor e pla cin g t h e ga bion s , ma ke t h e
gr ou n d s u r fa ce r ela t ively s moot h a n d even .
Place t h e as s embled gabion s in pos it ion
s in gly or wir ed t oget h er in gr ou ps s u it able
for h a n dlin g. It is con ven ien t t o pla ce t h e
ga bion s fr on t -t o-fr on t a n d ba ck-t o-ba ck t o
expedit e t h e s t on e-fillin g an d lid-lacin g
oper a t ion . La ce t h e ba s ket a lon g t h e
per imet er of a ll con t a ct s u r fa ces . Wh er e
t h er e is mor e t h a n on e cou r s e of ga bion s ,
t h e ba s e of t h e empt y ga bion s pla ced on
t op of a complet ed r ow mu s t be t igh t ly
wir ed t o t h e la t t er a s s h own in Figu r e 6-77.
Wh en u s in g 3-foot -h igh gabion s , place t h em
empt y a n d la ce for a ppr oxima t ely 100 lin ea r
feet . An ch or t h e fir s t ga bion fir mly a n d
a pply t en s ion t o t h e ot h er en d wit h a come-
a lon g or by ot h er mea n s t o a ch ieve t h e
pr oper a lign men t . An ch or in g can be
accomplis h ed by par t ially fillin g t h e fir s t
ga bion wit h s t on e. Wh ile t h e gabion s ar e
bein g s t r et ch ed, in s pect all cor n er s t o make
s u r e t h e lacin g is s ecu r e an d t h e cor n er s
ar e clos ed. Keep ga bion s t a u t wh ile t h ey
ar e bein g filled wit h s t on e.
Wh er e wat er , s oil, an d at mos ph er ic con di-
t ion s a llow, ga lva n ized wir e mes h ca n h a ve
a life of 40 yea r s or mor e, For s oils an d
wa t er s h owin g a pH fa ct or of les s t h a n 7 or
mor e t h a n 12, pla s t ic-coa t ed wir e mu s t be
u s ed t o for m ga bion s .
Fillin g Pr oc e du r e s
Th e bes t fillin g ma t er ia l is on e t h a t a llows
flexibilit y in t h e s t r u ct u r e a n d, a t t h e s a me
t ime, fills t h e ga bion compa r t men t s wit h a
min imu m of voids a n d ma ximu m weigh t .
Idea lly, t h e s t on e s h ou ld be s ma ll, ju s t
s ligh t ly la r ger t h a n t h e s ize of t h e mes h
(u s u ally 4 t o 8 in ch es ). Th e s t on e s h ou ld
be clea n , h a r d, du r a ble, a n d r es is t a n t t o
wea t h er in g a n d fr os t a ct ion .
Fill t h e ga bion s t o a dept h of 1 foot . Th en
place on e con n ect in g wir e in each dir ect ion
a n d loop a r ou n d t wo mes h es of t h e ga bion
wall, as s h own in Figu r e 6-77. Repeat t h is
oper a t ion t wice or u n t il t h e ga bion is filled;
t h en fold t h e t op s h u t a n d wir e it t o t h e
en ds , s ides , an d diaph r agms .
Pa ck t h e s t on e in s ide t h e compa r t men t a s
t igh t a s pr a ct ica l, To pr ot ect t h e ver t ica l
dia ph r a gm du r in g t h e fillin g oper a t ion , t em-
por a r ily pla ce r eba r s a n d la ce t h em a lon g
t h e u pper edges .
Some ma n u a l s t on e a dju s t men t is r equ ir ed
du r in g t h e fillin g oper a t ion t o pr even t
u n du e voids . Fill t h e gabion s ligh t ly over -
fu ll a n d a llow for s u bs equ en t s et t lemen t ;
t h en la ce t h e lid down wit h bin din g wir e t o
t h e t ops of a ll t h e s ides a n d t o t h e t ops of
t h e diaph r agm pan els . Sin ce it is n eces -
s a r y t o s t r et ch t h e lid t o fit t h e s ides exa ct -
ly, u s e a s h or t cr owba r or s pecia l t ool
des ign ed for t h is pu r pos e.
Th e s t r on g in t er con n ect ion of a ll u n it s in a
ga bion s t r u ct u r e is a n impor t a n t fea t u r e. It
is es s en t ial t h at t h e lacin g be don e pr oper ly.
Adjoin in g gabion s ar e wir ed t oget h er by
t h eir ver t ica l edges . Empt y ga bion s ,
6-120 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
s t acked on filled gabion s , ar c wir ed t o t h e
filled ga bion s a t fr on t a n d ba ck.
Ga bion s ma y be filled by a lmos t a n y t ype of
ea r t h -h a n dlin g equ ipmen t s u ch a s a
payloader , cr an e, con veyor , or modified con -
cr et e bu cket . Th e u s e of r ou n ded s t on e, if
it is available, r edu ces t h e pos s ibilit y of
da ma ge t o t h e ga lva n ized wir e du r in g
mech an ical fillin g.
Wh en t h e dept h of t h e wa t er is t oo gr ea t for
t h e ga bion s t o be filled on s it e, fill t h em a t
a dr y loca t ion n ea r by a n d pla ce t h em u n der -
wa t er by cr a n e or ba r ge,
Figure 6-77. Assembly and construction of gabions
Drainage 6-121
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Ma i n t e n a n c e a n d Re pa i r
Main t en an ce an d r epair ar e s imple pr oce-
du r es ; t h er efor e, gabion s ar e in s pect ed at
lea s t on ce a yea r . Holes ca n be pa t ch ed
wit h s ma ll pa n els of mes h , a n d br oken
wir es can be r epair ed by u s in g t h e met h od
s h own in Figu r e 6-78.
Th i c k n e s s
Th e t h ickn es s of gabion s may be calcu lat ed
by con s ider in g t h e gr adien t of t h e ch an n el,
t h e s t eepn es s of it s s lope, t h e t ype of
ma t er ia l for min g t h e ba n ks a n d bed, a n d
t h e cu r va t u r e of it s cou r s e. A 12-in ch -deep
lin in g is s u gges t ed for ch an n els h avin g
r ea s on a bly s t r a igh t a lign men t , s ide s lopes
of les s t h an 35 degr ees , an d a flow velocit y
of abou t 10 fps , as s h own in Figu r e 6-79.
Us e an 18-in ch gaion lin in g for cu r ved
ch an n el s ect ion s wit h a s ide s lope of 45
degr ees . Us e 36-in ch s t epped-back gabion
pr ot ect ion for s h ar per s ide s lopes . For a
s t eep ch an n el s lope, a combin at ion of lin in g
an d weir s may be r equ ir ed.
In t h e cas e of eas ily er odible s oil, a layer of
filt er ma t er ia l or per mea ble membr a n e of
clot h woven of s yn t h et ic fiber s is r equ ir ed.
Th e gabion s h ou ld be filled wit h s t on e
s ma ll en ou gh t o a llow a t lea s t t wo over la p-
pin g layer s ,
In des ign in g a gabion -lin ed ch an n el, t h e
r ou gh n es s fa ct or or coefficien t (n ) in
Ma n n in gs for mu la ma y be a s s u med t o be
bet ween 0.025 an d 0.030, If t h e gabion s
a r e gr ou t ed, t h e r ou gh n es s fa ct or ca n be a s -
s u med t o be bet ween 0.012 an d 0.018.
Figure 6-78. Method of repairing a broken wire
Figure 6-79. Typical channel lining using
gabions
Gabion -lin ed ch an n els may be des ign ed
u s in g Ma n n in gs equ a t ion a n d t h e pr oce-
du r es for open -ch an n el des ign .
Us e s
Gabion s can be u s ed in t h e followin g ways :
Pr ot ect ive a n d a n t ier os ion s t r u ct u r es on
r iver s (for exa mple, r evet men t s , gr oin s ,
or s pu r s ).
Ot h er a n t ier os ion s t r u ct u r es (for ex-
a mple, weir s , dr op s t r u ct u r es , a n d
ch eck dams ).
Ch an n el lin in gs .
Sea s h or e pr ot ect ion .
Low-wa t er br idges or for ds .
Cu lver t h ea dwa ll a n d ou t let s t r u ct u r es .
Br idge a bu t men t s a n d win g wa lls .
It is oft en n eces s a r y t o modify t h e jn let a n d
ou t let of a cu lver t by u s in g t r a n s it ion s t r u c-
t u r es t o r edu ce en t r a n ce los s es a n d t o in -
h ibit er os ion . Th er efor e, t h e t wo mos t com-
mon devices for wh ich gabion s ar e u s ed ar e
h ea dwa lls a n d ou t let a pr on s .
Headwalls or win g walls ar e des ign ed t o
pr ot ect t h e s lopes of a n emba n kmen t
again s t s cou r , t o in cr eas e cu lver t efficien cy
by pr ovidin g a flu s h in let as oppos ed t o
pr oject in g on e, t o pr even t dis join t in g of s ec-
t ion al-pipe cu lver t s by an ch or in g t h e in let
6-122 Drainage
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
a n d ou t let , a n d t o r et a in t h e emba n kmen t
s lope. Th es e s t r u ct u r es ar e bu ilt in a
va r iet y of s h a pes : s t r a igh t , L-s h a ped,
flar ed, an d war ped. A t ypical plan u s in g a
h ea dwa ll a n d a n ou t let a pr on wit h a cu lver t
is s h own in Figu r e 6-79. St r aigh t h ead-
walls ar c gen er ally u s ed on s mall, r oads ide
cu lver t s u n der dr iveways an d in s mall ch an -
n els h avin g a low appr oach veloc ly. Th ey
a r c a ls o r ecommen ded wh er e t h er e is a t en
den cy for lateral erosion to develop at the
outlet.
An a pr on is oft en r equ ir ed a t t h e ou t let of a
cu lver t t o r edu ce t h e ou t let velocit y a n d
t h er eby in h ibit s cou r . Gabion s ar e well
adapt ed for u s e h er e becau s e of t h eir r ou gh -
n es s , flexibilit y, an d du r abilit y. See Figu r e
6-80.)
Table 6-24 in dicat es t h e t ype of gabion
pr ot ect ion r equ ir ed for va r iou s r a n ges of ou t -
let velocit ies
Figure 6-80. Culvert inlet or outlet using gabion headwall and channel lining
Table 6-24. Requirements for gabion protection
Drainage 6-123
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
CULVERT OUTLETS
Mos t cu lver t s oper a t e u n der fr ee ou t fa ll con -
dit ion s (t h a t is , t h er e is n o con t r ol of t a il-
wat er ), an d t h e dis ch ar ge pos s es s es kin et ic
en er gy in exces s of t h a t occu r r in g n a t u r a lly
in t h e wat er way. Th is exces s kin et ic en er gy
mu s t oft en be dis s ipa t ed t o con t r ol da ma g-
in g er os ion . Th e ext en t t o wh ich pr ot ect ive
wor ks ar e r equ ir ed for en er gy dis s ipat ion
depen ds on t h e amou n t of exces s kin et ic
en er gy a n d t h e ch a r a ct er is t ics of t h e
ma t er ia l in t h e ou t let ch a n n el.
In gen er a l,
s cou r occu r s at aver age velocit ies in exces s
of abou t 1.5 fps in u n ifor m-gr aded s an d
an d coh es ion les s s ilt s , 2.5 fps in well-
gr aded s an d, 3.0 fps in s ilt y s an d, 4.0 fps
in clay, an d 6.0 fps in gr avel. Th es e
velocit ies s h ou ld be u s ed on ly as a gen er al
guide.
If pos s ible, ma ke a s t u dy of loca l ma t er ia l
t o det er min e it s er os ion t en den cies pr ior t o
a decis ion on t h e degr ee of pr ot ect ion r e-
qu ir ed. Th e s t u dy s h ou ld con s ider t h r ee
t ypes of ou t falls offer in g t h r ee degr ees of
pr ot ect ion : pla in ou t let s , t r a n s it ion s , a n d
s t illin g bas in s . Plain ou t let s pr ovide n o
pr ot ect ive wor ks a n d depen d on n a t u r a l
ma t er ia l t o r es is t h a r mfu l er os ion . Tr a n s i-
t ion s pr ovide lit t le or n o dis s ipa t ion on t h e
wor ks t h ems elves bu t r es u lt in a s pr eadin g
of t h e efflu en t jet t o a ppr oxima t e t h e cr os s -
s ect ion flow of t h e n a t u r a l ch a n n el, t h u s
r edu cin g t h e con cen t r a t ion of en er gy pr ior
t o r elea s in g t h e flow t o t h e ou t let ch a n n el.
St illin g bas in s r es u lt in dis s ipat ion of en er -
gy on t h e pr ot ect ive wor ks .
PLAIN OUTLETS
If t h e dis ch ar ge ch an n el is in r ock or a
ma t er ia l h igh ly r es is t a n t t o er os ion , s pecia l
er os ion pr ot ect ion is n ot r equ ir ed. Th is
t ype of ou t let s h ou ld be u s ed on ly if t h e
ma t er ia l in t h e ou t let ch a n n el ca n wit h -
s t a n d velocit ies a bou t 1,5 t imes t h e velocit y
in t h e cu lver t , At s u ch a n ou t let , s ide
er os ion fr om eddy a ct ion or t u r bu len ce is
mor e likely t o pr ove t r ou bles ome t h a n bot -
t om s cou r .
Ca n t ilever ed cu lver t ou t let s ma y be u s ed t o
dis ch ar ge a fr ee-fallin g jet on t o t h e bed of
t h e ou t let ch a n n el. As a r es u lt , a plu n ge
pool will be developed. Th e dept h an d s ize
of t h e plu n ge pool depen d on t h e en er gy of
t h e fa llin g jet a t t h e t a ilwa t er a n d t h e
er odibilit y of t h e bed ma t er ia l.
TRANSITIONS
Ou t let h ea dwa lls a n d win g wa lls s er ve t h e
du a l pu r pos e of r et a in in g t h e emba n kmen t
a n d limit in g t h e ou t let t r a n s it ion bou n da r y.
Er os ion of emba n kmen t t oes ca n be t r a ced
t o eddy a t t a ck a t t h e en ds of s u ch wa lls . A
flar ed t r an s it ion is effect ive if it is pr opor -
t ion ed s o t h at eddies in du ced by t h e ef-
flu en t jet do n ot con t in u e beyon d t h e en d
of t h e wa ll or over t op a s loped wa ll.
As a gu idelin e, it is s u gges t ed t h a t t h e
pr odu ct of velocit y a n d fla r e a n gle n ot ex-
ceed 150 degrees . For exa mple, if efflu en t
velocit y is 5 fps , each win g wall may flar e
30 degr ees ; bu t if velocit y is 15 fps , t h e
flar e s h ou ld n ot exceed 10 degr ees . Un les s
win g wa lls ca n be a n ch or ed on a s t a ble
fou n da t ion , a pa ved a pr on bet ween t h e
win g walls is r equ ir ed. Special car e mu s t
be t a ken in t h e s t r u ct u r e des ign t o
pr eclu de u n der min in g.
A n ewly excavat ed ch an n el may be expect ed
t o degr a de, Pr oper a llowa n ce for t h is a ct ion
s h ou ld be in clu ded in es t ablis h in g t h e
a pr on eleva t ion a n d dept h of cu t off wa ll.
War ped en d walls pr ovide excellen t t r an s i-
t ion s t h a t r es u lt in t h e r elea s e of flow in a
t r apezoidal cr os s s ect ion wh ich ap-
pr oxima t es t h e cr os s s ect ion of t h e ou t let
ch an n el. A wa r ped t r a n s it ion is ma de a t
t h e en d of t h e cu r ved s ect ion t o r edu ce t h e
pos s ibilit y of over t oppin g as a r es u lt of s u -
per elevat ion of t h e waler s u r face. A paved
apr on is r equ ir ed wit h war ped en d walls .
Ripr a p is u s u a lly r equ ir ed a t t h e en d of a
t r a n s it ion -t ype ou t let .
6-124 Drainage
STILLING BASINS
At cu lver t ou t let s wh er e a h igh con cen t r a -
t ion of en er gy or ea s ily er oded ma t er ia ls
make exces s ive er os ion likely, a s t illin g
bas in or ot h er en er gy-dis s ipat in g device is
r equ ir ed. For TO con s t r u ct ion , r ipr a p or
s imple, con cr et e s t illin g bas in s ar e u s u ally
r equ ir ed. Th er e ar e man y t ypes of en er gy-
dis s ipat in g devices s u ch as h ydr au lic-ju mp
bas in s , r oller bu cket s , flip bu cket s , impact -
en er gy-dis s ipat in g devices , an d s t illin g
wells . In u n u s u a l ca s es in volvin g ma jor
s t r u ct u r es , t h e u s e of a s pecia l t ype of
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
device s h ou ld be con s ider ed. Th r ee t ypes of
dis s ipa t or s wh ich ma y offer a s olu t ion a r e
t h e h ydr a u lic-ju mp s t illin g ba s in , wit h
det a ils developed a t t h e St , An t h on y Fa lls
Hydr a u lic La bor a t or y; t h e impa ct -en er gy dis -
s ipa t or , wit h det a ils developed a t t h e
h ydr a u lic la bor a t or y of t h e Bu r ea u of
Reclamat ion ; an d s t illin g wells , Th es e dis -
s ipa t or s ar e beyon d t h e s cope of TO con -
s t r u ct ion , Des ign pr ocedu r es ar e n ot in -
elu ded in t h is ma n u a l.
Drainage 6-125
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
7
Soils Trafficability
Basic Trafficability Factors
Critical Layer
Instruments and Tests for Trafficability
Measuring Trafficability
Application of Trafficability Procedures in Fine-Grained Soils and Remoldable Sands
Self-Propelled, Tracked Vehicles and All-Wheel-Drive Vehicles Negotiating Slopes
Operation in Coarse-Grained Soils
Trafficability Data
Soil-Trafficability Classification
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
SOILS TRAFFICABILITY
Soils trafficability is the capacity of s oils to s upport military vehicles . This chapter in
cludes information on the follow ing topics :
Operating and maintaining the s oil-trafficability tes t s et.
Meas uring trafficability w ith the res ults of the tes ts performed by the cone
penetrometer and remolding equipment.
Mak ing trafficability es timates from terrain data (topography and s oil data) and
w eather conditions . The procedures in this chapter are cons ervative es timates for field
us e. Engineers mus t be cautious as the calculated res ults can vary by 20% or more
from changes in tire pres s ure and deflection. Plan for the unexpected!
This chapter dis cus s es the trafficability of fine- and coars e-grained s oils . Organic s oils
[mus k eg.) and s now are not dis cus s ed.
The trafficability of fine-grained s oils (s ilts and clay s ) and s ands that contain enough
fine-grained material to behave lik e fine-grained s oils w hen w et is more difficult to as -
s es s than trafficability in coars e-grained s oils (clean s ands ). Relations hips that
des cribe the s oil-vehicle interactions are bas ed on s oil s hearing-res is tance meas ure-
ments made w ith the cone penetrometer and corrected for s oil remolding under vehicle
traffic by the remolding index [RI) procedures .
The information pres ented in this chapter is limited to problems as s ociated w ith s oils .
It does not include problems as s ociated w ith natural or man-made obs tacles (s uch as
fores ts or ditches ) nor Information on vehicle characteris tics (s uch as the maximum tilt
or s ide angle at w hich a vehicle can climb w ithout pow er s tall or overturning), The
bas ic principles for the procedures pres ented are s ound for temperate and tropical
climates and for s oils that have been s ubjected to freez e-thaw cy cles , if they are not
froz en at the time of tes ting and pas s age of traffic.
Originally , this chapter w as des igned to permit calculation ns of trafficability by field per-
s onnel w ith only a hand-held calculator. Performances w ere es timated for a minimum
number of vehicle pas s es (1) or a maximum of 50 vehicles in the s ame ruts , Today
mos t relations are us ed for one pas s and the combined effects on vehicle performance
of terrain features s uch as s oil, vegetation, and s lope can only accurately be deter-
mined through the us e of the computeriz ed Army mobility prediction s y s tem contained
in the NATO Reference Mobility Model (NRMM). The engineering relations hips w hich
produce vehicle s peed predictions or GO/ NO GO performance bas ed on meas ured ter-
rain and vehicle characteris tics are contained in the NRMM. This chapter only intro-
duces fundamental relations hips , terminologies , and illus trations of this computeriz ed,
comprehens ive mobility evaluation tool. Mos t military units have acces s to NRMM
relations hips through pers onal computer-bas ed NRMM vers ions of mobility predictions
s uch as the Comprehens ive Army Mobility Modeling Sy s tem (CAMMS).
Soils Trafficability 7-1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
BASIC TRAFFICABILITY FACTORS
Th e followin g fa ct or s impa ct s oil t r a f-
ficabilit y:
SOIL STRENGTH
Bea r in g a n d t r a ct ion ca pa cit ies of s oils a r e
fu n ct ion s of t h eir s h ea r in g r es is t a n ce.
Sh ear in g r es is t an ce is meas u r ed by t h e
con e pen et r omet er an d is expr es s ed in
t er ms of con e in dex (CI). Becau s e t h e
s t r en gt h of fin e-gr ain ed s oils (s ilt s an d
clays ) may in cr eas e or decr eas e wh en
loaded or dis t u r bed, r emoldin g t es t s ar e
n eces s a r y t o mea s u r e a n y los s of s oil
s t r en gt h expect ed a ft er t r a ffic. Th e fin e-
gr ain ed s oil CI mu lt iplied by t h e RI
pr odu ces t h e r at in g con e in dex (RCI) u s ed
t o den ot e s oil s t r en gt h cor r ect ed for r emold-
in g. A compa r is on of t h e RCI wit h t h e
veh icle con e in dex (VCI) in dicat es wh et h er
t h e veh icle can n egot iat e t h e given s oil con -
dit ion for a given n u mber of pas s es . For ex-
a mple, if a s oil h a s a CI of 120 a n d a n RI
of 0.60 in it s cr it ical layer , t h e s oil s t r en gt h
may be expect ed t o fall t o 120 t imes 0.60,
or a n RCI of 72, u n der t r a ffic. Th er efor e,
s u ch s oil is n ot t r afficable for veh icles wit h
VCIs gr ea t er t h a n 72. If a veh icle h a s a
min imu m s oil-s t r en gt h r equ ir emen t of 72
for on e pa s s , it s is 72 a n d a n RCI of
72 is r equ ir ed for t h e veh icle t o complet e
on e pa s s wit h ou t immobiliza t ion . Appen dix
D of t h is ma n u a l s u mma r izes VCIs for
milit ar y veh icles .
STICKINESS
St ickin es s may s er iou s ly h amper veh icles
oper at in g in wet , fin e-gr ain ed s oil. Un der
ext r eme con dit ion s , s t icky s oil ca n a ccu mu -
la t e in a veh icles r u n n in g gea r s , ma kin g
t r a vel a n d s t eer in g difficu lt . Nor ma lly,
s t ickin es s is t r ou bles ome on ly wh en it oc-
cu r s in s oils of low-bear in g capacit y (n or -
mally, fin e-gr ain ed s oils ).
SLIPPERINESS
Exces s wa t er or a la yer of s oft , pla s t ic s oil
of low LL over lyin g a fir m la yer of s oil ca n
pr odu ce a s lipper y s u r face. Su ch a con di-
t ion ma y ma ke s t eer in g difficu lt or ma y im-
mobilize r u bber -t ir ed veh icles . Veget a t ion ,
es pecially wh en wet an d on a s lope, may
ca u s e immobiliza t ion of r u bber -t ir ed
veh icles . Slipper in es s is t r ou bles ome, even
wh en as s ociat ed wit h s oils wit h h igh -bear -
in g capacit ies .
VARIATION OF TRAFFICABILITY WITH
WEATHER
Weat h er ch an ges pr odu ce ch an ges in s oil
t r afficabilit y. Fin e-gr ain ed s oils in cr eas e in
mois t u r e du r in g r ain y per iods . Th is r es u lt s
in s lipper in es s , s t ickin es s , an d decr eas ed
s t r en gt h . Dr y per iods pr odu ce t h e oppos it e
effect s . Loos e s a n ds impr ove t r a ffica bilit y
t h r ou gh a n in cr ea s e in coh es ion du r in g
r a in y per iods a n d r et u r n t o t h e loos e, les s
t r afficable s t at e du r in g dr y per iods . Tr af-
fica bilit y ch a r a ct er is t ics mea s u r ed on a
given dat e can n ot be applied lat er u n les s
fu ll a llowa n ce is ma de for t h e ch a n ges in
s oil s t r en gt h ca u s ed by wea t h er . Fr eezin g
a n d t h a win g con dit ion s ca n ca u s e ext r eme
va r ia t ion s in t h e t r a ffica bilit y of s oils .
Sever a l in ch es of fr ozen s oil ma y ca r r y a
lar ge n u mber of ext r emely h eavy veh icles .
However , wh en t h is s a me ma t er ia l is t h a w-
in g, it ma y be impa s s a ble t o n ea r ly a ll
veh icles . Sn ow cover can h ave a s ign ifican t t
effect on t h e dept h of fr eezin g. Th e ab-
s en ce of s n ow a llows fr os t t o pen et r a t e
mor e deeply in t o t h e s oil. Tech n iqu es h ave
been developed for pr edict in g t h e effect s of
weat h er on s oil t r afficabilit y. Th es e t ech n i-
qu es a r e pa r t of t h e compr eh en s ive NRMM
an d ar e n ot in clu ded in t h is pu blicat ion .
7-2 Soils Trafficability
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
CRITICAL LAYER
Th e cr it ical layer is t h e layer in t h e s oil pr ofile, t h e veh icle t ype an d
t h a t s u ppor t s t h e weigh t of t h e veh icle in n u mber of pas s es r equ ir ed.
qu es t ion . Th e cr it ical layer s dept h var ies ma r izes t h es e va r ia t ion s for
wit h t h e s oil t ype, t h e s oils s t r en gt h milit ar y veh icles .
Table 7-1. Critical-layer depth variations
weigh t , a n d t h e
Table 7-1 s u m-
common
INSTRUMENTS AND TESTS FOR TRAFFICABILITY
Th is s ect ion con t a in s gen er a l in for ma t ion
r ega r din g t h e s oil-t r a ffica bilit y t es t s et . Th e
s pecific u s e, oper at in g in s t r u ct ion s , an d
t es t pr ocedu r es for t h e s oil-t r a ffica bilit y t es t
s et ar e des cr ibed in det ail in Appen dix E of
t h is ma n u a l. Sieve-an alys is t es t s , plas t icit y
t es t s , a n d ot h er field iden t ifica t ion t es t s a r c
des cr ibed in Ch apt er 2 of FM 5-530.
Tr a ffica bilit y mea s u r emen t s a r e ma de wit h
t h e s oil-t r a ffica bilit y t es t s et . Th is s et con -
s is t s of on e can vas car r yin g cas e, on e con e
pen et r omet er wit h 3/ 8-in ch s t eel a n d 5/ 8-
in ch a lu min u m s h a ft s a n d a 0.5-s qu a r e-
in ch con e, on e s oil s ampler , r emoldin g
equ ipmen t (wh ich in clu des a 3/ 8-in ch s t eel
s h aft an d a 0.2-s qu ar e-in ch con e, a 5/ 8-
in ch s t eel s h a ft wit h foot a n d h a n dle, a 2
1/ 2-pou n d h ammer , a cylin der an d bas e
wit h pin ), a n d a ba g of h a n d t ools . Th e
it ems ar e s h own in Figu r e 7-1 in t h eir
pr oper places in t h e car r yin g cas e. Th e s et
is car r ied on t h e back as s h own in Figu r e 7
2, page 7-4. Th e complet e s et weigh s 19
pou n ds .
Figure 7-1. Soil-trafficability test set
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Th e pr ima r y in s t r u men t of t h e s oil-t r a f-
fica bilit y t es t s et is t h e con e pen et r omet er .
It is s h own in Figu r es 7-3 an d 7-4 an d Fig-
u r e 7-5, page 7-5. It is u s ed t o det er min e
t h e s h ea r in g s t r en gt h of low-s t r en gt h s oils .
Th er e is a ls o a dyn a mic con e pen et r omet er ,
bu t t h is in s t r u men t is u s ed t o det er min e
s h ea r s t r en gt h of h igh -s t r en gt h s oils s u ch
a s t h os e fou n d in t h e ba s e cou r s es of r oa ds
an d air fields . (Th e dyn amic con e pen et r o-
met er is cu r r en t ly developmen t a l a n d h a s
on ly limit ed fieldin g.) Th e dyn amic con e
pen et r omet er is des cr ibed in det ail in Appen -
dix E. Th e con e pen et r omet er con s is t s of a
30-degr ee con e wit h a 1/ 2-in ch -s qu ar e bas e
ar ea, a s t eel s h aft 19 in ch es lon g an d 3/ 8
in ch in dia met er , a pr ovin g r in g, a
micr omet er dia l, a n d a h a n dle. Wh en t h e
con e is for ced in t o t h e gr ou n d, t h e pr ovin g
r in g is defor med in pr opor t ion t o t h e for ce
applied.
Figure 7-2. Carrying a
soil-trafficability test set
Figure 7-3. Cone penetrometer
Figure 7-4. Using a cone
penetrometer in the upright position
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 7-5. Using a cone penetrometer in the prone position
Th e a mou n t of for ce r equ ir ed t o move t h e
con e s lowly t h r ou gh a given plan e is in di-
cat ed on t h e dial in s ide t h e r in g. Th is for ce
is an in dex of t h e s oils s h ear in g r es is t an ce
an d is called t h e s oils CI in t h at plan e.
Th e dials r an ge is 0 t o 300 pou n ds per
s qu ar e in ch (ps i). (Th e act u al load applied
t o t h e con e pen et r omet er is 0 t o 150
pou n ds , s in ce t h e in s t r u men t u s es a 1/ 2-
s qu ar e-in ch bas e.) Th e pr ovin g r in g an d
h a n dle a r e u s ed wit h a 3/ 8-in ch -dia met er
s t eel s h a ft a n d t h e 0.2-s qu a r e-in ch con e for
r emoldin g t es t s in r emoldable s an ds . Th e
con e pen et r omet er ca n n ot be Us ed t o
mea s u r e gr a vels . Gr avels ar c con s ider ed ex-
cellen t for 50 pas s es , an d an y pr oblems can
be det er min ed by vis u al obs er vat ion .
Th e s pecific u s e, oper at in g in s t r u ct ion s ,
an d t es t pr ocedu r es for t h e con e pen e-
t r omet er a s well a s t h e r ema in der of t h e
s oil-t r afficabilit y t es t s et ar e des cr ibed in
det ail in Appen dix E.
MEASURING TRAFFICABILITY
Wh en ever r econ n ais s an ce par t ies h ave t ime
t o t a ke t r a ffica bilit y mea s u r emen t s , t h ey
s h ou ld obt a in da t a t o det er min e t h e n u m-
ber a n d t ype of veh icles t h a t ca n cr os s t h e
ar ea an d t h e s lopes t h ey can climb. Th e
pr ocedu r es for mea s u r in g t r a ffica bilit y a r e
des cr ibed in t h is s ect ion . Remember t h a t
mea s u r emen t s a r e va lid on ly for t h e t ime of
t h e mea s u r emen t a n d s h or t per iods t h er e-
a ft er , pr ovided n o wea t h er ch a n ges occu r .
RANGE OF CONE INDEXES
A CI r an gin g bet ween 10 an d 300 in t h e
cr it ica l la yer is r equ ir ed t o s u ppor t mos t
milit ar y veh icles . Except for a few veh icles ,
a CI below 10 is con s ider ed t o be a n on t r af-
ficable ar ea an d a CI above 300 is con -
s ider ed t r afficable t o all bu t a few veh icles
for 50 pas s es . Th es e limit s u s u ally make it
pos s ible, wh ile ga t h er in g da t a for t r a ffica -
bilit y eva lu a t ion , t o cla s s ify la r ge a r ea s a s
a bove or below t h e cr it ica l r a n ge wit h ou t ex-
t en s ive t es t in g.
NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS
Th e n u mber of mea s u r emen t s t a ken is
det er min ed by t h e t ime a va ila ble, t h e ju dg-
men t of t h e r a n ge of s oil s t r en gt h s , a n d t h e
gen er a l u n ifor mit y of t h e a r ea . Tr a ffica -
bilit y-mea s u r in g in s t r u men t s a r e des ign ed
for r a pid obs er va t ion s . Th e a ccu r a cy of t h e
aver age of an y s er ies of r eadin gs in cr eas es
wit h t h e n u mber t a ken . Va r ia t ion s in s oft
s oils r equ ir e t h a t a t lea s t 15 r ea din gs be
t a ken t o es t a blis h a t r u e a ver a ge CI a t a n y
s pot at a given dept h . Th e 15 r eadin gs
s h ou ld be dis t r ibu t ed t h r ou gh ou t a u n ifor m
a r ea ,
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
If t ime is n ot a va ila ble t o t a ke a la r ge n u m-
ber of mea s u r emen t s , u s e ju dgmen t t o r e-
du ce t h e n u mber a ccor din g t o t h e followin g
in s t r u ct ion s :
If CIs ar e bet ween 0 an d 150, en ou gh
r eadin gs s h ou ld be t aken t o as s u r e ac-
cu r a t e cover a ge of t h e a r ea . Rea din gs
s h ou ld be ma de a t en ou gh loca t ion s t o
es t a blis h t h e a r ea bou n da r ies a n d t h e
a ver a ge CI wit h in clos e limit s . Fou r t o
s ix s et s of r eadin gs s h ou ld be made at
ea ch loca t ion . Remoldin g t es t s (in t h e
cas e of fin e-gr ain ed s oil an d r emoldable
s an d) s h ou ld be r u n a t a s u fficien t n u m-
ber of loca t ion s t o es t a blis h t h e r a n ge of
RIs If a t en t a t ive r ou t e ca n be s elect ed
in t h e field, pen et r omet er a n d r emoldin g
mea s u r emen t s s h ou ld be ma de a t
clos ely s paced in t er vals t o locat e an y
s oft s pot s . Wh er e CIs ar e les s t h an 10,
r ea din gs s h ou ld be limit ed t o t h e n u m-
ber n eeded t o es t ablis h t h e n on t r affica-
ble-a r ea limit s . No r emoldin g t es t s a r e
r equ ir ed.
If t h e CI r an ges fr om 150 t o 200, s elect
en ou gh loca t ion s t o ver ify t h e a r ea lim-
it s . Th r ee or fou r s et s of r eadin gs
s h ou ld be ma de a t ea ch loca t ion . For
fin e-gr ain ed s oils an d r emoldable
s an ds , r emoldin g t es t s s h ou ld be made
a t t h e fir s t t wo or t h r ee loca t ion s . If
t h es e s h ow a n RI of 0.90 or mor e, a ddi-
t ion a l r emoldin g t es t s a r e n ot n eeded.
If t h e RI is below 0.90, s u fficien t r emold-
in g t es t s s h ou ld be ma de t o es t a blis h
t h e r a n ge for t h e a r ea . Th is ca n be es -
t a blis h ed wit h t es t s a t a ppr oxima t ely
s ix loca t ion s .
If t h e CIs ar e above 200, a few pen e-
t r omet er r ea din gs will u s u a lly ver ify t h e
ext en t of t h e a r ea . Two s et s of pr ofile
r ea din gs t a ken a t ea ch loca t ion s h ou ld
be a dequ a t e. Remoldin g t es t s on s oil
fr om t h e cr it ical layer (fin e-gr ain ed s oils
an d r emoldable s an ds ) s h ou ld be made
a t t h e fir s t t wo or t h r ee loca t ion s . If
t h es e s h ow a n RI of 0.80 or mor e, n o a d-
dit ion al r emoldin g t es t s ar e n eeded.
Su fficien t t es t s s h ou ld be ma de t o es t a b-
lis h t h e r a n ge for t h e a r ea if t h e RI is be-
low 0.80. Th is can be es t ablis h ed wit h
t es t s a t a ppr oxima t ely fou r loca t ion s .
Exa mple:
Us in g t h e wor k s h eet in Figu r e 7-6, five
t es t s down t o 24 in ch es wer e complet ed a t
a s elect ed s it e. Th e cor r es pon din g pen e-
t r omet er r eadin gs ar e lis t ed in t h e blocks
for t h e cor r es pon din g dept h a n d t es t . For
example, in t es t n u mber 1 t h e 0-in ch r ead-
in g is 58, t h e 6-in ch r eadin g is 63, an d s o
on . Th e in dividu al dept h r eadin gs ar e t h en
added an d aver aged, as in t h e 0-in ch layer .
(Alwa ys r ou n d down .)
Solu t ion :
Th e n u mber s in t h e n u mer a t or a r e t h e in di-
vidu al r eadin gs . Th e n u mber in t h e den omi-
n a t or r epr es en t s t h e n u mber of t es t s con -
du ct ed. Th e r es u lt in g qu ot ien t is t h e a ver -
a ge CI for t h a t dept h .
Aft er all in dividu al r eadin gs ar e added t o-
get h er , t h ey a r e a ver a ged wit h t h e r ea din g
a bove a n d below t o obt a in t h e a ver a ge CI
for t h a t la yer . In t h e ca s e of t h e 0- t o
6-in ch layer , t h e 66 an d 71 ar e added an d
t h en aver aged [68). Th e 68 is t h e CI for
t h e 0- t o 6-in ch la yer , Rea din gs a r e t h en
aver aged for t h e 6- t o 12-in ch layer an d
s o on .
NOTE: In t e r me di a t e va lu e s for t h e 3 -,
9 -, a n d 1 5 -i n c h de pt h s (fi n e gr a i n s a n d r e -
molda ble s a n ds ) c a n be i n t e r pola t e d wh e n
t h e ve h i c le t ype s u n de r c on s i de r a t i on r e -
qu i r e t h e m.
Con t in u in g wit h t h e exa mple a bove, t h e
M929 du mp cr it ical layer for on e veh icle
an d for 50 veh icles is 9-15 in ch es . (To de-
t er min e t h e cr it ica l la yer , r efer t o t h e s ec-
t ion on cr it ica l la yer s in t h is ch a pt er , pa ge
7-3.) Becau s e t h e r eadin gs on t h e con e
pen et r omet er a r e t a ken a t t h e 0-, 6-, 12-,
18-, an d 24-in ch dept h s , t h e 3-, 9-, 15-, an d
21-in ch r eadin gs mu s t be in t er polat ed
wh er e n eces s ar y.
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 7-6. Trafficability test data form
TRAFFICABILlTY TEST DATA
b. n.A ; AT DEP"H
a. TEST NUMBERS
o I
I 12"
-
AVERAGE
71 75 75 e,2.
<[ORMAl") 'IItIQRU.,
c.Cl 1 14-
Id. CI..,o 74-
7 -IS 1
7
5""6(71 ... '.. .............. ..!
JD 74- ................
e. CRITICAllAYER FOR 1 VEHICLE "
1-
1
5'
f. CRITICAL LAYER fOR 50 VEHICLES 9-/5"/'
4. n ... ,INOX (D,I '11 .re:
a. LAYER 9-/5" LAYER
7-
IS1
(
LAVER
7- 15'"/1
LAYER
b. DEPTH BEFORE AFTER BEFORE AFTER BEfORE AFTER BEFORE AFTER
o
5'6
ct 71 93
I 1"

73 75
85
2"
<03
15""
7(
77

r
77 73 e)l5 9-4-
4"
7"
61
78
SS
?7
c. AVERAGE
75 71 78 9Cf
\. \4-
d. RI " After
8e'iOr"i!
e. RI FOR 1 VEHICLE f. RI fOR 50 VEHICLES
f $2S'
I g. RATING CONE INDEX (RCI)
RCI.-C11XRI,- 74->(1 :::i4-
RCI50 CI50 X Rlso 74- x, ': 74-
i. WEATHER CONDITIONS (Describe)
LOuT) y /4-tJi) c::::..OOL-
j. VEHICLE CONE INDEX {V Cl)
VC'1 3f
ICG Cl > VC,
742'- 3J71 -
f'. 43
0
F
'!:14/NtE.D lA ,TfH,J L-.4?r z4
IFG & RS RCI VCI

VC150
I k. TYPE OF SOIL
one) ../ FG
WILL 1 VEHICLE fr. one) I vi vu I NO I. I PROfiLE I vi /'1
Will "UU ,... TVT y:s 1 NOl( <" r( 7 . '7
CG
ABNORMAL
00 Form 2641, AUG 93 \
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
To fin d t h e 3- t o 9-in ch layer , t h e ]CI r ead-
in gs for t h e 0- t o 6-in ch an d t h e 6- t o 12-
in ch la yer s a r e a dded t oget h er a n d t h en a v-
er aged:
70 becomes t h e CI for t h e 3- t o 9-in ch
layer . For t h e 9- t o 15-in ch layer , t h e 6- t o
12-in ch an d 12- t o 18-in ch layer s will be in -
t er pola t ed:
Th e CI for t h e 9- t o 15-in ch layer is 74.
STRENGTH PROFILE
Nor ma l St r e n gt h Pr ofi le i n Fi n e -Gr a i n e d
s oils a n d Re molda ble Sa n ds
In a s oil wit h a n or ma l s t r en gt h pr ofile, t h e
CI r eadin gs eit h er in cr eas e or r emain con -
s t a n t wit h ea ch in cr emen t of dept h . An
a r ea wit h a n or ma l s t r en gt h pr ofile is
s h own in Table 7-2. CIs s h ou ld be mea-
s u r ed at 6-in ch in cr emen t s down t o 18
in ch es in t h e ea r ly s t a ges of a r ea r econ n a is -
s a n ce. If t h es e mea s u r emen t s con s is t en t ly
r evea l t h a t t h e pr ofile is n or ma l, on ly r ea d-
in gs in t h e cr it ical layer n eed t o be r e-
cor ded.
For a t r acked veh icle weigh in g les s t h an
100.000 pou n ds , s u ch as t h e M113A3 ar -
mor ed per s on n el car r ier (APC), r eadin gs ar e
r ecor ded for t h e 6- an d 12-in ch dept h s . In
a n or ma l pr ofile, r emoldin g t es t s s h ou ld be
r u n on ly on s a mples t a ken fr om t h e n or ma l
cr it ical dept h for t h e veh icle in qu es t ion ,
s in ce a decr eas e in RI wit h in cr eas in g dept h
is n ot common . Th e RCI for t h is la yer is
u s ed a s t h e cr it er ion of t r a ffic a bilit y for t h is
par t icu lar veh icle.
Abn or ma l St r e n gt h Pr ofi le i n Fi n e -
Gr a in e d Soils a n d Re molda ble Sa n ds
An a bn or ma l s t r en gt h pr ofile h a s a t lea s t
on e CI r ea din g t h a t is lower t h a n t h e r ea d-
in g immedia t ely pr ecedin g it . An a r ea wit h
Table 7-2. Examples of normal- and abnormal-soil strength profiles
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
a n a bn or ma l s t r en gt h pr ofile is s h own in Ta -
ble 7-2.
Wh en a n a bn or ma l s t r en gt h pr ofile exis t s ,
CI r eadin gs s h ou ld be made an d r ecor ded
a t 6-in ch in cr emen t s fr om t h e t op of t h e
n or ma l cr it ica l la yer (6-in ch dept h for t h e
M113A3 APC) t o 6 in ch es below t h e bot t om
of t h e n or ma l cr it ica l la yer (18 in ch es for
t h e M113A3 APC).
Remoldin g t es t s mu s t be r u n on s a mples
fr om t h e n or ma l cr it ica l la yer a n d a ls o fr om
t h e 6-in ch layer below it . Th e lower RCI is
u s ed a s t h e t r a ffica bilit y mea s u r emen t . Low-
gr ou n d-pr es s u r e t r a cks a r e a n except ion t o
t h is r u le. Th e 3- t o 9-in ch layer is always
u s ed as t h e cr it ical layer for t h es e veh icles .
St r e n gt h Pr ofile in Coa r s e -Gr a in e d Soils
As in dicat ed in Table 7-1, page 7-3, t h e
cr it ical layer for mos t veh icles in coar s e-
gr ain ed s oils is t h e 0- t o 6-in ch layer . Mos t
coa r s e-gr a in ed s oils h a ve a n or ma l s t r en gt h
pr ofile wit h a la r ge in cr ea s e in s t r en gt h
wit h dept h wh en compa r ed t o fin e-gr a in ed
s oils . For t h is r ea s on , CI mea s u r emen t s
s h ou ld be t a ken a t 3-in ch in cr emen t s t o 18
in ch es or u n t il t h e ma ximu m ca pa cit y (300
CI) of t h e pen et r omet er h a s been r ea ch ed.
Us u a lly, fewer pen et r a t ion s a r e r equ ir ed t o
es t ablis h an aver age becau s e coar s e -gr ain ed
s oil a r ea s gen er a lly a r e mor e u n ifor m t h a n
fin e-gr ain ed s oils an d r emoldable s an ds .
Th e RI t es t s a r e n ot r equ ir ed. Th e s t r en gt h
mea s u r emen t s in a coa r s e-gr a in ed s oil a r ea
ar e s h own in Table 7-2.
RATING CONE INDEX
Th e RCI defin ed ear lier is t h e CI t h at will r e-
s u lt u n der t r affic. Th is valu e is compar ed
t o t h e VCI t o det er min e t h e t r a ffica bilit y of
t h e ar ea for a s pecific veh icle,
Exa mple:
Th e followin g fin e-gr ain ed s oil ar eas ar e t o
be in ves t igat ed for t r afficabilit y for veh icles
wit h a n or ma l cr it ica l la yer of 6 t o 12
in ch es . Becau s e ar ea A in Table 7-2 h as a
n or ma l pr ofile, a r emoldin g t es t wa s r u n
on ly for t h e 6- t o 12-in ch layer . Th e RCI
for ar ea A is 60 (t h e aver age of 50 an d 70)
x 0.90 = 54. In a r ea B, r emoldin g t es t s
wer e n eces s ar y for bot h t h e 6- t o 12-in ch
an d 12-t o 18-in ch layer s . In t h is ar ea, t h e
RCI of t h e 6- t o 12-in ch layer is 60 (t h e av-
er age of 75 an d 45) x 0.90 = 54, an d t h e
RCI of t h e 12-t o 18-in ch layer is 40 x 0.90
= 36. Th e RCI of t h e 12- t o 18-in ch layer ,
36, is t h e gover n in g valu e for t h e t r afficabil-
it y in a r ea B.
Exa mple:
Us in g t h e wor k s h eet in Figu r e 7-6, page
7-7, t h e cr it ical layer for on e or 50 M929
du mps is 9 t o 15 in ch es .
Sa mples a r e r emoved fr om t h e cr it ica l la yer .
For t h e 9- t o 15-in ch layer , t h r ee t es t s wer e
con du ct ed, each yieldin g differ en t r es u lt s .
Th e aver age of t h es e r es u lt s is det er min ed,
a n d t h is n u mber becomes t h e RI for t h a t
la yer .
(1.14 exceeds 1.0, s o u s e 1.0.) Th e is
74 an d t h e is 74. Th e is 30,
a n d t h e is 68. Compa r in g t h e
t o t h e a n d t h e t o t h e it is
det er min ed t h a t on e M929 du mp ca n cr os s
t h e a r ea a n d 50 M929 du mps a ls o ca n
cr os s t h e a r ea beca u s e t h e RCI va lu es a r e
gr ea t er t h a n or equ a l t o t h e VCI va lu es .
Us u ally a mixt u r e of veh icles will pas s
t h r ou gh a n a r ea , n ot a colu mn of on e veh i-
cle t ype. Th er efor e, t h e VCI a n d cr it ica l
layer will be det er min ed for t h e cr it ical veh i-
cle.
To es t ima t e h ow ma n y veh icles will cr os s a n
a r ea wh en t h e RCI is les s t h a n t h e or
t o s ee wh a t t h e VCI for les s t h a n 50 veh i-
cles will be, u s e t h e followin g for mu la:
will give an in cr emen t for on e veh icle
t h a t , wh en a dded t o t h e will give t h e
AVCI for a n y a mou n t of veh icles u p t o 50.
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Example:
Es t ima t e h ow ma n y M1A1 t a n ks ca n cr os s
a level ar ea wit h fin e-gr ain ed s oil wh er e t h e
CI is 65 an d t h e RI is 0.80 in t h e cr it ical
layer . For s implicit y, we h ave u s ed t h is ap-
pr oa ch on t r a ffica bilit y r es ea r ch . In a c-
t u a lit y, t h e s t r en gt h in cr emen t decr ea s es a s
pa s s es in cr ea s e; for exa mple, mor e s t r en gt h
is r equ ir ed for lower pas s es t h an for h igh er
pa s s es , s o t h a t mor e r emoldin g occu r s a t
lower pas s es t h an at h igh er pas s es . Th e dif-
fer en ces ar e n ot lin ear bu t can be es -
t ima t ed in t h e ma n n er s h own h er e.
Each vehicle adds 0.66 to the
To es t ima t e t h e n u mber of veh icles t h a t ca n
pas s , add 0.66 t o u n t il t h e n u mber is
equ a l t o t h e RCI or on e mor e in cr ea s e will
exceed t h e RCI. (Remember , t h is is on ly a n
es t ima t e.)
OTHER TRAFFICABILITY EVALUATION
FACTORS
In a ddit ion t o t h e CI of a n a r ea , con s ider
t h e fa ct or s t h a t follow wh en eva lu a t in g t r a f-
fixabilit y.
Slope
Th e s t eepes t s lope, or r u lin g gr a de, t h a t
mu s t be n egot ia t ed s h ou ld be det er min ed
by s t u dyin g a con t ou r ma p. For t r a vel over
s lopes , t h e CI r equ ir emen t s mu s t be in -
cr eas ed over t h os e r equ ir ed for level t er r ain .
St ic k in e s s
St ickin es s occu r s in all fin e-gr ain ed s oils
wh en t h ey a r e wet . Th e gr eat er t h e plas -
t icit y of t h e s oil, t h e mor e s ever e t h e effect s
of s t ickin es s . St ickin es s adver s ely affect s
t h e s peed an d con t r ol of all veh icles bu t
will n ot ca u s e immobiliza t ion except for t h e
s malles t t r acked veh icles . Th e wor s t s t icki-
n es s is n ot h in g mor e t h a n a n u is a n ce t o
la r ger , mor e power fu l milit a r y veh icles .
Removin g fen der s will r edu ce s t ickin es s ef-
fect s on s ome veh icles . In s t r u men t s for
mea s u r in g t h e effect s of s t ickin es s on t h e
per for man ce of veh icles h ave n ot yet been
devis ed.
Sl i p p e r i n e s s
Like s t ickin es s , t h e effect s of s lipper in es s
ca n n ot be mea s u r ed. Soils t h a t a r e cover ed
wit h wa t er or a la yer of s oft , pla s t ic s oil
u s u ally ar e s lipper y an d oft en cau s e s t eer -
in g difficu lt y, es pecially in r u bber -t ir ed
veh icles . Immobiliza t ion ca n occu r wh en
s lipper in es s is as s ociat ed wit h low-bear in g
capacit y. Th e adver s e effect s of s lipper i-
n es s ar e mor e s ever e on s lopes . Somet imes
s lopes wit h a dequ a t e s oil s t r en gt h will n ot
be pas s able becau s e of s lipper in es s .
Ch ain s on r u bber -t ir ed veh icles u s u ally im-
pr ove mobilit y in s lipper y con dit ion s . Th e
followin g cat egor ies ar e u s ed t o r at e s lipper i-
n es s :
Condition Symbol
Not slippery under any conditions N
Slippery when wet P
Slippery at all times S
Ve ge t a t i on
Th e effect s of veget a t ion on t r a ffica bilit y a r e
n ot wit h in t h e s cope of t h is ma n u a l,
bu t s ome poin t s a r e wor t h y of men t ion ,
Den s e gr as s , es pecially if wet , may pr ovide
s lipper y con dit ion s . Addit ion a lly, s oil
s t r en gt h r equ ir emen t s will be gr ea t er t h a n
n or ma l if s ma ll t r ees or t h ick br u s h mu s t
be pu s h ed down by t h e veh icle.
Or ga n i c -Soi l Ar e a s
Mu ch of t h e t er r a in in n or t h er n la t it u des is
bla n ket ed wit h a la yer of or ga n ic ma t er ia l
compos ed of r oot s , mos s es , a n d ot h er
veget a t ion in va r iou s s t a ges of decompos i-
t ion , Limit ed t es t in g wit h milit a r y veh icles
r eveals t h at low-gr ou n d-pr es s u r e, t r acked
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
veh icles , s u ch as t h e M973 s mall-u n it s u p-
por t veh icle (SUSV), ca n t r avel 50 pas s es
over or ga n ic ma t s t h a t a r e mor e t h a n 6
in ch es t h ick.
Us u ally, h igh -gr ou n d-pr es s u r e veh icles can
t r avel on ly a few pas s es befor e t h ey br eak
t h r ou gh an d become immobilized. Wh eeled
veh icles u s u a lly ca n n ot t r a vel on mos t of
t h es e or gan ic-s oil ar eas . Con e in dices de-
n ot e t h e r ela t ive s t r en gt h of or ga n ic s oils .
However , t h e s oil-s t r en gt h veh icle per for m-
a n ce r ela t ion s for or ga n ic s oils a r e n ot a s
well defin ed as for fin e-gr ain ed an d coar s e-
gr ain ed s oils .
Ot h e r Obs t a c le s
A complet e a s s es s men t of t h e t r a ffic a bilit y
of a given a r ea mu s t in clu de a n eva lu a t ion
of obs t acles s u ch as for es t s , r iver s , bou lder
fields , dit ch es , an d h edger ows . Exact ef-
fect s of s u ch obs t a cles on t h e per for ma n ce
of veh icles ar e det er min ed by t h e compr e-
h en s ive NRMM bu t a r e n ot wit h in t h e s cope
of t h is ma n u a l.
APPLICATION OF TRAFFICABILITY PROCEDURES IN
FINE-GRAINED SOILS AND REMOLDABLE SANDS
Th e pr ocedu r es pr es en t ed in ear lier s ect ion s t h e s oil t o wit h s t a n d 1 or 50 pa s s es of t h e
of t h is ch a pt er a r e in t en ded for u s e in t a ct i- s ame veh icle (or veh icles wit h s maller
ca l oper a t ion s . Cr it er ia h ave been es t ab- or oper a t in g a t a s low s peed in t h e
lis h ed s o t h a t wh en a given a r ea s RCI is s a me r u t s (in t h e ca s e of 50 pa s s es ) a n d t o
equ a l t o or h igh er t h a n t h e VCI for 1 or 50 per mit s t oppin g a n d r es u mpt ion of move-
pas s es of t h e s elect ed veh i- men t , if n eces s a r y.
cle, s u fficien t s t r en gt h will be available in
SELF-PROPELLED, TRACKED VEHICLES AND ALL-WHEEL-DRIVE
VEHICLES NEGOTIATING SLOPES
Th e ma ximu m s lope n egot ia ble a n d t h e
ma ximu m t owin g for ce or gr os s veh icle
weigh t for t h e RCI a r e es s en t ia lly equ a l.
Th er efor e, wh en t h e RCI is kn own , t h e ma xi-
mu m s lope n egot iable by a given veh icle for
50 pas s es (or by 50 s imilar veh icles in
s t r a igh t - lin e for ma t ion ) ca n be es t ima t ed
fr om Figu r e 7-7, page 7-12. Th e differ en ces
in t h e pr oper t ies of var iou s s oils pr odu ce
s ome differ en ces in veh icle per for man ce, s o
NRMM a ct u a lly pr edict s per for ma n ce in fin e-
gr ain ed s oils bas ed on s pecific s oil t ype.
Exa mple:
Es t ima t e t h e ma ximu m s lope a n M1A1 t a n k
can climb for 50 pas s es wh er e t h e s lope con -
s is t s of a fin e-gr aln ed s oil wit h a CI of 100
a n d a n RI of 0.85 in t h e cr it ica l la yer s .
Solu t ion :
RCI = 100 X 0.85 = 85
RCI. = RCI - = 85-58 = 27
Us in g Figu r e 7-7, t h e ma ximu m s lope
equ als 50 per cen t . Th e ma ximu m s lope t h e
M1A1 ca n n egot ia t e u n der t h e given con di-
t ion s is 50 per cen t .
Exa mple:
Es t ima t e t h e ma ximu m s lope a n M923
5-t on car go t r u ck can climb for 50 pas s es
wh er e t h e s lope con s is t s of a r emoldable
s an d wh os e CI is 93 an d RI is 1.00 in t h e
cr it ical layer .
Solu t ion :
RC = 93 x 1.00 = 93
= RCI - = 93 - 68 = 25
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 7-7. Fifty-pass performance curves for self-propelled vehicles operating in
fine-grained soils or remoldable sands
In Figu r e 7-7, a t = 25, t h e ma ximu m
s lope is 35 per cen t . Th e ma ximu m s lope
t h e M923 t r u ck ca n climb u n der t h e s t a t ed
con dit ion s is 35 per cen t .
ONE-PASS PERFORMANCE
Th e followin g in for ma t ion is u s ed t o det er -
min e if var iou s veh icles can make a s in gle
pas s over differ en t t ypes of t er r ain :
Se lf-Pr ope lle d, Tr a c k e d Ve h i c le s a n d All-
Wh e e l-Dr i ve Ve h i c le s on Le ve l Te r r a i n
Th e abilit y of a given veh icle t o make on e
pa s s on a s t r a igh t lin e on level t er r a in is a s -
s u r ed if t h e RCI of t h e a r ea is gr ea t er t h a n
t h e VCI for on e pa s s Th e of
mos t milit ar y veh icles ar e lis t ed in Appen -
dix D.
Example:
Es t ima t e if a n M1A1 t a n k ca n complet e on e
pas s on a level, fin e-gr ain ed s oil wit h a CI
of 50 a n d a n RI of 0.70 in t h e cr it ica l la yer .
(Us e Appen dix D t o det er min e t h e VCI.)
Solution:
Beca u s e t h e RCI is gr ea t er t h a n t h e
(35 is gr ea t er t h a n 25), t h e M1A1 t a n k ca n
complet e on e pas s . Immobiliza t ion of a
veh icle pr obably will occu r wh en t h e RCI is
les s t h a n t h e Immobiliza t ion ma y
occu r even wh en t h e RCI is s ligh t ly gr ea t er
t h a n t h e if wa t er on t h e s oil s u r fa ce
cau s es exces s ive s in kage or s lipper in es s .
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 7-8. One-pass performance curves for self-propelled vehicles
operating in fine-grained soils or remoldable sands
Se lf-Pr ope lle d, Tr a c k e d Ve h i c le s a n d All-
Wh e e l-Dr i ve Ve h i c le s Up Slope s
Th e ma ximu m s lope n egot ia ble a n d t h e ma x.
imu m t owin g for ce (a s a per cen t a ge of gr os s
veh icle weigh t ) for t h e s ame ar e es s en -
t ia lly equ a l. Th er efor e, wh en t h e RCI is
kn own , t h e ma ximu m s lope n egot ia ble by a
given veh icle for on e pas s in a s t r aigh t lin e
u p a s lope can be det er min ed by u s in g t h e
in for ma t ion in Figu r e 7-8.
Exa mple:
Det er min e t h e ma ximu m s lope a n M1A1
t an k can climb on on e pas s wh er e t h e s lope
con s is t s of fin e-gr ain ed s oil wit h a CI of
100 an d an RI of 0.85 in t h e cr it ical layer .
S ol u t i on :
Us in g Figu r e 7-8, a t = 60, t h e ma xi-
mu m s lope = 63 per cen t . Un der t h e s t a t ed
con dit ion s , t h e ma ximu m s lope t h e M1Al
t a n k ca n n egot ia t e is 63 per cen t .
Exa mple:
Det er min e t h e ma ximu m s lope a n M923
t r u ck ca n climb on on e pa s s wh er e t h e
s lope con s is t s of a r emoldable s an d wit h
CI of 93 a n d a n RI of 0.40 in t h e cr it ica l
la yer .
a
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Solution:
In Figu r e 7-8, page 7-13, at = 7, t h e
ma ximu m s lope = 21 per cen t . Un der t h e
s t a t ed con dit ion s , t h e M923 t r u ck ca n
climb a s lope les s t h an or equ al t o 21 per -
cen t .
Ve h i c le s Towi n g Tr a i le r s on Le ve l Te r r a i n
a n d Up Slope s
On e-pas s per for man ce of veh icles t owin g
t r a iler s is pr edict ed u s in g t h e compr eh en -
s ive NRMM an d is beyon d t h e s cope of t h is
ma n u a l. Th e pr edict ion s ys t em is n ot a s
well validat ed as t h at for s in gle, s elf-
pr opelled veh icles . Alt h ou gh t h e pr ocedu r e
for det er min in g t h e for combin a t ion s of
t r u cks or t r a ct or -t r a iler s is n ot dis cu s s ed,
t h e of common ly u s ed combin a t ion
vehicles are listed in Appendix D.
Ve h i c le s Towi n g Ot h e r Ve h i c le s on Le ve l
Te r r a i n
Wh en t h e RCI is equ a l t o t h e VCI, t h e s oil
h a s ju s t en ou gh s h ea r s t r en gt h for t h e
veh icle t o over come it s mot ion r es is t a n ce.
If t h e veh icle mu s t t ow a n ot h er veh icle, a d-
dit ion a l s h ea r s t r en gt h is r equ ir ed t o
pr odu ce t h e t h r u s t n eeded t o over come t h e
mot ion r es is t a n ce (or r equ ir ed t owin g for ce)
of t h e t owed veh icle. Th u s , RCI - VCI, or
is a mea s u r e of a ddit ion a l s h ea r
s t r en gt h t h a t a llows t h e veh icle t o develop a
t owin g for ce.
Cu r ves t h a t pr edict t h e ma ximu m t owin g
for ce t h at can be developed by t h r ee t ypes
of s elf-pr opelled veh icles on level t er r ain ar e
pr es en t ed in Figu r e 7-7, page 7-12. Th e
ma ximu m t owin g for ce (expr es s ed a s a per -
cen t age of veh icle gr os s weigh t ) is r elat ed t o
Cu r ves t h a t pr edict t h e for ce r e-
qu ir ed t o t ow veh icles of va r iou s weigh t s
an d t ypes on level t er r ain ar e s h own in Fig-
u r e 7-8, wh er e r equ ir ed t owin g for ce (ex-
pr es s ed as a per cen t age of veh icle gr os s
weigh t ) is r elat ed t o RCI. Wh en a veh icle is
r equ ir ed t o develop a given t owin g for ce,
t h e n eces s ar y RCI can be det er min ed.
Wh en t h e RC1 is kn own , t h e a bilit y of on e
veh icle t o t ow a n ot h er ca n be det er min ed.
Th e det er min a t ion of VCI for t owed t r a ct or s
an d s elf-pr opelled veh icles wit h n on power ed
wh eels r equ ir es calcu lat ion s on an axle-by-
axle bas is an d is beyon d t h e s cope of t h is
ma n u a l; t h er efor e, in exa mples in volvin g
veh icles t owin g ot h er veh icles always r efer
t o t h e t owed veh icles as in oper able,
power ed veh icles . Th e followin g par a-
gr aph s give examples of t h e applicat ion of
veh icle per for man ce cr it er ia for bot h 1 an d
50 pas s es , u s in g Appen dix D an d Figu r es 7-
7 t h r ou gh 7-10, pages 7-12 t h r ou gh 7-17:
Pr ocedu r es u s ed in t h e examples s h ou ld
n ot be ext en ded t o t h e developmen t of a
s in gle VCI for a t r a ct or -t r a iler combin a t ion
veh icle. Su ch developmen t can be r eliably
ma de on ly t h r ou gh t h e in t egr a t ion of com-
plex con s ider at ion s wh ich ar e beyon d t h e
s cope of t h is ma n u a l. However , s ome com-
mon ly u s ed t r u ck-t r a iler combin a t ion
veh icles ar e lis t ed in Appen dix D, wh er e
t h eir VCIs a r e u s ed in t h e s a me wa y t h e
VCIs for ot h er veh icles ar e u s ed t o pr edict
t h eir per for ma n ce on level t er r a in .
Example:
Es t ima t e if a n M1A1 t a n k ca n t ow a n
M923, 5-t on car go t r u ck for 50 pas s es on a
level, fin e-gr ain ed s oil wh er e t h e CI is 100
a n d t h e RI is 0.80 in t h e cr it ica l la yer for
t h e t a n k, a n d t h e CI is 60 a n d t h e RI is
0.80 in t h e cr it ica l la yer for t h e t r u ck.
Solu t ion :
Fr om Appen dix D:
For t h e M1A1 t a n k
For the M923 truck
RCI for the tank = 100 x 0.80 = 80
RCI for the truck = 60 x 0.80 = 48
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
The maximum towing force (T1) of the tank
is r ead fr om t h e cu r ve in Figu r e 7-7, page 7-
12, labeled Tr acked veh icles wit h gr ou s er s
les s t h an 1 1 / 2 in ch es . Us in g t h is cu r ve,
wh er e t h e = 80 - 58 = 22, it is es -
t ima t ed t h a t t h e t a n k ca n t ow 25 per cen t of
it s weigh t . Th u s , 25 per cen t of 125.000 =
0.25 x 125.000 = 31.250 lb.
Th e r equ ir ed t owin g for ce (T2) of t h e M923
t r u ck is r ead fr om t h e cu r ve in Figu r e 7-8,
page 7-13, for 30,000 lb for wh eeled
veh icles . On t h is cu r ve, a t RCI = 48, T2 =
49 per cen t of 32,500 = 0.49 x 32,500 =
15,925 lb,
Becau s e t h e available t owin g for ce (31,250
lb) of t h e M1A1 t a n k is gr ea t er t h a n t h e r e-
qu ir ed t owin g for ce (15,925 lb) for t h e
M923 t r u ck, t h e t a n k ca n t ow t h e t r u ck
u n der t h e s t a t ed con dit ion s .
Exa mple:
Es t ima t e if a n M923, 5-t on ca r go t r u ck ca n
t ow a n M1A1 t a n k for 50 pa s s es on a level,
fin e-gr ain ed s oil wh os e s h ear s t r en gt h (CI =
95 a n d RI = 1.00) is t h e s a me for t h e cr it i-
cal layer s for bot h veh icles . Th e veh icles
a r e t h e s a me a s t h os e in t h e pr eviou s ex-
a mple.
Solu t ion :
RCI = 9 5 X 1 , 0 0 =9 5
= 95 - 68 = 27 for t h e M923 t r u ck
Th e ma ximu m t owin g for ce (Tl1 of t h e
M923 t r u ck is r ead fr om t h e cu r ve labeled
Wh eeled veh icles in Figu r e 7-7. On t h is
cu r ve, = 27, T1 = 37 per cen t of 32,500
= 0.37 x 32,500 = 12,025 lb.
Th e r equ ir ed t owin g for ce (T2) of t h e M1A1
t an k is r ead fr om t h e cu r ve in Figu r e 7-8
t h at is labeled 75,000 lb for t r acked
veh icles . On t h is cu r ve, a t RCI = 95, T2 =
18 per cen t of 125,000 lb = 0.18 x 125,000
= 22,500 lb.
lb) of t h e M923 t r u ck is les s t h an t h e r e-
qu ir ed t owin g for ce (22,500 lb) of t h e M1A1
t a n k, t h e t r u ck ca n n ot t ow t h e t a n k.
Ve h i c le s Towi n g Ot h e r Ve h i c le s Up Slope s
Th e ma ximu m s lope a veh icle t owin g
a n ot h er veh icle ca n n egot ia t e is es t ima t ed
u s in g t h e followin g for mu la :
Wh er e
T1 = t h e ma ximu m t owin g for ce (in lb) of
t h e t owin g veh icle
T2 = t h e for ce (in lb) r equ ir ed t o t ow t h e
t owed veh icle on level t er r ain
W1 = weigh t (in lb) of t h e t owin g veh icle
W2 = weigh t (in lb) of t h e t owed veh icle
NOTE: Th is for mu la doe s n ot a pply t o
s lippe r y s u r fa c e s .
Exa mple:
Es t ima t e t h e ma ximu m s lope t h a t ca n be
n egot ia t ed by a n M1A1 t a n k t owin g a n
M923 t r u ck for 50 pas s es , wh er e t h e s lope
con s is t s of fin e -gr ain ed s oil wh os e s h ear
s t r en gt h is s u ch t h a t t h e CI is 100 a n d t h e
RI is 0.85 in t h e cr it ica l la yer for t h e t a n k,
an d t h e CI is 80 an d t h e RI is 0.80 in t h e
cr it ica l la yer for t h e t r u ck.
Solu t ion :
Us in g Figu r e 7-7, t h e ma ximu m t owin g
for ce (Tl) of t h e MlA1 t a n k a t = 27 is
45 per cen t of 125,000 = 56,250 lb.
In Figu r e 7-9, page 7-16, t h e r equ ir ed
t owin g for ce (T2) of t h e M923 t r u ck a t RCI
= 64 is 38 per cen t of 32,500 = 0.38 x
32,500 = 12,350 lb.
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 7-9. Fifty-pass performance curves for vehicles towed
in level, fine-grained soils or remoldable sands
Th u s , t h e ma ximu m s lope n egot ia ble by t h e Solu t ion :
M1A1 t a n k t owin g t h e M923 t r u ck u n der
t h e given con dit ion s is 28 per cen t .
Exa mple:
Es t ima t e t h e ma ximu m s lope n egot ia ble by
a n M923, 5-t on ca r go t r u ck t owin g a n
M998 h igh mobilit y, mu lt ipu r pos e wh eeled
veh icle (HMMWV) for 50 pas s es , wh er e t h e
s lope con s is t s of fin e-gr ain ed s oil wit h a CI
of 120 an d an RI of 1.00 in t h e cr it ical
la yer . Th e M998 is a wh eeled
a gr os s weigh t of 7,500 lb.
vehicle with
Us in g Figu r e 7-7, page 7-12, wh er e t h e
is 52, t h e ma ximu m t owin g for ce (T1)
for t h e t r u ck is 47 per cen t , 0.47 x 32,500 =
15,275 lb.
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Us in g Figu r e 7-9, t h e r equ ir ed t owin g for ce
(T2) of t h e M998 at RCI = 120 is 13 per cen t
of 7,500 = 0.13 x 7,500 = 975 lb.
Th u s , t h e ma ximu m s lope n egot ia ble by t h e
M923 t r u ck t owin g a n M998 HMMWV
u n der t h e given con dit ion s is 36 per cen t .
Ve h i c le s Towi n g In ope r a ble , Powe r e d
Ve h i c le s on Le ve l Te r r a i n [On e Pa s s ]
veh icle t o over come it s mot ion r es is t a n ce.
If t h e veh icle is r equ ir ed t o t ow a n ot h er
veh icle, addit ion al s h ear s t r en gt h is r e-
qu ir ed t o pr odu ce t h e n eces s a r y t h r u s t t o
over come t h e mot ion r es is t a n ce (or r equ ir ed
t owin g for ce) of t h e t owed veh icle. Th u s ,
wh ich is t h e a ddit ion a l
s h ea r s t r en gt h t h a t a llows a veh icle t o
develop a t owin g for ce wh en r equ ir ed (for
on e pas s ).
Two per for man ce cu r ves , on e for s elf-
pr opelled, t r acked veh icles an d on e for s elf-
pr opelled, wh eeled veh icles , ar e s h own in
,
Wh en t h e RCI is equ a l t o t h e t h e s oil
Figu r e 7-8, page 7-13. Th e maximu m
h a s en ou gh s h ea r s t r en gt h for a given
t owin g for ce (expr es s ed as a per cen t age of
t h e veh icles gr os s weigh t ) t h a t ca n be
Fi gure 7- 10. One- pass perf ormance curves f or vehi cl es t owed
i n l evel , f i ne- grai ned soi l s or remol dabl e sands
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
developed by a veh icle on level t er r ain is r e-
la t ed t o Th e per for ma n ce cu r ve for a ll
veh icles wh en t owed on level t er r ain is
s h own in Figu r e 7-10, page 7-17, wh er e t h e
r equ ir ed t owin g for ce (expr es s ed as a per -
cen t age of t h e veh icles gr os s weigh t ) is r e-
la t ed t o Wh en t h e RCI is kn own , t h e
a bilit y of on e veh icle t o t ow a n ot h er ca n be
es t ima t ed,
Exa mple:
Es t ima t e if a n M1A1 t a n k ca n t ow a n M923,
5-t on car go t r u ck for on e pas s on level, fin e-
gr ain ed s oil wh os e s h ear s t r en gt h is s u ch
t h a t t h e CI is 100 a n d t h e RI is 0.70 in t h e
cr it ica l la yer for t h e t a n k, a n d t h e CI is 50
a n d t h e RI is 0.70 in t h e cr it ica l la yer for
t h e t r u ck.
Solu t ion :
For t h e M1A1 t a n k, = 25, gr os s
weigh t = 125,000 lb, an d gr ou s er s ar e
les s t h an 1 1 / 2 in ch es . For t h e M923
t r u ck, = 30 an d gr os s weigh t = 32,500
lb. (See Appen dix D.)
For t h e M1A1 t a n k, RCI = 100 x 0.70 = 70
an d = 70 - 25 = 45. In Figu r e 7-9,
pa ge 7-16, a t = 45, t h e ma ximu m
t owin g for ce (T1) = 63 per cen t of 125,000 =
0.63 X 125,000 = 78,750 lb.
For t h e M923 t r u ck, RCI = 50 x 0.70 = 35
an d = 35 - 30 = 5. In Figu r e 7-10, at
= 5, t h e r equ ir ed t owin g for ce (T2) =
25 per cen t of 32,500 = 0.25 x 32,500 =
8,125 lb.
lb] of t h e t a n k exceeds t h e r equ ir ed t owin g
for ce (8,125 lb) of t h e t r u ck, t h e t an k can
t ow t h e t r u ck u n der t h e s t a t ed con dit ion s .
Exa mple:
Es t ima t e if a n M923, 5-t on ca r go t r u ck ca n
t ow a n M1A1 t a n k for on e pa s s on level,
fin e-gr ain ed s oil wh os e CI is 95 an d RI is
1.00 in t h e cr it ical layer for each veh icle.
Solu t ion :
For t h e M923 t r u ck, = RCI - =
95 - 30 = 65. In Figu r e 7-8, page 7-13, at
= 65 t h e t owin g for ce (T1) = 54.6 per -
cen t of 32,500 = 0.546 x 32,500 = 17,745 lb.
For t h e M1A1 t a n k, = RCI - =
95 - 25 = 70. In Figu r e 7-10, at RCIX = 70
t h e r equ ir ed t owin g for ce (T2) = 8 per cen t of
125,000 = 0.08 X 125,000 = 10,000 lb.
Beca u s e t h e a va ila ble t owin g for ce of t h e
t r u ck (17,745 lb) exceeds t h e for ce ( 10,000
lb) r equ ir ed t o t ow t h e t a n k, t h e t r u ck ca n
t ow t h e t a n k u n der t h e s t a t ed con dit ion s .
Ve h i c le s Towi n g In ope r a ble , Powe r e d
Ve h ic le s Up Slope s
Th e ma ximu m s lope a veh icle t owin g a n in -
oper able, power ed veh icle can climb is es -
t ima t ed u s in g t h e followin g for mu la :
Wh er e
T1 = t h e ma ximu m t owin g for ce (in
lb) of t h e t owin g veh icle
T2 = t h e for ce (in lb) r equ ir ed t o t ow t h e
in oper able, power ed veh icle on level t er r ain
W1 = weigh t (in lb) of t h e t owin g veh icle
W2 = weigh t s (in lb) of t h e t owed veh icles
NOTE: Th e r e la t ion doe s n ot a pply t o s l i p -
pe r y s u r fa c e s .
Exa mple:
Es t ima t e t h e ma ximu m s lope t h a t ca n be
n egot ia t ed by a n M1A1 t a n k t owin g a n
M923 t r u ck on on e pas s , wh er e t h e s lope
con s is t s of fin e-gr ain ed s oil wit h a CI of 100
a n d a n RI of 0.85 in t h e cr it ica l la yer for
ea ch veh icle
Solu t ion :
RCI = 100 X 0.85 = 85
For t h e M1A1 t a n k, = RC1 - =
85 - 25 = 60. In Figu r e 7-8, at = 60
t h e ma ximu m t owin g for ce (T1) = 63 per -
cen t of 125,000 = 0.63 x 125,000 = 78,750
lb .
FM 5-430 -00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
For t h e M923 t r u ck, = RCI -
85 - 30 = 55, In Figu r e 7-10, page 7-17, at
= 55, t h e r equ ir ed t owin g for ce (T2).
8.3 per cen t of 32,500 = 0.083 x 32,500.
2,698 lb.
Th u s , t h e ma ximu m s lope n egot ia ble by t h e
M1A1 t a n k t owin g t h e M923 t r u ck u n der
t h e given con dit ion s is 48 per cen t .
CLASSES OF VEHICLES
Appen dix D con t ain s a lis t of veh icles
divided in t o fou r clas s es : s elf-pr opelled,
t r acked veh icles ; s elf-pr opelled, wh eeled
veh icles : con s t r u ct ion equ ipmen t ; a n d t r u ck-
t r ailer combin at ion s . Each veh icle is iden -
it ified by it s s t a n da r d n omen cla t u r e. Appen -
dix D als o in clu des per for man ce cat egor ies
for each veh icle an d each veh icles VCI for
1- an d 50-pas s per for man ce.
PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES
Milit ar y veh icles can be divided in t o s even
a r bit r a r y ca t egor ies a ccor din g t o t h e min i-
mu m CI r equ ir emen t s
Th e r a n ge of a n d for ea ch
ca t egor y (except ion s a r e n u mer ou s ) a r e
De t e r min a t ion of VCIs for Ne w or Un -
li s t e d Ve h i c le s
For con ven t ion al-t ype veh icles n ot s h own in
Appen dix D, t h e followin g pr ocedu r e can be
u s ed t o ca lcu la t e t h e VCI: Fir s t , a mobilit y
in dex (MI) is calcu lat ed for each veh icle.
Table 7-3. Military vehicles and VCI and category of each vehicle
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Alt h ou gh t h e NRMM ca lcu la t es a ct u a l VCIs ba s ed on a n a xle-by-a xle ba s is , t h e VCI ca n be e s -
t i ma t e d by u s in g t h e followin g s t eps t o ca lcu la t e t h e MI a n d VCI for ea ch t ype of veh icle, a s -
s u min g equ al wh eel or t r ack loads an d all wh eel dr ive: (Th e NRMM a dju s t s for u n even loa ds
an d differ en ces in t ir e pr es s u r es . Wit h t h e n ewer t r u cks t h e ma y va r y 20% wit h t ir e
pr es s u r e ch an ges ONLY.)
NOTE: Th e s e for mu la s c ou ld be u s e d t o de t e r min e e s t ima t e s of VCI a n d a dju s t e d by
2 0 % t o r e fle c t t h a t dr i ve r s of t r u c k s wi t h c e n t r a l t i r e i n fla t i on wi ll r e du c e a s r e qu i r e d.
S el f -Prop el l ed , Tra ck ed Veh i cl es .
St ep 1. Det er min e t h e MI.
St ep 2. Us e Figu r e 7-11 t o con ver t t h e MI t o VCI.
[For MIs above 40, t h e can be ob-
t a in ed fr om t h e equ a t ion = 25.2 + (0.454 x MI).]
S el f -Prop el l ed , Wh eel ed Veh i cl es .
(1) All-wh eel-dr ive veh icles .
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 7-11. Estimated relation of a Ml to a VCI
wherein
contact
pressure =
factor
gross weight in lbs
tire width in inches x outsidedtameterof tires in inches number oif tires
2 x
weight factor: Weigh t range Obs) Weigh t factor equations
less than 2,000
2,000 to 13,500
13,501 to 20,000
greater than 20,000
gross vehicle weight (lbs)
number of axles
Y = 0.553X
Y = 0.033X + 1.050
Y = 0.142X - 0.420
Y = 0.278X - 3.115
where X = gross vehicle weight (kips)
number of axles
Y = weight factor
10 + tire width in inches
tirefactor= 100
grouser factor: with chains = 1.05
without chains = 1.00

00
E
::J
E
80
'c
.s

60

10 20 30 40 60 80 70 80 90 100
VCI
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
St ep 2. En t er Figu r e 7-11, pa ge 7-21, t o con ver t t h e MI t o VCI. [For MIs a bove 40, t h e
ca n be obt a in ed fr om t h e equ a t ion = 25.2 + (0.454 x MI)].
(2) Rear -wh eel dr ive veh icles on ly. If t h e veh icle bein g con s ider ed is n ot equ ipped wit h an
all-wh eel dr ive, t h e MI is compu t ed accor din g t o t h e for mu la for all-wh eel-dr ive veh icles , t h en
mu lt iplied by 1.4 t o obt a in t h e VCI.
(3) Half-t r acked veh icles . Th e all-wh eel-dr ive for mu la is u s ed t o obt ain t h e VCI of h alf-
t r acked veh icles by as s u min g t h at t h e veh icle h as wh eels in s t ead of t r acks on t h e r ear en d.
Th e wh eels a r e a s s u med t o be of t h e s a me s ize a n d h a ve t h e s a me loa d a s t h e fr on t wh eels ,
A gr ou s er fact or of 1.1 is u s ed
Towed , Tra ck ed Veh i cl es .
(t o a ccou n t for in cr ea s ed t r a ct ion pr ovided by t h e r ea r t r a cks ).
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
St ep 2. Us e Table 7-4, page 7-24, t o con ver t t h e MI t o VCI. [For MIs above 40, t h e VCI can
be obt a in ed fr om t h e equ a t ion VCI50 = 25.2 + (0.454 x MI)].
Towed . Wh eel ed Veh i cl es ,
clear an ce = clear an ce in in ch es
St ep 2. Us e Table 7-5, page 7-25, t o con ver t t h e MI t o VCI.
[For MIs a bove 40, t h e VCI5 0
ca n be obt a in ed fr om t h e equ a t ion VCI50 = 25.2 + (0.454 x MI)].
Limitations . MIs a n d r es u lt a n t VCIs fr om det er min a t ion of pr oba ble RCI t h a t will per -
t r a iler s (t owed, t r a cked a n d t owed, a n d mit a t r a iler t o complet e 25 t o 40 pa s s es
wh eeled veh icles ) may be u s ed on ly for wit h ou t t h e a xle or u n der ca r r ia ge dr a ggin g.
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table 7-4. Tracked vehicles
NOTE: For Mls above 180, the VCI is obtained from the following equatlons:
(1 Pass) VCI
1
= 11.48 + 0.2 Ml - {39.2/(Ml + 3.74)}
(50 Passes) VCI
50
= 28.23 + .43 Ml - {92.67/(Ml + 3.67)}
Mobility Index vs Vehicle Cone Index
For One and Fifty Pas ...
MI VCI VC I.., MI VCI VC I.., MI VCI VC I ... MI VC I, VCI.., MI V C ~ VC ....
0 0.0 1.5 33 12.6 30,3 66 19.7 45.9 99 26.4 60,6 132 33.1 75.1
1 1.3 4.1 34 12.8 30.8 67 19.9 46.4 100 26.6 61.1 133 33.3 75.6
2 2.2 6.3 35 13.0 31.3 68 20.1 46.S 101 26.8 61.5 134 33.5 76.0
3 3.0 8.1 36 13.3 31.S 69 20.3 47.3 102 27,0 62.0 135 33.7 76.4
4 3.7 9.6 37 13.5 32.3 70 20.5 47.7 103 27,2 62.4 136 33.9 76.9
5 4.3 11.0 38 13.7 32.8 71 20.7 48.2 104 27.4 62.8 137 34.1 77.3
6 4.8 12.2 39 13.9 33.3 72 20.9 48.6 105 27.6 63.3 138 34.3 77.7
7 5.3 13.4 40 14.1 33.6 73 21.1 49.1 106 27.8 63.7 139 34.5 78.2
8 5.7 14.4 41 14.4 34.3 74 21.3 49.5 107 28.0 64.2 140 34.7 78.6
9 6.1 15.3 42 14.6 34.8 75 21.5 50.0 108 28.2 64.6 141 34.9 79.0
10 6.5
I
16.2 43 14.8 35.2 76 21.7 50.4 109 28.5 65.1 142 35.1 79.5
I
11 6.8 17.0 44 15.0
,
35.7 77 21.9 50.9 110 28.7 65.5 143 35.3 79.9
12 7.2 17.8 45
, 5,2
36.2 78 22.1 51.3 111 28.9 65.9 144 35.5 80.4
13 7.5 18.6 46 15.4 36.7 79 22.3 51.8 112 29.1 66.4 145 35.7 80.8
14 78 19.3 47 15.7 37.2 80 22.5 52.2 113 29.3 66.8 146 35.9 81.2
15 8.1 20.0 48 15.9 37.6 81 22.7 52.7 114 29.5 67.2 147 36.1 81.7
16 8.4 20.7 49 16.1 . 38.1 82 23.0 53.1 115 29.7 67.7 148 36.3 82.1
17 8.7 21.4 50 16.3 38.6 83 23.2 53.6 116 29.9 68.1 149 36.6 82.5
18 8.9 22.0 51 16.5 39.0 84 23.4 54.0 117 30.1 68.6 150 36.8 83.0
19 9.2 22.6 52 16.7 39.5 85 23.6 54.4 118 30.3 69.0 151 37.0 83.4
20 9.5 23,2 53 16.9 40.0 86 23.8 54,9 119 30.5 69.4 152 37.2 83.8
21 9.7 23.8 54 17.1 40.4 87 24.0 55.3 120 30.7 69.9 153 37.4 84.3
22 10.0 24.4 55 17.4 40.9 88 24.2 55.8 121 30.9 70.3 154 37.6 84.7
23 10.2 25.0 56 17.6 41.4 89 24.4 56.2 122 31.1 70.8 155 37.8 85.1
24 10.5 25.5 57 17.8 41.8 90 24.6 56.7 123 31.3 71.2 156 38.0 85.6
25 10.7 26.1 58 18.0 42.3 91 24.8 57.1 124 31.5 71.6 157 38.2 86.0
26 11.0 26.6 59 18.2 42.7 92 25.0 57.6 125 31.7 72.1 158 38.4 86.4
27 11,2 27.2 60 18.4 43.2 93 25.2 58.0 126 31,9 72.5 159 38.6 86.9
28 11.4 27.7 61 18.6 43.6 94 25.4 58.4 127 32.1 72.9 160 38.8 87.3
29 , 1.7 28.2 62 18.8 44.1 95 25.6 58.9 128 32.3 73.4
30 11.9 28.8 63 19.0 44,6 96 25.8 59.3 129 32.5 73.8
31 12.1
I
29.3 64 19.2 45.0 97 26.0 59.8 130 32.7 74.2
32 12.4 I 29.8 65 19.4 45.5 98
,
26.2 60.2 131 32.9 74.7
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table 7-5. Wheeled vehicle
NOTE: For Mls above 160, the VCI is obtained from the followlng equations:
(1 Pass) VCI
1
= 11.48 + 0.2 Ml - {39.2/(Ml + 3.74)}
(50 Passes) VCI
50 = 28.23 + .43 Ml - {92.67/(Ml + 3.67)}
Mobility Index v. Vehicle Cone Index
For One and Fifty Passes
MI VCI VClao MI VCI. VC I... MI VCI. VC 1.0 MI VCI. VC I ... MI V C ~ VC I...
0 1.0 3.0 33 17.0 39.9 66 24.1 55.3 99 30,9 69,9 132 37,6 84.3
1 3.4 8.8 34 17.2 40,4 67 24,3 55.7 100 31,1 70,3 133 37.8 84.7
.2 5.0 12.8 35 17.5 40.9 68 24.5 56.2 101 31.3 70,8 134 38.0 85.2
3 6.3 15.6 36 17.7 41.4 69 24.7 56.6 102 31.5 71,2 135 38.2 85.6
4 7.2 17.9 37 17.9 41.9 70 25.0 57.1 103 31,7 71,6 136 38,4 86,0
5 8.0 19.7 38 , 8.1 42.4 71 25.2 57.5 104 31.9 72.1 137 38.6 86.5
6 8.7 21.2 39 18.4 42.8 72 25.4 58.0 105 32.1 72.5 138 38.8 86.9
7 9.2 22.6 40 18.6 43.3 73 25.6 58.4 106 32.3 73.0 139 39.0 87.4
8 9.7 23.7 41 18.8 43.8 74 25.8 58.9 107 32.5 73.4 140 39.2 87.7
9 10.2 24.8 42 19.0 44.3 75 26.0 59.3 108 32.7 73.8 141 39.4 88.2
10 10.6 25.8 43 19.2 44.7 76 26.2 59.8 109 32.9 74.3 142 39.6 88.6
11 11.0 26.6 44 19.5 45.2 77 26.4 60.2 110 33.1 74.7 143 39.8 89.1
12 11.4 27.5 45 19.7 45.7 78 26.6 60.6 111 33.3 75.2 144 40.0 89.5
13 11.7 28.3 46 19.9 46.1 79 26.8 61.1 112 33.5 75.6 145 40.2 90.0
14 12.0 29.0 47 20.1 46.6 80 27.0 61.5 113 33.7 76.0 146 40.4 90.4
15 12.4 29.7 48 20.3 47.1 61 27.2 62.0 114 34.0 76.5 147 40.6 90.8
16 12.7 30.4 49 20.5 47.5 82 27.4 62.4 115 34,2 76.9 148 40,8 91.3
17 13.0 31.1 50 20.8 48.0 83 27.6 62.8 116 34.4 77.3 149 41.0 91.7
18 13.3 31.7 51 21.0 48.5 84 27.8 63.3 117 34.6 77.8 150 41.2 92,1
19 13.6 32.3 52 21.2 48.9 95 28.0 63.7 118 34,8 78.2 151 41.4 92.6
20 13.8 32.9 53 21.4 49.4 86 28.2 64.2 119 35,0 78.6 152 41.6 93.0
21 14.1 33.5 54 21.6 49.8 87 28.4 64.S 120 35,2 79.1 153 41.8 93.4
22 14.4 34.1 55 21.8 50.3 88 28.6 65.1 121 35.4 79,5 154 42.0 93.9
23 14.6 34.S 56 22.0 50.8 89 28.9 65.5 122 35.6 80.0 155 42.2 94.3
24 14.9 35.2 57 22.2 51.2 90 29.1 65.9 123 35,8 80.4 156 42.4 94,7
25 15.1 35.8 58 22.4 51.7 91 29.3 66.4 124 36,0 80.8 157 42.6 95.2
26 15.4 36.3 59 22.7 52.1 92 29.5 66.8 125 36,2 81.3 158 42.8 95.6
27 15.6 36.8 60 22.9 52.6 93 29.7 67.3 126 36.4 81.7 159 43.0 96.0
28 15.8 37.3 61 23.1 53.0 94 29.9 67.7 127 36.6 82.1 160 43,2 96.5
29 16.1 37.9 62 23.3 53.5 95 30.1 68.1 128 36,8 82.6
30 16.3 38.4 63 23.5 53.9 96 30.3 68.6 129 37.0 83,0
31
1,. ,. ..... ..,
<>" "'., ., CA A
" ..
....... .,
I
69.0
I
130 37.2 83.4
I I I I
,\,I.v \oOlQ.ol:I
I
.,..
I
,v. I
I
.......
11
>:11
I
vv."
32 16.8 39.4 65 23.9 54.8 98 30.7 69.5 131 37.4 83.9
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
OPERATION IN COARSE-GRAINED SOILS
Coar s e-gr ain ed s oils pr es en t t r afficabilit y
pr oblems differ en t fr om t h os e en cou n t er ed
in fin e-gr ain ed s oils . Some impor t an t dif-
fer en ces ar e
Coar s e-gr ain ed s oils do n ot r es pon d t o
t h e r emoldin g t es t (except for h igh ly
s a t u r a t ed s a n ds ).
Wh eeled-veh icle per for man ce is affect ed
mor e by t ir e-in flat ion -pr es s u r e ch an ges
on coar s e-gr ain ed s oils t h an on fin e-
gr ain ed s oils .
Level, coar s e-gr ain ed s oils s eldom cau s e
immobiliza t ion of t r a cked veh icles or a ll-
wh eel-dr ive wh eeled veh icles wh en
oper a t in g a t low t ir e-in fla t ion pr es s u r es .
Th e fir s t pas s over a coar s e-gr ain ed s oil
a r ea is t h e mos t cr it ica l, a n d s u b-
s equ en t pas s es ar e u s u ally as s u r ed if
t h ey a r e ma de in t h e fir s t -pa s s r u t s .
Coar s e-gr ain ed s oil in t h e dr y s t at e is eas ily
r ecogn iza ble. It is t h e r ou n d, gr a n u la r
ma t er ia l fou n d on mos t bea ch es a n d in
s a n d du n es . Wh en wet , h owever , it ma y be
con fu s ed wit h r emoldable s an d or even fin e-
gr ain ed s oil. Becau s e coar s e-gr ain ed s oils
do n ot r emold t h er e is n o n eed t o con du ct
t h e r emoldin g t es t . Us e RCI for fin e-
gr ain ed s oils an d CI for coar s e-gr ain ed s oils
(a s s u me RI = 1.0.)
Us e t h e followin g pr ocedu r e t o en s u r e t h e
s oil in qu es t ion is coar s e-gr ain ed: Pu s h t h e
pen et r omet er in t o t h e s oil. If t h e color of
t h e s oil n ea r t h e pen et r omet er immedia t ely
becomes ligh t er , t h e in t er n a l dr a in a ge is
good, wh ich s ign ifies a coar s e-gr ain ed s oil,
An ot h er t es t is t o con fin e a s oil s a mple in
t h e r emoldin g cylin der a n d a t t empt t o
pen et r a t e it wit h t h e con e pen et r omet er . If
t h e s oil is coar s e-gr ain ed, it will be difficu lt
or impos s ible t o pen et r a t e.
Th e pr es en ce of veget at ion in coar s e-gr ain ed-
s oil ar eas in dicat es t h e s oil is s t abilized
an d is of h igh t r afficabilit y. Th is effect is
r eflect ed in h igh CI r eadin gs . Tes t in g t o
da t e h a s n ot per mit t ed developmen t of CI
per for man ce r elat ion s for t r acked veh icles
becau s e all t r acked veh icles h ave been able
t o t r avel on all level, coar s e-gr ain ed s oils en -
cou n t er ed. Fu r t h er mor e, t h e effect s of s oil
s t r en gt h on t h e per for ma n ce of a given
t r acked veh icle ar e min imal.
On e-pas s per for man ce of all-wh eel-dr ive
veh icles h as been det er min ed. In mos t
ca s es , t h e fir s t pa s s is t h e mos t cr it ica l,
an d s u bs equ en t pas s es ar e as s u r ed if t h e
fir s t pas s is s u cces s fu l,
ALL-WHEEL-DRIVE VEHICLES ON LEVEL
TERRAIN
Th e abilit y of a given veh icle t o t r avel on e
pas s in a s t r aigh t lin e over level t er r ain is
gen er a lly a s s u r ed if t h e CI of t h e a r ea is
gr ea t er t h a n t h e VCI. Th e pr edict ion of t h e
per for man ce of a wh eeled veh icle in s an ds
is a complex in t er pla y a mon g ma n y veh icle
ch ar act er is t ics in clu din g t ir e s ize, t ir e pr es -
s u r e, t h e n u mber of t ir es , t ir e con s t r u ct ion ,
veh icle ch ar act er is t ics , an d t h e s oil con di-
t ion (in t er ms of s oil s t r en gt h a n d mois t u r e
con t en t ). Sin ce mos t n a t u r a l, s a n dy s oils
con t a in fin e-gr a in ed ma t er ia ls t h a t ca u s e
t h e s oil t o beh ave like a fin e-gr ain ed s oil,
on ly dr y-t o-mois t , poor ly-gr aded s an ds (SP)
ar e evalu at ed u s in g coar s e-gr ain ed veh icle
per for ma n ce r ela t ion s h ips in NRMM or
CAMMS.
Ot h er s a n dy s oils wit h a ppr ecia ble qu a n -
t it ies of fin e ma t er ia l (SM, SC, SM-SC) a r e
t r ea t ed in t h e NRMM a s fin e-gr a in ed s oils .
Th e n eed t o eva lu a t e t h e in t er pla y a mon g
t er r ain an d veh icle ch ar act er is t ics r equ ir es
t h at t h e coar s e-gr ain ed s oil pr edict ive
r ela t ion s h ips be compu t er ized in t o t h e
NRMM. Th er efor e, t h es e r ela t ion s h ips ca n -
n ot be s implified t o a poin t wh er e t h ey
cou ld be dis played as figu r es in t h is ch ap-
t er . Th e r elat ion s h ips do follow t h e t r en ds
of t h e fin e-gr ain ed r elat ion s h ips , an d t h ey
compu t e a min imu m s oil s t r en gt h r equ ir e-
men t for t r a ffic ba s ed on mea s u r ed
CI (RI is con s ider ed 1.0 or gr eat er for t h es e
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
s oils ). Speed pr edict ion s can t h en be made
for t h es e a r ea s .
In coar s e-gr ain ed s oils , t h e per for man ce of
wh eeled veh icles is gen er ally affect ed mos t
by t ir e pr es s u r e. To opt imize veh icle per for -
man ce, t ir e pr es s u r es s h ou ld be r edu ced t o
mu d, s a n d, a n d s n ow pr es s u r e, a t a min i-
mu m, or t o t h e emer gen cy t ir e pr es s u r es if
s peed is n ot a r equ ir emen t . In t h is ma n -
n er , veh icle gr ou n d pr es s u r e is decr eas ed
fr om on -r oa d, a n d veh icle t r a ct ion is ma xi-
mized for t h e t er r a in con dit ion s en cou n t er ed.
TRACKED VEHICLES ON LEVEL
TERRAIN
As a gen er al r u le, t r acked veh icles ar e able
t o t r avel on all level, coar s e-gr ain ed s oils
r ega r dles s of s oil s t r en gt h . Per for ma n ce
pr edict ion s in t h e NRMM a r e ma de for t wo
cat egor ies of t r acked veh icles ; flexible,
fou n d on mos t milit a r y veh icles , or gir -
der ized, fou n d on mos t bu lldozer -t ype
veh icles .
Veh icles wit h gir der ized t r acks gen er ally
pr odu ce h igh er t r act ive for ces on SP s oils
t h an do flexible-t r acked veh icles .
CALCULATIONS OF VEHICLE CONE
INDEX
Ca lcu la t ion of a coa r s e-gr a in ed VCI for a
veh icle con figu r at ion is con s ider ed beyon d
t h e s cope of t h is man u al. Th es e pr edic-
t ion s a r e ma de u s in g t h e compr eh en s ive
NRMM. In gen er al, wh eeled veh icles
oper a t in g in s a n ds s h ou ld u s e t h e lowes t
t ir e pr es s u r es pos s ible an d all-wh eel-dr ive
for ma ximu m off-r oa d per for ma n ce. Th e
u s er s h ou ld be a wa r e t h a t immobiliza t ion
can eas ily occu r in t h es e s oils , es pecially if
t h e s oils ar e dr y an d loos e, an d s h ou ld
pr epar e for s u ch emer gen cies . Tr acked
veh icles gen er ally do n ot s u ffer immobi-
lizat ion on level SP s oils .
TRAFFICABILITY DATA
Th e object ive of ma ppin g t r a ffica bilit y da t a
is t o pr ovide comma n din g officer s wit h a n
es t ima t e of a n a r ea s t r a ffica bilit y pr ior t o
a ct u a l oper a t ion . Th e es t ima t e con s is t s of
pla cin g s ymbols t h a t des cr ibe t h e t r a ffica -
bilit y of a s ma ll a r ea a t s t r a t egic poin t s on
exis t in g maps as s h own in Figu r e 7-12,
page 7-28. Th e maps pr odu ced by t h e t ech -
n iqu es des cr ibed in t h e followin g par a-
gr a ph s a r e elemen t a r y compa r ed wit h t h e
complica t ed a n d compr eh en s ive ma ps n ow
in pr odu ct ion for u s e wit h t h e NRMM.
ESTIMATING
Tr a ffica bilit y ca n be es t ima t ed if wea t h er
con dit ion s , s oils , a n d a r ea t opogr a ph y a r e
gen er ally kn own . Wea t h er a n d clima t ic in -
for ma t ion u s u a lly a r e a va ila ble, even for
r emot e a r ea s , fr om met eor ologica l r ecor ds ,
clima t ology t ext books , or per s on n el in t er -
r oga t ion . Soils a n d t opogr a ph y da t a ma y
be obt a in ed fr om t opogr a ph ic, s oils , a n d
geologic ma ps ; a er ia l ph ot os ; or in t er r oga -
t ion .
Th e a ccu r a cy of t h e t r a ffica bilit y es t ima t e
depen ds on t h e t ype, qu a n t it y, a n d a ccu r -
a cy of t h e a va ila ble da t a . Th e a n a lys t s
a bilit y t o in t er pr et t h e da t a is a ls o impor -
t an t , es pecially if s oil t ypes mu s t be
dedu ced fr om geological maps an d air
ph ot os .
We a t h e r Con dit ion s
For es t ima t in g t r a ffica bilit y, con s ider on ly
t wo gen er a l wea t h er con dit ion s t h e dr y
s eas on an d t h e wet s eas on .
Dry Seas on. A dr y s eas on is defin ed as a
t ime wh en clima t ic a n d veget a t ion fa ct or s
combin e t o pr odu ce, in gen er al, low s oil
mois t u r es . For t emper a t e, h u mid clima t es ,
s u ch a s t h e Un it ed St a t es ea s t of t h e Mis s is -
s ippi River , t h e dr y s ea s on is fr om a bou t
t h e fir s t of Ma y t o t h e fir s t of November . In
t h is s ea s on , eva por a t ion of wa t er fr om t h e
Figure 7-12. Photomap with trafficability data
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
s oil is h igh becau s e of lon g days , h igh
t emper a t u r es , a n d few clou ds , a n d wa t er is
r a pidly ext r a ct ed fr om t h e s oil a n d
t r a n s pir ed t o t h e a t mos ph er e by gr owin g
pla n t s . A dr y s ea s on ma y a ls o occu r a t
ot h er t imes of t h e yea r a s a r es u lt of lon g
per iods of fa ir wea t h er . Ar ea s of a r id
clima t es ma y be con s ider ed t o be con s t a n t ly
in a dr y s eas on .
Du r in g t h e dr y s eas on , fin e-gr ain ed s oils
a n d r emolda ble s a n ds of a n y t ype u s u a lly
a r e t r a ffica ble a n d, in gen er a l, a r e of h igh er
t r a ffica bilit y t h a n dr y, coa r s e-gr a in ed s oils .
Th e t r afficabilit y of dr y, coar s e-gr ain ed s oils
is poor er t h a n t h a t of a ll wet , coa r s e-
gr a in ed s oils except qu icks a n d. Even in
t h e dr y s ea s on , t r a ffica bilit y of a n y t ype of
s oils is a ffect ed by a h igh wa t er t a ble t h a t
r es u lt s fr om u n der gr ou n d s pr in gs , low-lyin g
an d poor ly dr ain ed s oils , or an y ot h er cau s e.
Wet Seas on. A wet s eas on is defin ed as a
t ime in wh ich wea t h er con dit ion s combin e
t o pr odu ce h igh s oil mois t u r es . In t emper -
a t e, h u mid clima t es , t h e wet s ea s on ex-
t en ds fr om a bou t t h e fir s t of November t o
t h e fir s t of Ma y. Du r in g t h e wet s ea s on , fr e-
qu en t r a in s , low t emper a t u r es , h ea vy clou d
cover , an d t h e abs en ce of gr owin g plan t s
t en d t o keep s oil mois t u r e n ea r a ma ximu m
valu e. Melt in g of s n ow a n d t h a win g of pr e-
viou s ly fr ozen s oils ma y a ls o pr odu ce wet
s oil con dit ion s . Wet s ea s on s ma y occu r a t
a n y t ime a s a r es u lt of pr olon ged r a in s ,
floods , or ir r iga t ion . Addin g mois t u r e t o a
s oil a ffect s t h e s t r en gt h of t h a t s oil; t h e ef-
fect differ s wit h s oil t ypes .
Topogr a ph y a n d Cla s s ific a t ion of Soils
Th e con figu r a t ion of t h e s oil s u r fa ce a n d
s oil t ypes in a given ar ea ar e det er min ed
fr om t h e s ou r ces t h a t follow.
Aerial Photos . Elevat ion s an d s lopes can be
es t imat ed by per s on n el wh o ar e pr oper ly in -
s t r u ct ed t o r ea d (wit h t h e a id of s t er eopa ir s )
a n d in t er pr et in for ma t ion in a er ia l ph ot os .
Accu r at e elevat ion s an d s lopes can be ob-
t a in ed wit h mech a n ica l equ ipmen t by
oper a t or s t r a in ed t o u s e s u ch equ ipmen t .
Loca t ion s of r iver s , for es t s , es ca r pmen t s ,
a n d emba n kmen t s ca n a ls o be obt a in ed
fr om a er ia l ph ot os .
Th e t ech n iqu es for iden t ifyin g s oils fr om
a er ia l ph ot os a r e s o complex t h a t on ly well-
t r ain ed per s on n el can fu lly u s e aer ial
ph ot os for t h is pu r pos e. However , s ome
gen er a l in for ma t ion ca n be obt a in ed by per -
s on n el wit h a min imu m of t r a in in g. For ex-
ample, or ch ar ds ar e u s u ally plan t ed in well-
dr ain ed, s an dy s oils ; ver t ical cu t s ar e
eviden ce of deep loes s ial (s ilt y) s oils ; an d
t ile dr a in s in a gr icu lt u r a l a r ea s in dica t e t h e
pr es en ce of poor ly dr ain ed s oils (pr obably
s ilt s an d clays ).
In a given ph ot o, ligh t color t on es gen er a lly
in dicat e h igh er elevat ion s , s an dier s oils ,
a n d lower s oil mois t u r e t h a n t h os e s ign ified
by da r k color t on es . However , t h e s a me
color t on e ma y n ot s ign ify t h e s a me con di-
t ion s in t h e s a me ph ot o a n d ma y s ign ify a n
en t ir ely differ en t con dit ion in a n ot h er a er ia l
ph ot o. In a ddit ion , n a t u r a l s oil t on es ma y
be obs cu r ed an d modified by t on es cr eat ed
by veget a t ion (n a t u r a l a n d cu lt iva t ed),
plowed fields , an d clou d s h adows .
Geologic Maps . Geologic ma ps s h ow pa r en t
ma t er ia l a n d a ge da t a . Wit h t h a t in for ma -
t ion a n d a gen er a l kn owledge of clima t e,
t opogr a ph y, a n d veget a t ion , t r a in ed a n a lys t s
ca n es t ima t e t h e s oil t ypes likely t o be
fou n d in t h e a r ea .
Soils Maps . Tr a ffica bilit y ca n be es t ima t ed
r a pidly fr om ma ps t h a t delin ea t e s u r fa ce
s oils a ccor din g t o t h e USCS, a lt h ou gh t h es e
ma ps a r e s ca r ce. Th e mor e common t ypes
of s oils ma ps a r e t h os e u s in g a n a gr icu l-
t u r a l s ys t em of s oil cla s s ifica t ion . In for ma -
t ion fr om a gr icu lt u r a l ma ps mu s t be t r a n s -
la t ed in t o en gin eer in g t er ms befor e a t r a f-
fica bilit y es t ima t e ca n be ma de. No exa ct
met h od exis t s for doin g t h is , bu t a n a lys t s
fa milia r wit h t h e cla s s ifica t ion s ys t ems ca n
u s u a lly ma ke good t r a n s la t ion s . For ex-
a mple, t h e t er m loa m in t h e a gr icu lt u r a l
clas s ificat ion s ys t em u s u ally in clu des CL
a n d ML s oils in t h e USCS.
Topographic Maps . Ph ys ical feat u r es s u ch
a s r iver s , s t r ea ms , cu lt iva t ion , for es t s , a n d
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
r oa ds ca n u s u a lly be iden t ified fr om a
t opogr a ph ic ma p. Es t ima t es of s u r fa ce
s lopes ca n be ma de fr om t h e con t ou r lin es
(lin es pas s in g t h r ou gh poin t s of equ al eleva-
t ion ).
For t r afficabilit y clas s ificat ion pu r pos es ,
t opogr aph y h as been divided in t o t wo clas -
s es : low t opogr a ph y a n d h igh t opogr a ph y,
Low-t opogr a ph y a r ea s a r e t h os e a t compa r a -
t ively low eleva t ion s wit h r es pect t o s u r -
r ou n din g t er r a in , a n d h igh -t opogr a ph y
a r ea s a r e t h os e a t compa r a t ively h igh eleva -
t ion s . Abs olu t e eleva t ion h a s n o s ig-
n ifican ce in iden t ifyin g t h e t opogr aph y
clas s . Low-t opogr a ph y a r ea s a r e u s u a lly
poor ly dr ain ed an d h ave wat er t ables occu r -
r in g wit h in 4 feet of t h e s u r fa ce a t s ome
t ime du r in g t h e yea r . High -t opogr a ph y
a r ea s a r e u s u a lly mediu m-well t o well-
dr a in ed a n d do n ot h a ve wa t er t a bles
wit h in 4 feet of t h e s u r fa ce a t a n y t ime
du r in g t h e yea r .
TRAFFICABILITY MAPS
A wide va r iet y of mobilit y-r ela t ed pr odu ct s
ca n be obt a in ed fr om compu t er ized mobilit y
models s u ch a s t h e NRMM or CAMMS.
In pu t t er r a in da t a in clu des la n d u s e: t er -
r ain s lope; obs t acles ; s oil t ypes ; veget at ion
t ype, den s it y, an d s pacin g; s u r face
geomet r y; lin ea r a n d h ydr ologic fea t u r e
da t a ; a n d r oa d a n d t r a il da t a . Th is da t a is
u s ed by t h e models wit h in pu t veh icle da t a
t o ma ke s peed or GO/ NO GO pr edict ion s
for ea ch in dividu a l t er r a in u n it (on a qu a d
s h eet ) for med by t h e complex in t er pla y of
t h e in pu t var iables . Vis u al dis plays or h ar d
copies of t h e video dis plays can be u s ed for
s u ch t as ks as veh icle an d t er r ain an alys is ,
oper a t ion a l pla n n in g, r ou t e s elect ion , con -
voy pla n n in g, or u n it -movemen t pr epa r a -
t i o n .
Compar is on vis u al pr odu ct s can als o be ob-
t ain ed t o s h ow qu ad-s h eet -s ized differ en ces
in t h e mobilit y per for man ce levels of r ed or
blu e veh icles t o con t r a s t t h e per for ma n ces
of a veh icle in a va r iet y of con figu r a t ion s ,
s u ch a s wit h differ en t t ir e pr es s u r es , wit h
a n d wit h ou t t owed loa ds , or wit h differ en t
loa d con figu r a t ion s . Th e der ived dis plays
ca n t h en be en la r ged via zoom t ech n iqu es
t o pr ecis ely pla n t h e opt imu m r ou t e for t h e
con figu r a t ion .
Cr os s -cou n t r y t r a ver s e or r ou t e movemen t s
can be con figu r ed t o s h ow t h e addit ive ef-
fect s on veh icle s peeds of min ed ar eas ,
obs t acles emplaced, ch oke poin t s , or gap
cr os s in gs , t oget h er wit h ch an ges in veh icle
con figu r a t ion s wh ich ma y r es u lt a s a con s e-
qu en ce of offen s ive or defen s ive act ion s
du r in g t a ct ica l or comba t oper a t ion s . Th e
models ma y a ls o be u s ed by ma t er iel a n d
h ar dwar e developer s t o det er min e t h e ef-
fect s of pr opos ed des ign s or ch an ges on
ma n u a l veh icle per for ma n ces . Th u s , t h e
u s es an d dis plays ach ievable t h r ou gh t h e
NRMM or CAMMS compu t er models a r e
ba s ica lly limit ed on ly by t h e ima gin a t ion or
r equ ir emen t s of t h e u s er .
As a n exa mple of h a r d-copy ou t pu t s fr om
t h e mobilit y models , t h r ee gr a ph ica l
pr odu ct s ar e pr es en t ed in Figu r es 7-13
t h r ou gh 7-15, pages 7-31 t h r ou gh 7-33, as
t h ey wou ld a ppea r on t h e con s ole of a
CAMMS compu t er . Figu r e 7-13 depict s t h e
cr os s -cou n t r y s peed per for man ce of a US
Ar my M1A1 t a n k in Ger ma n y. Th e dif-
fer en t cr os s -h a t ch ed a r ea s a r e u s ed t o
depict cr os s -cou n t r y mobilit y r at es of 0-10,
10-20, 20-30, an d gr eat er t h an 30
kilomet er s per h ou r (kph ) for t h e t an k. Th e
s h adin g an d t h e s peed in cr emen t s ar e ar -
bit r a r y. Th e in it ial as s es s men t of t h e dis -
play in Figu r e 7-13 wou ld in dicat e t h e
pla t oon ca n move a cr os s t h is qu a d a t
gr ea t er t h a n 30 kph except for s ca t t er ed
ar eas wh er e s peeds will dr op t o 20-30 kph .
River an d s t r eam cr os s in gs will be r equ ir ed
in wes t -ea s t movemen t a cr os s t h e qu a d,
an d t h es e cr os s in gs will r equ ir e 30 min u t es
except for a few cr os s in g poin t s wh ich
wou ld r equ ir e zoom t ech n iqu es t o loca t e.
Sca t t er ed NO GO a r ea s s h ou ld be a voided,
es pecially t h os e con cen t r at ed in t h e u pper
por t ion of t h e qu a d. On -r oa d mobilit y in
mos t ar eas s h ou ld exceed 10 kph ,
Figu r e 7-14 is a dis play of pot en t ial lan din g
zon es fr om CAMMS for t h e s a me a r ea s a s
in Figu r e 7-13. Th e pot en t ial lan din g-zon e
ma p in dica t es pr ima r ily u n fa vor a ble la n din g-
zon e s it es , wit h fa vor a ble s it es loca t ed in
t h e n or t h wes t t h ir d a n d s ou t h ea s t cor n er of
Figure 7-13. Off-road speed
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
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FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-80132, Vol 1
t h e qu ad. Th is dis play h elps gu ide t h e
u s er t o t h e mos t s u it a ble s it es for la n din g-
zon e con s t r u ct ion .
Figu r e 7-15, page 7-33, is a dis play of
USCS s oil-t ype des cr ipt ion s fr om CAMMS
for t h e s ame ar ea as in Figu r es 7-13 an d 7-
14, pages 7-31 an d 32. Th is dis play in di-
ca t es t h e loca lit y of s oil t ypes t h a t ma y be
u s efu l in s cou t in g for con s t r u ct ion
ma t er ia ls or s it es mor e s u it a ble for r oa d
a n d a ir field con s t r u ct ion .
Th u s , t h e mobilit y a n a lys is is n ow a ver y
power fu l t ool for t h e milit a r y pla n n er . It in -
t egr a t es n a t u r a l fea t u r es of t h e la n ds ca pe
wit h veh icle pa r a met er s t o pr odu ce mobilit y
pr odu ct s wh ich can be u s ed by mat er iel
developer s , plan n er s , war gar n er s , or com-
bat s oldier s in t h e field t o plan r eal-t ime
r ed a n d blu e a ct ion s in t er r a in s a r ou n d t h e
wor ld.
MANUALLY MAPPING SOIL CONDITIONS
AND TRAFFICABILITY
Alt h ou gh ma ppin g s oil con dit ion s a n d t r a f-
fica bilit y t h r ou gh ma n u a l mea n s is r a r ely
don e s in ce t h e developmen t of compu t er ized
mobilit y models , it is impor t a n t t h a t t h e pr o-
cedu r e be pr es en t ed s h ou ld t h e n eed ever
ar is e. Th e followin g par agr aph s des cr ibe
t h e pr oper pr ocedu r e in det ail:
VCIs var y widely, an d it is des ir able t o
pr es en t ba s ic t er r a in da t a t h a t ca n be com-
par ed dir ect ly wit h VCIs . Th e fou r bas ic
t er ms des cr ibin g t r afficabilit y ar e: s oil
t ype, RCI, s lope, an d s lipper in es s .
Th e s oil-t ype con dit ion is s h own by A, B, C,
or D (as defin ed in Table 7-6); RCI is s h own
by a s in gle n u mber ; s lope, in per cen t , is
s h own by a s in gle n u mber ; an d s lipper in es s
is s h own by N, P, or S. (St ickin es s effect s
a r e n ot con s ider ed s ign ifica n t en ou gh t o in -
clu de on ma ps .) Th e fou r fa ct or s ma y be
pr es en t ed (as in Figu r e 7-12, page 7-28) in
fr a ct ion a l for m wit h t wo it ems in t h e
n u mer a t or a n d t wo in t h e den omin a t or .
Exa mple:
In t h e fr a ct ion
B is t h e s oil t ype con dit ion (fr om Table
7-5, page 7-25), 80 is t h e RCI, 25 is a 25-
per cen t s lope, an d S is a s lipper y s u r face.
Solu t ion :
To in t er pr et t h e mea n in g of
B - 8 0
25 - S,
fir s t fin d in Figu r e 7-7, page 7-12, t h e
for t h e t h r ee veh icle t ypes on 25-per cen t
s l op e s . For wh e e l e d ve h i c l e s , = 1 7 ; for
con ven t ion a l, t r a ck ed veh icles , = 1 3 ;
an d for lon g-gr ou s er ed, t r acked veh icles ,
= 11. Th en , for each t ype of veh icle,
fin d t h e . Th u s , t h e a r ea is t r a ffica ble
for wh eeled veh icles wit h les s t h an
63 = RCI - or = 80-17),
for con ven t ion al, t r acked veh icles wit h
les s t h an 67, an d for lon g-gr ou s er ed,
t r a ck ed veh icles wit h les s t h a n 6 9 .
Sin ce t h e s lope may be s lipper y, t h e oper a-
t ion s officer s h ou ld or der all wh eeled
veh icles t o be equ ipped wit h t r act ion
devices an d s h ou ld expect s ome s lidin g an d
s t eer in g difficu lt y. Th e ph ot oma p in Figu r e
7-12 s h ows h ow ar eas can be delin eat ed in
t h is ma n n er .
Exa mple:
Fift y M60 t an ks (102,000 lb) an d 50 M923
t r u cks (32,500 lb) ar e t o be moved fr om
poin t X t o poin t Y in t h e a r ea s h own in Fig-
u r e 7-12. Movemen t mu s t be cr os s -cou n t r y
becau s e t h e r oadn et is h eavily min ed.
Solu t ion :
St ep 1, Fr om Appen dix D:
Vehicle
Ta n k 20 48
Tr u ck 30 68
St ep 2. Examin e t h e pos s ibilit y of s in gle-
file t r a vel t h r ou gh fla t t er r a in . All veh icles
ca n n egot ia t e a r ea s 1 a n d 6. Th e RCI of 50
for ar ea 3 will allow pas s age of all 50 t an ks
bu t n ot a ll 50 t r u cks . Th e t a n ks ca n
pr oceed in s in gle file fr om X t h r ou gh a r ea s
1, 3, an d 6, con s ecu t ively t o Y. However ,
e
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Table 7-6. Wet-season trafficability characteristics of fine-grained soils and remoldable soils
Slipperi- Sticki-
t
Probable I
Probable Probable ness ness
Group Soils USCS Cl Range RI Range RCI Range Effects Effects Concepts
A
I
Well-graded gravels GW 35 to 100 Not Not Slight to None Will support
Poorly graded gravels CP applicable applicable none
continuous traffic of
Well-graded sands SW
tracked military
Poorly graded sands SP
vehicles or aJl-wheeI-
drive trucks with high-
flotation tires.
Performance will
increase with a
decrease in tire
pressure. Moist sands
are good, dry sands
only fair. Wheeled
vehicles with
standard tires may be
immobilized in dry
sands.
B Inorganic clays of high CH 55 to 165 0.75 to 65 to 140 Severe to Severe to Usually will support
plasticity (heavy clays) 1.35 slight slight more than 50 passes
of military vehicles.
Going will be difficult
at times.
C Clayey gravels, gravel-sand- GC 85 to 175 0.45 to 45 to 125 Severe to Moderate to Often will not support
clay mixtures 0.75 slight slight 40 to 50 passes of
Clayey sands, sand-ctay SC military vehicles but
mixtures usually will support
Gravelly clays, sandy clays, CL limited traffic. Going
inorganic clays of low to will be difficult in
medium plasticity, lean most cases.
clays, silty clays
D Silty gravels, gravel-sand
IGM
85 to 180 0.25 to 2 ~ to 120 Moderate to Slight Usually will not
silt mixtures 0.85 slight support 40 to 50
Silty sands, sand-silt mixtures SM passes of military
Inorganic silts and very fine ML, CL-ML vehicles. Often will
sands, rock flour, silty or not permit even a
clayey fine sands or clayey single pass. Going
silts with slight plasticity will be difficult in
Inorganic silts, micaceous or MI most cases.
diatomaceous fine sandy or
silty soils, elastic silts
Organic silts and organic silly I OL
clays of low plasticity I
Organic clays of medium to OM
high plasticity, organic
silts
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
t h e t r u cks will h a ve t o fa n ou t a n d u s e
mor e lan es wit h les s t h an 50 veh icles in
s in gle file t o en s u r e pa s s a ge t h r ou gh a r ea 3
( t o 30, RCI les s t h an 50). Th e s lipper i-
n es s of a r ea 3 ma y pr es en t a n in s u r mou n t -
a ble pr oblem for t h e t r u cks u n les s t r a ct ion
devices ar e available.
An a lt er n a t ive r ou t e t h a t wou ld be s a fe for
all veh icles wou ld be t h r ou gh ar eas 1, 5,
an d 6, con s ecu t ively, pr ovided t h e s lope of
a r ea 5 ca n be n egot ia t ed. For t h is exa mple,
it is a s s u med t h a t t h e combin a t ion of
60-per cen t s lope an d ot h er t er r ain obs t acles
in a r ea s 2 a n d 4 wou ld n ot a llow t r a vel
t h r ou gh t h em.
St ep 3. Ch eck t h e s lope-climbin g abilit y
(u s in g Figu r e 7-7 an d Figu r e 7-8, pages 7-
12 an d 7- 13) of bot h veh icle t ypes in ar ea
1 Pass
Veh icle Slope
5 :
Ta n k 30% 6 6 + 2 0 = 2 6
Tr u ck 30% 11 11 + 30 = 41
50 Passes
Veh icle Slope
Ta n k 30% 15 15 + 48 = 63
Tr u ck 3 0 % 2 0 20 + 68 = 88
Th e t a n ks ca n n egot ia t e t h e 30-per cen t
s lope in s in gle file (available RCI of 80 is
gr ea t er t h a n t h e r equ ir ed RCI of 63). All
t r u cks ca n n ot n egot ia t e t h e s lope in s in gle
file (available RCI of 80 is les s t h an t h e r e-
qu ir ed RCI of 88), bu t t h ey ca n fa n ou t a n d
n egot iat e t h e s lope on a on e-pas s bas is
(a va ila ble RCI of 80 is gr ea t er t h a n t h e r e-
qu ir ed RCI of 41). Th e con clu s ion is t h a t
a ll veh icles cou ld t r a vel fr om X t o Y
t h r ou gh ar eas 1, 5, an d 6, r es pect ively,
pr ovided cau t ion is u s ed wit h t h e t r u cks .
Th is r ou t e is s h own as a das h ed lin e.
Th is example in dicat es t h e u s efu ln es s of
ma pped t r a ffica bilit y da t a in pla n n in g oper a -
t ion al exer cis es .
Th e pr es en t a t ion of t r a ffica bilit y da t a for
s t r at egic pu r pos es is mos t effect ive wh en
on e veh icle is u s ed as a s t an dar d, r efer en ce
veh icle. For example, if t h e veh icle s elect ed
h a s a VCI of 49 a n d t h e in for ma t ion on
t h at s pecific veh icle is pr es en t ed, t r affica-
bilit y da t a for t h a t veh icle ca n be gen er a l-
ized an d con s ider ed applicable t o all
veh icles wit h a VCI of 49 or les s .
Recommen ded t ech n iqu es of ma ppin g t r a f-
fica bilit y da t a follow:
Th e bas e of t h e map s h ou ld be a s t an d-
a r d t opogr a ph ic ma p pr in t ed in a gr a y
mon och r ome wit h s t r ea ms in a s t r on g
blu e color .
Th e fou r s oil-s lope combin at ion s s h ou ld
be s h own as t r afficabilit y s ymbols , as in -
dicat ed in Table 7-7. (See pr eviou s
wea t h er con dit ion s .)
Obs t acles s h ou ld be in dicat ed by r ed
added n u mber s cir cled in r ed.

For es t s s h ou ld be in dicat ed by ap-
pr opr ia t e open -t ype pa t t er n s in s t r on g
gr een .

Th e r ever s e of t h e t r a ffica bilit y ma p
s h ou ld con t a in a n in s et ma p of t h e pr in -
ciple ph ys iogr aph ic pr ovin ces ,
la n dfor ms , geologic a r ea s , a n d r ela t ed
da t a u s ed in ma kin g t h e a n a lys is . Th e
in s et ma p s h ou ld s h ow in det a il a ll im-
por t a n t da t a on s oils , t opogr a ph y, a n d
obs t a cles t h a t ca n n ot r ea dily be s h own
on t h e fa ce of t h e ma p.
SOIL-TRAFFICABILITY CLASSIFICATION
Soil clas s ificat ion of a s pecific ar ea can be r aph y (h igh or low) h as been iden t ified, an d
accomplis h ed r apidly for s eas on al (h igh - t h e VCI for veh icle cat egor y h as been
mois t u r e) con dit ion s wh en t h e s oil h a s been det er min ed (fr om Table 7-3, page 7-19, or
cla s s ified in t er ms of t h e USCS, t h e t opog- Appen dix D) or compu t ed, wh en n eces s ar y,
as pr eviou s ly des cr ibed.
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table 7-7. Trafficability symbols
FINE-GRAINED SOILS
Th e t r afficabilit y clas s ificat ion of fin e-
gr ain ed s oils is s h own in Table 7-8, page
7-38.
Th e in t er pr et a t ion of t h e exa mple s h own in
t h e Low Topogr a ph y, High Mois t u r e Con di-
t ion gr aph of Table 7-8 for a level ar ea of
MH s oil follows :
Veh icles wit h a or equ a l t o
or gr ea t er t h a n 84 will h a ve a les s t h a n
50 per cen t pr obabilit y of t r aver s in g t h e
a r ea .
or gr ea t er t h a n 56, bu t les s t h a n 84,
will h a ve a pr oba bilit y equ a l t o or
gr ea t er t h a n 50 per cen t , bu t les s t h a n 5
per cen t , of t r a ver s in g t h e a r ea .
or gr ea t er t h a n 18, bu t les s t h a n 56,
will h a ve a pr oba bilit y equ a l t o or
gr ea t er t h a n 75 per cen t , bu t les s t h a n
90 per cen t , of t r a ver s in g t h e a r ea .
Veh icles wit h a or les s t h a n
18 will h a ve a pr oba bilit y equ a l t o or
gr ea t er t h a n 90 per cen t , bu t n o mor e
t h a n 100 per cen t , of t r a ver s in g t h e a r ea .
COARSE-GRAINED SOILS
Th e t r afficabilit y clas s ificat ion of coar s e-
gr ain ed s oils can be obt ain ed fr om Figu r e
7-16, page 7-39. Th e clas s ificat ion in t er -
pr et a t ion is t h e s a me a s for t h e t r a ffica -
bilit y of fin e-gr ain ed s oils fr om Table
7-8. To u s e Figu r e 7-16, iden t ify on ly t h e
coar s e-gr ain cd s oils (locat ion an d or igin )
a n d det er min e t h e VCIs fr om t h e equ a t ion
pr es en t ed ear lier in t h is ch apt er . Figu r e
7-16 applies t o wh eeled veh icles on ly. Th e
effect of t h e s t r en gt h of coa r s e-gr a in cd s oils
on t r acked-veh icle per for man ce is n egligible.
Soils Trafficability 7-37 b
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Table 7-8. Soil-trafficabi/itv classification in uses terms
Vehicle category
Soli Strenath measurements Effects of
I 1 I I 3 I 4 I 5 I
I type
Probable ranae 1
Mean I Slipper- I
Stick-
2 6 7
symbol
Cl
I
RI
I
RCI
RCI Iness
2
lness
VCI
50
Ffl
40
H .1
80
1 100 120
m
T 140 160 180 1
200
1
I I I I I I I
ItGH TOPOGRAPHY, WET-SEASON CONDmON
GGW,GP NONE NONE
sw,sp NONE NONE
SP-SM 125-241 1_19-2_17 196-316 256 NONE NONE
GM 230 NONE NONE
SM 130 - 224
o_n -1.83 137 -267 212' NONE NONE
CH 167-217 0_84 - 1.10 158-210 184 SLIGHT MOOERATE
GC 165' SLIGHT SLIGHT
se 127-231

156 SLIGHT SLIGHT
MH 151 -211 64-160 112' SLIGHT SLIGHT
CL 123-211 0.59-0.95 82-180 131 SLIGHT SLIGHT
SM-SC 147-185 0.47-1.13 65-211 138 SLIGHT NONE
loll 118-224 0.46-1.02 67-189 128 SLIGHT NONE
CL 101. 111 -209 0.44 -072 54-136 95 SLIGHT NONE
LOW TOPOGRAPHY, WET.sEASON CONDIllON
GW,GP NONE NONE
SW,SP NONE NONE
SP-SM 300 0.94 262 282' NONE NONE
CH 98-194 0.74-1.14 81-193 137 SEVERE SEVERE
GC 130' MODERATE MODERATE
SC 97-257' 0.59 -121' 61 - 255' 158' MODERATE MOOERATE
SM-se 160-216' 0.45 - 1.31' 72-208' 140' SLIGHT NONE
MH 94-170 0.51 -0.99 48-162 105 SEVERE MOOERATE
GM 125' SLIGHT NONE
SM 109 - 217 029-1.03 34 -188 111 SLIGHT NONE
CL 90-188 0.46 - 0.88 46-146 96 MODERATE MOOERATE
lolL 102 - 200 027-0.81 34-134 64 MODERATE SLIGHT
CL lolL 85-165 0.31 - 0.69 34-96 65 MODERATE SLIGHT
OL 95-135 0.38-0.74 41-89 65 MODERATE SLIGHT
OH 0.32-0.78
li:

MODERATE SLIGHT
Pt 76-90 0.45-0.67' MODERATE SLIGHT
LOW TOPOGRAPHY, ItGH MOISTURE CONDITION
GW,GP NONE
NONE
SW,SP NONE
NONE
CH 69-167 0.64 - 1.02 48-146 97 SEVERE
SEVERE
GC 90'
SEVERE MOOERATE
se 88' SEVERE
MOOERATE
$M-se 150-182' 0.45- 0.63 66-98' 82' MODERATE SLIGHT
MH 83-151 0.46- 0.92 43-123 83 SEVERE SEVERE
CL 71-165 0.42- 0.80 39-117 78, SEVERE MOOERATE
SP-SM

SLIGHT
NONE
GM SLIGHT SLIGHT
SM 81-183 0.15-0.87 12-126 69 SLIGHT SLIGHT
101. 81-171 0.26- 0.60 22-88 55 SEVERE SLIGHT
CL-1oI. 71-155

26-66 46 SEVERE
SLIGHT
OL 87' 49' 49'
MOOERATE
SLIGHT
OH 0.26- 0.66 21-49 35 SEVERE SLIGHT
Pt 76-90 0.45 - 0.61' 41-51' 46'
SEVERE
SLIGHT
NOTE: Vehicle calegory and Cl range are given in Table 7-3, page 7-19. Probability (Pr) of a vehicle (or 50 vehicles) traversing level terrain
'Based on +1 and -I standard deviation from the mean.
'Applies only to wheeled vehicles without traction devices.
'Estimllted from lextural, plllsticity, and organic properties of soil under given moisture condition.
'Based on analysis of less than five samples.
c::=J ExceDenl 90% 100% So 100% C Good reliability, based on analysis of data
c::J Good 75% So Pr < 90%
Fair 50% < 75% = Fair reliability, based on judgement
-A vehicle with a VCI of 60 would have a 50 to 75% chance of "GO" on an ML soil of
_ Poor
0% So Pr < 50%
low topography, wet-season condition.
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Coarse-grained soli
Location Origin
Beach Quartz
Beach Coral
Beach Volcanic
Desert Quartz
Vehicle cone index (VClpS)
o 20 40 60 80 100 120
I I
Probability (Pr) of wheeled vehicle traversing level terrain
I . ~
k{{{{:]
~
-
Excellent ~ 90-,. ~ Pr 100-,.
Good 75.,. '.S.. Pr < 90.,.
Fair 50." ~ Pr < 75".
Poor 0.,. ~ Pr < 50.,.
Figure 7-16. Trafficability classification of dry-to-moist, coarse-grained soils
CHAPTER 8
nance, Repair, and Rehabilitation of Roads, Airfields, and Heliports
Maintenance and Repair Considerations Maintenance and Repair Operations Road Maintenance
Airfield and Heliport Maintenance
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
MAINTENANCE, REPAIR, AND
REHABILITATION OF ROADS,
AIRFIELDS, AND HELlPORTS
Ma in t e n a n ce is t h e rou t in e pre v e n t ion a n d corre ct ion of n orma l
d a ma ge a n d d e t e riora t ion (f rom u s e a n d t h e e le me n t s ) t o k e e p
roa d a n d a irf ie ld s u rf a ce s a n d f a cilit ie s in u s a b le con d it ion .
Repair is that w ork neces s ary (other than maintenance) to correct
d a ma ge ca u s e d by a bn orma l u s e , a ccid e n t s , h os t ile f orce s , a n d
s e v e re w e a t h e r. Re p a ir in clu d e s t h e re s u rf a cin g of a roa d or
runw ay w hen maintenance can no longer accomplis h its purpos e.
Ba s e d on t h is ma n u a l, re h a bilit a t ion is t h e re s t ora t ion of ca p-
t u re d a irf ie ld s a n d h e liport s t o u s a ble con d it ion . Re h a bilit a t ion
re s e m b le s w a r-d a m a ge re p a ir e x ce p t t h a t it is a ccom p lis h e d
be f ore occu pa n cy .
MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR CONSIDERATIONS
Th e pu r pos e of a ll ma in t en a n ce a n d r epa ir
act ivit ies is t o keep r oads , air fields , or ot h er
in s t a lla t ion s u r fa ces in a s u s a ble a n d a s
s a fe a con dit ion a s t h e s it u a t ion per mit s .
Pr ompt a n d a dequ a t e ma in t en a n ce is impor -
t a n t . On ce s u r fa ce det er ior a t ion or des t r u c-
t ion h as s t ar t ed, it can pr oceed ver y r apid-
ly. Pos t pon in g min or ma in t en a n ce jobs ca n
r es u lt in t h e developmen t of ma jor r epa ir
jobs in volvin g t h e s u bgr ade, bas e cou r s e,
a n d s u r fa ce.
Us e t h e followin g gu idelin es wh en per for m-
in g ma in t en a n ce a n d r epa ir wor k:
En s u r e t h a t ma in t en a n ce a n d r epa ir a c-
t ivit ies in t er fer e as lit t le as pos s ible
wit h t h e n or ma l flow of t r a ffic. Wh en -
ever feas ible, plan an d per for m main -
t en a n ce a n d r epa ir a ct ivit ies t o per mit
a t lea s t pa r t ia l u s e of t h e fa cilit y. Wh en
it is n eces s a r y t o clos e t h e fa cilit y t o a ll
t r affic, s elect alt er n at ive facilit ies or per -
for m r epa ir wor k a t n igh t or du r in g
per iods of r edu ced act ivit y. Reopen t h e
fa cilit y a s s oon a s pr a ct ica ble.
Remedy t h e ca u s e befor e r epa ir in g t h e
pr oblem. For example, s u r face r epair s
made on a defect ive s u bgr ade ar e
wa s t ed. All ma in t en a n ce a n d r epa ir
jobs s h ou ld in clu de an in ves t igat ion t o
fin d t h e ca u s e of t h e da ma ge or
det er ior a t ion . To ign or e t h e ca u s e is t o
in vit e t h e pr ompt r ea ppea r a n ce of
da ma ge. Ign or e t h e ca u s e on ly wh en
ma kin g t empor a r y r epa ir s t o meet imme-
dia t e, min imu m n eeds u n der comba t or
ot h er u r gen t con dit ion s .
Ma in t a in a n d r epa ir exis t in g s u r fa ces a s
clos ely as pos s ible t o t h e or igin al con -
s t r u ct ion in s t r en gt h , a ppea r a n ce, a n d
t ext u r e. Spot s t r en gt h en in g ma y cr ea t e
differ en ces in wea r a n d t r a ffic impa ct
t h a t ca n h a r m a djoin in g s u r fa ces . Als o,
u n ifor mit y s implifies ma in t en a n ce a n d
r epa ir oper a t ion s .
Maintenance, Repair, and Rehabilitation 8-1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Pr ior it ize t h e n eeded r epair s bas ed on
t h e t a ct ica l r equ ir emen t s , t h e t r a ffic
volu me, a n d t h e h a za r ds t h a t r es u lt
fr om complet e fa ilu r e of t h e fa cilit y. For
exa mple, r oa ds u s ed for t a ct ica l-oper a -
t ion s s u ppor t t a ke pr ior it y over les s
es s en t ial facilit ies . On e pot h ole in a
h ea vily u s ed r oa d t h a t is in ot h er wis e
excellen t con dit ion t akes pr ior it y over
r epair s t o les s h eavily u s ed r oads in
poor con dit ion .
MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR OPERATIONS
Ma in t en a n ce a n d r epa ir oper a t ion s in clu de
ma n y t a s ks bes ides impr ovin g t h e pa vemen t
con dit ion . To en s u r e a compr eh en s ive main -
t en a n ce a n d r epa ir oper a t ion , in cor por a t e
t h e followin g t a s ks :

Th e
Rou t in e in s pect ion s .
Ma t er ia l s t ockpilin g.

Ma in t en a n ce a n d r epa ir of a ll r ela t ed
dr a in a ge s ys t ems .
Ma in t en a n ce a n d r epa ir of t h e a ct u a l
pa vemen t , in clu din g du s t a n d mu d con -
t r ol a n d s n ow a n d ice r emova l.
Mis cellan eou s t as ks , in clu din g t h e

ma in t en a n ce a n d r epa ir of n eces s a r y
bu ildin gs , s t r u ct u r es , a n d u t ilit ies , a n d
t h e oper a t ion of n eces s a r y u t ilit ies .
MAINTENANCE INSPECTIONS
pu r pos e of main t en an ce in s pect ion s is
t o det ect ear ly eviden ce of defect s befor e ac-
t u a l fa ilu r e occu r s . Fr equ en t in s pect ion s
an d effect ive follow-u p pr ocedu r es pr even t
min or defect s fr om becomin g ma jor r epa ir
jobs . In s pect s u r face an d dr ain age s ys t ems
car efu lly du r in g r ain y s eas on s an d s pr in g
t h a ws a n d a ft er h ea vy s t or ms .
Su r fa c e In s pe c t ion
Su r fa ce defect s ca n u s u a lly be a t t r ibu t ed t o
exces s ive loads , in fer ior s u r facin g mat er ial,
poor s u bgr ade or bas e con dit ion s , in ade-
qu a t e dr a in a ge, or a combin a t ion of t h es e
con dit ion s . Su r face in s pect ion s s h ou ld in -
clu de a complet e in ven t or y of t h e cu r r en t
pa vemen t defect s . Ca r efu l in ves t iga t ion of
t h e ca u s es of t h e defect s will a llow for t ime-
ly ma in t en a n ce t o pr even t t h e pa vemen t
defect s fr om r equ ir in g r epa ir .
Dr a i n a ge In s pe c t i on
En s u r e t h a t a ll dr a in a ge ch a n n els a n d
s t r u ct u r es a r c u n obs t r u ct ed. Ch eck cu l-
ver t s a n d dr a in a ge lin es for s t r u ct u r a l
da ma ge. In s pect ch eck dams for debr is an d
exces s ive er os ion . In ves t iga t e wa t er pon d-
in g on or a dja cen t t o s u r fa ced a r ea s . In -
s pect t h e s ys t em dr a in a ge du r in g or a ft er
ever y s t or m. Als o, t h or ou gh ly in s pect t h e
s ys t em in la t e fa ll t o pr epa r e for win t er a n d
in ea r ly s pr in g t o en s u r e min imu m s pr in g
br ea ku p difficu lt ies . In s pect s u bs u r fa ce
dr a in s a t lea s t t wice a yea r .
MATERIALS FOR MAINTENANCE
Gen er a lly, ma t er ia ls r equ ir ed in t h e ma in -
t en an ce an d r epair of r oads an d air fields
a r c t h e s a me a s t h os e u s ed in n ew con s t r u c-
t ion . Open pit s an d pr epar e s t ockpiles of
s a n d a n d gr a vel; ba s e ma t er ia l; a n d
pr emixed, cold pa t ch in g ma t er ia ls a t con -
ven ien t pla ces a n d in s u fficien t qu a n t it ies
for emer gen cey ma in t en a n ce a n d r epa ir . Ar -
r an ge s t ockpiles for qu ick loadin g an d
t r a n s por t in g t o t h e r oa d or r u n wa y. Bu ild
on c of t h e s ever a l t ypes of t r a p-a n d-ch u t e
combin at ion s des cr ibed in Ch apt er 5 of TM
5-332 for s an d, gr avel, an d bas e mat er ials ,
Pr emixed. cold pa t ch in g ma t er ia l ma y be
pr epar ed as explain ed in Ch apt er 9 of TM 5-
337. Ma in t a in s ma ll qu a n t it ies of a ggr ega t e
in dr y s t or a ge for con cr et e pa t ch in g.
DRAINAGE MAINTENANCE
Defect ive or in a dequ a t e dr a in a ge ca u s es
mos t pa vemen t fa ilu r es a n d det er ior a t ion .
Pen din g or delayed r u n off of s u r face wat er
a llows s eepa ge in t o t h e pa vemen t s t r u ct u r e
u n les s t h e s u r face is t igh t ly s ealed.
8-2 Maintenance, Repair, and Rehabilitation
Su r fa c e Dr a i n a ge
Ma r k a r ea s wh er e pen din g occu r s on s u r -
faced ar eas . Cor r ect s u ch pr oblems by fill-
in g or r ais in g depr es s ion s an d by pr ovidin g
ou t let s for wat er blocked by h igh s h ou lder s .
Con t r ol pen et r a t ion of s t or m wa t er t h r ou gh
pavemen t by s calin g join t s an d cr acks .
Keep u n paved r oads an d air fields cr own ed
t o pr even t wa t er fr om r ema in in g on t h e
r oa d or a ir field wh er e it will s a t u r a t e a n d
wea t h er t h e s u r fa ce. Ma in t a in cr own s a n d
s u per elevat ion s wit h gr ader s or dr ags .
Sh ou ld e r s
Keep s h ou lder s s moot h a n d gr a ded s o wa t er
will dr a in fr om t h e s u r fa ced a r ea t owa r d
t h e dit ch . Replace er oded s h ou lder
ma t er ia l on pa ved s u r fa ces wit h n ew
ma t er ia l. Ma t er ia l clea n ed ou t of dit ch es
can oft en be u s ed 10 r ebu ild s h ou lder s .
Sh ou lder s s h ou ld be kept bladed flu s h t o,
or s ligh t ly below, t h e edges of t h e pa vemen t
a n d s h ou ld s lope a wa y fr om t h e pa vemen t
t o pr even t wa t er s eepa ge in t o t h e s u bgr a de.
Dr a i n a ge Di t c h e s
Keep dr ain age dit ch es clear of weeds .
br u s h . s edimen t . a n d ot h er debr is t h a t
obs t r u ct wa t er flow. Ma in t a in dit ch es a s t o
lin e an d gr ade. Cor r ect s a gs a n d min or
wa s h ou t s a s t h ey occu r . Side dit ch es ca n
u s u a lly be ma in t a in ed wit h gr a der s .
Wh en clean in g an d s h apin g, avoid u n n eces -
s a r y bla din g or cu t t in g t h a t des t r oys
n at u r al gr ou n d cover . Wh er e pos s ible,
develop den s e s od t o s t abilize open dit ch es .
Wh er e veget at ion is n ot effect ive becau s e of
s oil or mois t u r e con dit ion s , er os ion ma y be
cor r ect ed by lin in g t h e dit ch wit h r ipr ap, as -
ph a lt -coa t ed membr a n e, or con cr et e.
In s pect ch eck dams in s ide dit ch es an d
clea n t h em r egu la r ly. Th e weir n ot ch of a
ch eck cla m mu s t be kept clea n or wa t er will
cu t in t o t h e s u r fa ced a r ea a t t h e edge of
t h e dam (Figu r e 8-1). Th e apr on s of ch eck
da ms mu s t a ls o be ma in t a in ed, a n d pa vin g
ma t er ia l mu s t be r epla ced wh en wa s h ed
ou t . Dikes or ber ms ma y be r equ ir ed a lon g
t h e t ops of h igh -fill s lopes t o pr even t gu llies
an d was h es .
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 8-1. Check dam
Cu t -s lope in t er cept or dit ch es mu s t be con -
s ider ed for all s ide-h ill an d t h r ou gh cu t s t o
pr even t gu lly wa s h in g a n d er os ion fr om t h e
t op of t h e cu t s . If ben ch in g or t er r a cin g
h as been u s ed in t h e des ign of t h e cu t , en -
s u r e t h a t t h e t op of ea ch ben ch is s loped
ba ck in t o t h e cu t t o pr ovide for pr oper
dr a in a ge. Als o en s u r e t h a t ea ch ben ch t op
is wide en ou gh t o ma in t a in t h a t dr a in a ge
wit h ea r t h movin g equ ipmen t . A good r u le
of t h u mb is t o ma ke ben ch es a t lea s t a s
wide as a dozer blade. Figu r e 8-2, page
8-4, illu s t r at es pr oper t er r aced s ide-h ill-cu t
dr a in a ge.
For pr oper des ign con s ider at ion s of cu t
s lopes , r efer t o Ch apt er 10 of FM 5-410.
Cu l ve r t s
Keep cu lver t s clear of debr is an d s edimen t
(Figu r e 8-3, page 8-4). Th is pr even t s wat er
fr om cu t t in g a r ou n d or u n der min in g t h e cu l-
ver t s . In s pect cu lver t s fr equ en t ly t o det er -
min e wh et h er t h ey a r c fu n c-t ion in g pr oper -
ly. Clean in g by h an d is u s u ally n eces s ar y
a ft er h ea vy r a in s .
NONPAVED SURFACES
Bas ic main t en an ce of n on paved s u r faces in -
clu des s h apin g t h e cr os s s ect ion t o main -
t a in a dequ a t e dr a in a ge a n t i a s moot h , com-
pact ed s u r face.
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 8-2. Side-hill terracing
Equ i p m e n t
Mos t s u r fa ce ma in t en a n ce con s is t s of ligh t
s cr apin g wit h gr ader blades an d dr ags . Mu l-
t iple-blade dr ags of ir on or ir on -s h od, h eavy
t imber ma y be u s ed for n or ma l s cr a pin g.
Dr a gs a r e fr equ en t ly u s ed t o floa t mu d a n d
wa t er off a r oa d a n d t o pr even t cor r u ga t ion
Figure 8-3. Culvert entrance
or wa s h boa r din g
of dr a g is s h own
Ma t e r i a ls
of t h e s u r fa ce. On e t ype
in Figu r e 8-4.
Ma t er ia ls r emoved fr om dit ch es , ot h er t h a n
s ilt , s ome cla ys , a n d a ll or ga n ic s oils (OL,
OH, Pt ), ma y be u s ed on s h ou lder s a n d
t r aveled ways . Dis pos e of s ilt depos it s
wh en r emoved; t h ey a r e n ot s u it a ble for con -
s t r u ct ion . Aft er h ea vy s t or ms a n d s pr in g
t h a ws , a ddit ion a l ma t er ia l ma y n eed t o be
h au led in .
Pr oc e d u r e s
Keep t r a ffic a r ea s a n d s h ou lder s fr ee of
pot h oles , r u t s , a n d ir r egu la r it ies . Ligh t
bla din g will pr even t cor r u ga t ion or wa s h -
boar din g. Wor k fr om t h e dit ch es t o t h e cen -
t er of t h e r oa d t o en s u r e good dr a in a ge a n d
pr oper r oad cr own in g. Sin ce loos en ed, dr y
ma t er ia l ca n n ot be compa ct ed, bla din g or
dr aggin g s h ou ld be don e du r in g or s oon
aft er r ain s . For pr olon ged dr y s pells or
wh en s u r fa ce ma t er ia l will n ot compa ct ,
a dd wa t er or mois t s u bs u r fa ce ma t er ia l
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 8-4. Improvised road drag
wit h a r ot ot iller , plow, or s ca r ifier befor e
compa ct ion .
Compa ct ion of t h e gr a ded s u r fa ce ma t er ia l
will r edu ce ma in t en a n ce a n d r epa ir for n on -
paved s u r faces . Th e t ype of r oller u s ed will
va r y wit h t h e ma t er ia l compa ct ed. Th e cor -
r ect mois t u r e con t en t will r es u lt in t h e
mos t econ omica l compa ct ion .
Soft s pot s , in dica t ed by r u t t in g or s h ovin g
of t h e s u r face, ar e gen er ally cau s ed by ex-
ces s mois t u r e, poor s u bs u r fa ce dr a in a ge, or
u n s t a ble ma t er ia l. Det er min e t h e s ou r ce of
exces s mois t u r e a n d cor r ect t h e dr a in a ge.
On t r a ffic a r ea s , cobbles ma y be u s ed t o s t a -
bilize s mall ar eas of failu r e. Wh er e s u r face
failu r es ar e cau s ed by pocket s of mu lch or
pea t , it ma y be n eces s a r y t o r emove t h e
object ion a ble ma t er ia l a n d r epla ce it wit h a
mor e s t a ble ma t er ia l. Wh en a dequ a t e
r epa ir s ca n n ot be ma de, s oft s pot s ca n be
t empor ar ily r ein for ced by addin g cr u s h ed
r ock or clean gr avel.
Keep n on paved s u r faces cr own ed t o pr even t
wa t er fr om r ema in in g on t h e s u r fa ce a n d
s a t u r a t in g t h e s oil. Ma in t a in t h e cr own
a n d s u per eleva t ion wit h dr a gs or gr a der s .
Du s t con t r ol ma y be a pr oblem u n der s ome
con dit ion s . Spr a yin g wit h wa t er or a bit u -
min ou s s t a bilizer is t h e mos t common ly
u s ed met h od of con t r ollin g du s t . Du s t con -
t r ol is dis cu s s ed fu r t h er in Ch apt er 12 of
FM 5-430-00-2/ AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 2.
Exa mples of r oa d r epa ir s a r e s h own in Fig-
u r e 8-5, page 8-6.
OILED SURFACES
Th e r ou t in e ma in t en a n ce of oiled s u r fa ces
con s is t s of s h apin g an d pat ch in g. Sh apin g
is don e wit h gr ader s or dr ags . Pat ch in g
ma y be don e wit h a mixt u r e of t h e s oil a n d
oil. Oilin g is n eces s ar y each year becau s e
oiled s u r faces fr equ en t ly br eak u p in t h e
s pr in g an d become ver y r ou gh . Th or ou gh
s car ifyin g. bladin g (or dr aggin g), an d r es h ap-
in g is n eces s ar y befor e oilin g each year .
GRAVEL SURFACES
Main t en an ce pr ocedu r es for gr avel s u r faces
a r e mu ch t h e s a me a s for n on pa ved s u r -
faces . Con t in u al s h apin g is n eeded t o main -
t a in a s moot h s u r fa ce a n d a u n ifor m
cr own , a n d t h e dr a in a ge s ys t em mu s t be
kept fu n ct ion in g.
Su r fa c e Ma i n t e n a n c e
Heavily-t r aveled, gr aveled s u r faces r equ ir e
con s t a n t a t t en t ion by ma in t en a n ce pa t r ols .
In t en s ive ma in t en a n ce is r equ ir ed wh en t h e
s u r fa ce is fir s t open t o t r a vel. Bu mps com-
pa ct ed a t t h is t ime r ema in in t h e s u r fa ce
an d can be cor r ect ed on ly by s car ifyin g or
a ddin g mor e ma t er ia l. Bla de or dr a g t h e
s u r fa ce s oon a ft er r a in u n t il a ll r u t s a n d
h oles a r e filled. Do n ot wor k on a dr y
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 8-5. Road maintenance problems and proper corrective action
s u r fa ce. Ma in t a in a crown of at least 1/ 2
in ch per foot . Mu lt iple blade dr ags or s led
dr a gs ca n be u s ed for r ou t in e ma in t en a n ce,
bu t gr ader s ar e n eces s ar y for h eavy r es h ap-
in g wor k.
Keep a s ligh t exces s of gr avel available at
t h e edges of t h e r oa dwa y a n d bla de it
u n ifor mly over t h e s u r fa ce in wet wea t h er .
St ockpile a ddit ion a l ma t er ia ls in a dva n ce of
fall an d win t er an d pr olon ged wet per iods .
Ma t er ia l a dded or s pr ea d on t h e s u r fa ce
du r in g wa r m, dr y wea t h er is of lit t le va lu e.
Re pa ir of Pot h ole s
Mos t pot h oles a r e ca u s ed by ma t er ia l dis -
pla ced by t r a ffic. In it ia lly t h ey a r e s h a llow
an d ar e r eadily filled by bladin g wh en t h e
s u r fa ce is mois t . Deep h oles r equ ir e fillin g
wit h a ddit ion a l ma t er ia l. New ma t er ia l
s h ou ld be mois t en ed an d compact ed.
Tr e a t me n t of Cor r u ga t ion s
All gr avel s u r faces t en d t o develop t r an s -
ver s e or n ear ly t r an s ver s e waves , called cor -
r u ga t ion s , wh ich ma y pr ogr es s in t o r u t s a s
deep as 4 in ch es an d fr om 1 1/ 2 t o 3 feet
a pa r t . Aft er t h is s t a ge, t h ey become ma jor
gr ooves n eedin g ext en s ive r epair .
Some bla de equ ipmen t in h er en t ly ch a t t er s
an d s t ar t s s ligh t ir r egu lar it ies , es pecially
wh en t h e oper a t or a t t empt s t o move a
h ea vy cu t . Cor r u ga t ion s oft en a ppea r t o
s t a r t fr om s ma ll h oles or depr es s ion s ma de
wh en t h e r oa d is wet or fr om a n obs t r u c-
t ion s u ch a s a s t ick or r ock. Ot h er con -
t r ibu t in g fa ct or s a r e a s oft s u bgr a de, poor
gr adin g of t h e gr avel, poor bin der , an d an
in s u fficien t a mou n t of bin der .
Cor r u gat ion s can be pr even t ed t o a con s ider -
a ble ext en t by fr equ en t ma in t en a n ce a n d by
t h e ca r efu l u s e of ma in t en a n ce equ ipmen t .
On ce cor r u ga t ion s for m, t h ey ca n be
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
r emoved on ly by t h or ou gh ly s ca r ifyin g,
r es h a pin g, a n d compa ct in g. Regr a din g, a s
t h is is ca lled, s h ou ld begin wit h a t h or ou gh
clean in g an d r es h apin g of t h e s h ou lder s
a n d dit ch es , con t in u in g a cr os s t h e en t ir e
r oa dwa y.
Us e of Ca lc iu m Ch lor ide
Calciu m ch lor ide may be applied t o a gr avel
s u r fa ce t o con t r ol or elimin a t e du s t , pr even t
t h e los s of ma t er ia l u n der t h e wh ippin g a c-
t ion of t r a ffic, a n d a id in ma in t a in in g a
den s e s u r fa ce. Th e u s u a l met h od is t o
apply 1 pou n d of calciu m ch lor ide per
s qu a r e ya r d in t h e la t e s pr in g a n d 1/ 2
pou n d per s qu a r e ya r d t wice du r in g t h e
s u mmer s ea s on . However , t h e a mou n t of
r a in , t h e volu me of t r a ffic, a n d t h e ch a r a c-
t er of t h e gr a vel a ffect t h e qu a n t it ies r e-
qu ir ed. Calciu m ch lor ide is cor r os ive t o
met a l s u r fa ces a n d ma y r equ ir e mor e ma in -
t en a n ce for a ir cr a ft a n d veh icles .
Th e bes t t ime t o apply calciu m ch lor ide is
followin g a r a in a n d a ft er n eces s a r y bla din g
or dr a ggin g is complet ed. If t h e a pplica t ion
ca n n ot be defer r ed u n t il r a in occu r s , wa t er
t h e s u r fa ce befor e a pplyin g t h e ca lciu m
ch lor ide. For bes t r es u lt s , apply calciu m
ch lor ide befor e t h e t r affic ar ea becomes dr y
a n d du s t y.
PROCESSED MATERIAL SURFACES
Tr affic ar eas compos ed of pr oces s ed
mat er ials (cr u s h ed an d s cr een ed r ock,
gr a vel, or s la g) a r e ma in t a in ed by met h ods
s imila r t o t h os e u s ed on gr a vel s u r fa ces .
Wh en coar s e, pr oces s ed mat er ials ar e u s ed,
s u r fa ce fa ilu r es a r e u s u a lly in t h e for m of
s h ar p-edged h oles cau s ed by poor dr ain age.
Repa ir s r equ ir e clea n in g t h e h oles down t o
t h e s olid s u bgr a de a n d en s u r in g t h a t n o
s ilt , mu d, or wa t er r ema in s . Su bgr a de
r epa ir s a r e t h en ma de wit h a well-gr a ded
s oil a ggr ega t e. Su r face r epair s s h ou ld con -
s is t of a well-t amped or r olled-in -place,
coa r s e-gr a ded a ggr ega t e of t h e s a me gr a da -
t ion a s t h e or igin a l s u r r ou n din g s u r fa ce.
BITUMINOUS SURFACES
Th e ma in t en a n ce a n d r epa ir of bit u min ou s
s u r faces ar e dis cu s s ed in Ch apt er 9 of
TM 5-337. Some con s ider at ion s applicable
t o bit u min ou s -s u r fa ced t r a ffic a r ea s follow.
In s p e c t i on
Ma in t en a n ce pa t r ols s h ou ld fr equ en t ly in -
s pect bit u min ou s pa vemen t s for ea r ly det ec-
t ion of fa ilu r es . Sma ll defect s qu ickly
develop in t o lar ge on es , r es u lt in g in pave-
men t fa ilu r e u n les s pr ompt ly cor r ect ed.
Sma ll cr ews u s in g h a n d t ools ca n qu ickly
ma ke min or r epa ir s wit h a min imu m in t er -
r u pt ion of t r a ffic. La r ge, bit u min ou s
r epa ir s r equ ir e mor e t ime, per s on n el, a n d
equ ipmen t . Su ch r epa ir s a ls o in t er fer e wit h
t r a ffic. In ext r eme ca s es , det ou r s ma y be
r equ ir ed t o a void complet e t r a ffic s t oppa ge.
Pa t c h e s
All pa t ch es s h ou ld be t r immed s qu a r e or
oblon g wit h s t r a igh t , ver t ica l s ides r u n n in g
par allel an d per pen dicu lar t o t h e cen t er lin e
of t h e t r a ffic a r ea , a s expla in ed in Ch a pt er
9 of TM 5-337.
Te mpor a r y Re pa ir s
An y s t a ble ma t er ia l ma y be u s ed for t em-
por a r y r epa ir s in comba t a r ea s or wh er e
s u it a ble ma t er ia l is n ot a va ila ble a n d t h e
t r a ffic a r ea mu s t be pa t ch ed t o keep t r a ffic
movin g, Good-qu a lit y s oil a n d ma s on r y,
s u ch as con cr et e r u bble, ar e s u it able for
t h is pu r pos e. All s u ch pat ch es mu s t be
t h or ou gh ly compa ct ed a n d con s t a n t ly ma in -
t a in ed wit h r epla cemen t ma t er ia l. Mor e per -
ma n en t pa t ch in g s h ou ld be a ccomplis h ed
as s oon as pos s ible.
Ma i n t e n a n c e of Sh ou lde r s
Bla de s h ou lder s s o wa t er dr a in s fr om t h e
s u r fa ce a n d a ll r u t s a n d wa s h ou t s a r e
filled. Gr ade s h ou lder mat er ial flu s h
a ga in s t or s ligh t ly below pa vemen t edges t o
r es t r ict wa t er s eepa ge t o t h e s u bgr a de a n d
t o pr even t br ea kin g of t h e pa vemen t edge
ca u s ed by t r a ffic dr ivin g off t h e pa vemen t
on t o t h e s h ou lder . Repla ce ma t er ia l dis -
pla ced fr om s h ou lder s wit h ma t er ia l h a u led
in , as r equ ir ed.
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
STABILIZED SOIL SURFACES
Ma in t en a n ce of mech a n ica lly-s t a bilized s oil
s u r faces an d s an d-clay s u r faces is es s en t ial-
ly t h e s a me a s t h a t for n on pa ved a n d gr a vel
s u r faces . Pr ocedu r es des cr ibed for gr avel
s u r fa ces a r c a pplica ble t o s u r fa ces t h a t con -
t ain con s ider able coar s e aggr egat e. Pr oce-
du r es des cr ibed for n on paved s u r faces ar e
a pplica ble t o s u r fa ces t h a t con t a in lit t le or
n o coa r s e a ggr ega t e. Bit u min ou s s u r fa ces ,
s oils , a n d s oil-cemen t ma y r equ ir e a ddit ion -
al main t en an ce as des cr ibed in t h e par a-
gr a ph s t h a t follow.
Pot h ole s
Clea n pot h oles a n d t r im t h em r ect a n gu la r ly
wit h s t r a igh t , ver t ica l s ides r u n n in g pa r a llel
an d per pen dicu lar t o t h e cen t er lin e. Th is
pr ovides a s h ou lder a ga in s t t h e movemen t
of t h e pa t ch . Fill t h e pot h oles wit h a s t a bi-
lized mix of t h e s a me ch a r a ct er a s t h e a d-
ja cen t s ou n d a r ea . Th is mat er ial s h ou ld be
t h or ou gh ly compa ct ed in pla ce, on e t h in
la yer a t a t ime.
Ra ve ls
Edge r avelin g is cau s ed by wat er s oft en in g
t h e fou n da t ion ma t er ia l. Befor e pr oceedin g
wit h t h e pa t ch in g oper a t ion s , r econ s t r u ct
t h e s h ou lder or lower t h e s u bdr a in a ge s o
t h is con dit ion will n ot r ecu r . Th en bu ild
u p t h e fou n da t ion . Th e pa t ch in g mixt u r e
s h ou ld con for m 10 t h e s u r r ou n din g a r ea , a s
for pot h ole r epa ir .
CORAL SURFACES
Th e ma in t en a n ce of well-bu ilt cor a l t r a ffic
ar eas is r elat ively s imple. Us e fr es h , r aw
cor a l of t h e pr oper mois t u r e con t en t for t h e
r epa ir ma t er ia l. Ma in t en a n ce is bes t don e
du r in g or a ft er a r a in wh ile t h e cor a l is wet .
Fill low s pot s , r u t s , an d pot h oles by s h ovel-
in g or du mpin g cor a l dir ect ly fr om a t r u ck
on t o t h e low s pot s . Su ch pa t ch es , if r olled
wh ile wet , will bon d on t o t h e or igin a l
ma t er ia l a lmos t wit h ou t a ma r k. Sa lt wa t er
is u s u ally available wh er e cor al is available,
a n d s a lt wa t er ma kes a bet t er bon d t h a n
fr es h wa t er .
Occas ion al bladin g an d r ollin g ar e n eces -
s a r y t o ma in t a in a pr oper cr own a n d a
s moot h s u r face. In dr y s eas on s , s pr in klin g
is n eces s a r y t o ma in t a in a pr oper cr own , a
s moot h s u r fa ce, a n d h igh s t a bilit y a n d t o
min imize du s t . Th e t r a ffic a r ea s h old u p
well in wet s ea s on s . An a s ph a lt t r ea t men t
may be ju s t ified in pr olon ged dr y s eas on s ,
if du s t an d r avelin g become s er iou s . Car e-
fu l a t t en t ion t o s h ou lder s a n d t o t h e
dr ain age s ys t em is es s en t ial.
RIGID PAVEMENTS
Main t en an ce of r igid pavemen t s is cover ed
in Ch apt er 15 of TM 5-337. Fr equ en t ly in -
s pect con cr et e pa vemen t t o det ect ea r ly
s ign s of fa ilu r e, a n d ma ke pr ompt r epa ir s
t o pr even t min or defect s fr om s pr ea din g.
CRATER REPAIR
Bombs , s h ells , lan d min es , an d cr at er in g
ch ar ges can pr odu ce ext en s ive cr at er s in
t r a ffic a r ea s . Su r fa ce da ma ge does n ot
pr es en t a n y u n u s u a l r epa ir pr oblem, bu t ex-
plos ion s may dis place or des t abilize lar ge
a r ea s of t h e s u bgr a de. Dr a in a ge ma y a ls o
be dis r u pt ed, a llowin g wa t er pen et r a t in g t h e
br oken s u r fa ce t o a ccu mu la t e a n d fu r t h er
s oft en t h e s u bgr a de. Sa t is fa ct or y r epa ir s r e-
qu ir e t h e r es t or a t ion of s u bgr a de s t a bilit y
t o s u ppor t t r a ffic a n d pr even t u n du e s u r -
fa ce s et t lin g a ft er r epa ir s h a ve been com-
plet ed.
Us e t h e followin g pr ocedu r es for cr at er
r epair s :
1. Remove, fr om a r ou n d t h e edge of t h e
cr a t er , a ll s u r fa cin g t h a t is da ma ged or n ot
fir mly bon ded t o t h e bas e cou r s e.
2. Tr im t h e s u r fa ce a n d ba s e cou r s e t o a
s ou n d, ver t ical edge.
3. Remove wa t er , mu d, a n d debr is fr om
t h e cr a t er .
4. Fill t h e cr at er wit h s u cces s ive 6- t o
8-in ch la yer s of s u it a ble ma t er ia l t o t h e
or igin a l level of t h e s u bgr a de. Compa ct ion
is es s en t ia l; ea ch la yer mu s t be t h or ou gh ly
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
t a mped wit h h a n d or pn eu ma t ic t a mpin g
t ools . Aft er t h e ma t er ia l h a s r ea ch ed a
s u it a ble level, compa ct ion equ ipmen t ca n be
pu lled t h r ou gh or dr iven a cr os s t h e cr a t er .
5. Repa ir t h e ba s e cou r s e a n d wea r in g
s u r fa ce.
Gr avel, r ock, mas on r y debr is , s an dy s oil, or
ot h er s u it a ble, s t a ble ma t er ia ls ca n be u s ed
t o fill cr at er s , as s h own in Figu r e 8-6.
Ma t er ia l blown fr om cr a t er s ca n be u s ed for
mu ch of t h is fill. In a n emer gen cy.
ma t er ia l fr om t h e s h ou lder s of r oa ds or a ir -
fields may be bor r owed an d r eplaced lat er .
Wh en t h e s it u a t ion per mit s a n d wh er e
en emy a ct ion ma y be a n t icipa t ed, s t ockpiles
or ma t er ia l pit s s h ou ld be pr epa r ed a t con -
ven ien t s it es . Alt er n a t e la yer s of s a n dba gs
a n d t a mped ea r t h a llow good s u bgr a de com-
pa ct ion wh er e ot h er equ ipmen t or ma t er ia ls
a r e n ot a va ila ble.
For a det ailed dis cu s s ion of s pecific cr at er
r epair t ech n iqu es u s ed in air -bas e damage
r epair , r efer t o Tr ain in g Cir cu lar (TC) 5-340.
Figure 8-6. Crater backfill materials
ROAD MAINTENANCE
Th e impor t a n ce of pr even t ive ma in t en a n ce gin eer u n it s . Un der t h e pr es s u r e of comba t
a n d t h e n eces s it y for pr ompt ma in t en a n ce
of a ll t ypes ca n n ot be over emph a s ized.
Neglect a n d dela y per mit t h e t r a ffic a n d
wea t h er t o t u r n min or defect s in 10 ma jor
pr oblems . Pr ogr es s ive failu r e of r oads is a
s er iou s ma t t er . Th e mor e s er iou s a fa ilu r e
is , t h e mor e qu ickly it det er ior a t es .
In for wa r d a r ea s , ext en s ive r epa ir s a r e oft en
n eces s ar y befor e r oads can be u s ed. Ex-
pedien t wor k is u s u ally don e by combat en -
con dit ion s , t empor a r y r epa ir s a r e ma de
h u r r iedly u s in g t h e ma t er ia ls mos t r ea dily
available. Su ch r epair s ar e in t en ded on ly
t o meet immedia t e min imu m n eeds . As t h e
a dva n ce u n it s move for wa r d, ot h er en gin eer
u n it s la ke over t h e wor k of a ddit ion a l
r epa ir a n d ma in t en a n ce. Epedien t r epa ir s
pr eviou s ly made ar c s u pplemen t ed or
r epla ced by mor e per ma n en t wor k. Su r -
fa ces a r e br ou gh t t o a s t a n da r d t h a t will
wit h s t a n d t h e r equ ir ed u s e a n d ma in -
t en a n ce becomes r ou t in e.
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
MAINTENANCE PATROLS
Adequ a t e ma in t en a n ce r equ ir es a wor ka ble
ma in t en a n ce or ga n iza t ion . Us u a lly en gin eer
u n it s es t a blis h a pa t r ol s ys t em t o h a n dle
t h e r oa dn et for wh ich t h e u n it is r es pon -
s ible. It is des ir able t o u s e s qu ads as
pa t r ols a n d t h u s r et a in u n it in t egr it y, wit h
ea ch s qu a d comma n ded by it s s qu a d lea der
a n d u s in g it s r egu la r t a ble(s ) of or ga n iza -
t ion a n d equ ipmen t (TOE). Th e pla t oon fu r -
n is h es r ein for cemen t s (per s on n el or equ ip-
men t ) as n eeded.
As s ign ea ch pa t r ol t o a s pecific a r ea . Or -
ga n ize a s ma n y pa t r ols a s n eces s a r y t o a de-
qu a t ely cover t h e t ot a l a r ea of r es pon s ibi-
lit y. It is s omet imes n eces s a r y in for wa r d
or h ea vy-t r a ffic a r ea s t o pr ovide en ou gh
pa t r ols t o pu t t h e ma in t en a n ce fu n ct ion on
a 24-h ou r -a-day bas is .
Pe r s on n e l a n d Equ ipme n t
Two pla n s a r e pr es en t ed for t h e or ga n iza -
t ion of ma in t en a n ce pa t r ols . Con s ider t h e
mer it s of ea ch pla n wit h r es pect t o t h e
ma in t en a n ce pr oblems of t h e s it u a t ion a n d
t h e per s on n el a n d equ ipmen t a va ila ble for
t h e pa t r ols .
On e pa t r ol con s is t s of a n or ma l s qu a d
equ ipped wit h a du mp t r u ck, a gr a der , a n d
h a n d t ools . Th is pa t r ol ca n h a n dle a ll t h e
ma in t en a n ce a n d min or r epa ir s n or ma lly en
cou n t er ed on a 5- t o 15-mile s t r et ch of
r oad. Th e n u mber of people in a s qu ad can
be decr eas ed an d mor e miles can be as -
s ign ed t o a pa t r ol expect ed t o cover a
s t r et ch of per ma n en t pa vemen t in good con -
dit ion a n d n ot h ea vily t r a veled. If a pa t r ol
is t o cover a poor dir t r oa d a ccommoda t in g
h eavy t r affic, mor e per s on n el will be fu r -
n is h ed by t h e plat oon an d fewer miles will
be as s ign ed.
An ot h er pla n ca lls for t h e a s s ign men t of a
pa t r ol of on e t o t h r ee people, a gr a der , a n d
h a n d t ools . Th is cr ew ca n h a n dle t h e
r ou t in e ma in t en a n ce on a 12-mile s t r et ch of
a ver a ge ea r t h , gr a vel, or wa t er -bou n d
ma ca da m r oa d. However , t h e cr ew mu s t be
s u pplemen t ed wit h a t r u ck a n d r epa ir cr ew
wh en ever ma t er ia l mu s t be h a u led or s u r -
face pat ch in g accomplis h ed.
Win t er wea t h er ; s ever e s t or ms ; h ea vy,
des t r u ct ive en emy a ct ion ; a n d ot h er con di-
t ion s dema n d t h a t t h e pa t r ols be r ein for ced
wit h a ddit ion a l per s on n el a n d equ ipmen t or
t h a t t h e a s s ign ed a r ea s be r edu ced a n d t h e
n u mber of pat r ols in cr eas ed. Special con di-
t ion s oft en ca ll for s pecia l equ ipmen t .
Du t ie s
Th e du t ies of ma in t en a n ce pa t r ols a r e a s fol-
lows :

Clea n ou t dr a in a ge fa cilit ies .

Mow gr as s an d weeds .

Repa ir min or wa s h ou t s a n d pot h oles .

Ma in t a in t h e r oa d s u r fa ce; for exa mple,
elimin a t e r u t s , pot h oles , a n d wa s h -
boar ds .

Ma in t a in r oa d s h ou lder s a n d dit ch es .

Ma ke fr equ en t , t h or ou gh in s pect ion s of
r oa d con dit ion s , a n d r epor t t o h igh er
h ea dqu a r t er s a n y n eed for r epa ir wor k
mor e s ign ifica n t t h a n t h e pa t r ol is
equ ipped or ma n n ed t o h a n dle.
In s pe c t ion a n d Su pe r vis ion
An officer or s en ior n on commis s ion ed of-
ficer (NCO) is as s ign ed s ever al pat r ols t o s u -
per vis e, as s is t , an d in s pect . Nor mal u n it or -
ga n iza t ion s h ou ld be r et a in ed a s mu ch a s
pos s ible. A plat oon leader s h ou ld be
r es pon s ible for t h e pat r ols compos ed of per -
s on n el fr om h is comma n d.
REPAIR CREWS
Th e en gin eer s en din g ou t ma in t en a n ce
pat r ols s h ou ld keep s u fficien t equ ipmen t
an d per s on n el available t o s en d ou t r epair
cr ews t o h a n dle t h os e s it u a t ion s r epor t ed
by t h e pat r ols . Th e r epair cr ew compos i-
t ion will be dict at ed by t h e n eeds of t h e par -
t icu la r job in t er ms of equ ipmen t a n d per -
s on n el. Fr equ en t ly, t h e r egu la r ma in -
t en a n ce pa t r ol ca n wor k wit h t h e r epa ir
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
cr ew, bu t ot h er ma in t en a n ce a n d in s pect ion
of t h e pa t r ols a r ea mu s t n ot be n eglect ed.
MAINTENANCE WITH TRAFFIC
Give fu ll con s ider a t ion t o t h e impor t a n ce of
keepin g t r a ffic flowin g wit h a min imu m of
in t er fer en ce or dela y. Ma in t en a n ce of
s h ou lder s an d dit ch es can n or mally be per -
for med wit h ou t in t er fer en ce fr om, or
h in dr a n ce t o, t r a ffic. Repa ir s t o ot h er
dr a in a ge s t r u ct u r es ma y dela y t r a ffic or
s low ot h er r epa ir wor k. Per ma n en t r epa ir s
a r e oft en pos t pon ed s o t h a t t empor a r y a n d
emer gen cy r epair s can be made in or der t o
ma in t a in t r a ffic flow.
Tr a ffi c Con t r ol
Repa ir s s h ou ld be ma de on on e-h a lf t h e s u r -
fa ce a t a t ime wh en s u r fa ce r epa ir s will
den y t r a ffic t h e u s e of s ect ion s of t h e pa ve-
men t . Block off s h or t s ect ion s a n d pos t
gu ides t o r egu la t e t r a ffic a n d a void dela y.
Wh en s in gle-lan e t r affic mu s t be u s ed, con -
t r ol t r a ffic by t h e ba t on met h od. Wit h t h is
met h od, a fla gma n is pla ced a t ea ch en d of
t h e s in gle-la n e t r a ffic s ect ion . Th e fla gma n
a t on e en d of t h e s ect ion h a s a ba t on or
s ome ot h er dis t in ct ive ma r ker . Wor kin g
u n der a pr epar ed plan , all veh icles t r avelin g
in on e dir ect ion ar e s t opped, wh ile t h os e
t r avelin g in t h e oppos it e dir ect ion ar e per -
mit t ed t o go t h r ou gh . Aft er a s u it a ble t ime
in t er va l, t h e fla gma n on t h e open en d of t h e
s ect ion gives t h e ba t on t o t h e dr iver of t h e
la s t veh icle per mit t ed t o go t h r ou gh . Upon
a r r iva l a t t h e ot h er en d of t h e s ect ion , t h e
dr iver of t h e la s t veh icle gives t h e ba t on t o
t h e fla gma n . Veh icles a r e t h en per mit t ed t o
t r a vel in t h e oppos it e dir ect ion u n t il a ll wa it -
in g veh icles h ave pas s ed t h r ou gh an d t h e
dr iver of t h e las t veh icle car r ies t h e bat on
t o t h e ot h er en d of t h e s ect ion . Th is
pr oces s con t in u es as lon g as n eces s ar y.
Somet imes t wo-wa y t r a ffic ca n be ma in -
t ain ed t h r ou gh blocked-off s ect ion s by
diver t in g on e s t r ea m of t r a ffic t o t h e
s h ou lder of t h e r oa d. Gr a din g a n d s t a biliza -
t ion of t h e s h ou lder wit h gr a vel or bit u min -
ou s ma t er ia l ma y be ju s t ified in s u ch in -
s t a n ces . Repair s t o be per for med du r in g
t r affic flow s h ou ld be car efu lly plan n ed;
pr oper pr ocedu r es s h ou ld be s elect ed; an d
a ll la bor , ma t er ia l, a n d equ ipmen t s h ou ld
be on h a n d t o complet e t h e wor k a s r a pidly
as pos s ible.
Bypa s s e s a n d De t ou r s
Br idge or pa vemen t fa ilu r es or t h e des t r u c-
t ion of pa r t of a r oa dwa y by floods or com-
ba t a ct ion ma y ma ke pa r t or a ll of t h e r oa d-
wa y impa s s a ble t o t r a ffic. In s u ch ca s es , a
bypa s s or det ou r a r ou n d t h e da ma ged or
obs t r u ct ed ar ea is n eces s ar y. Th e con s t r u c-
t ion of a s h or t bypa s s a r ou n d a n obs t r u c-
t ion ma y be pr efer a ble t o a lon ger det ou r
on exis t in g r oa ds . A det ou r ma y a ls o be
u s ed wh ile a bypas s is bein g con s t r u ct ed.
Bas e t h e decis ion u pon t r affic in t er fer en ce,
t h e wor k in volved, a n d t h e t ime a va ila ble.
Con du ct a r econ n a is s a n ce t o det er min e t h e
bes t pos s ible r ou t e wh en es t ablis h in g a
det ou r . Th e r oad s h ou ld be as s h or t as pos -
s ible an d mu s t be in con dit ion , or be pu t in
con dit ion , t o h a n dle t r a ffic for t h e per iod
wh en it will be u s ed. Us e exis t in g r oads
wh en pos s ible. Con s t r u ct s h or t s ect ion s of
con n ect in g r oads , if n eces s ar y.
Ch eck an d r epair br idges or r ein for ce t h em
wit h t imber or pla n kin g. Clea n a n d r epa ir
cu lver t s . If t h e n eed for a det ou r is a n -
t icipa t ed, complet e t h is wor k befor eh a n d.
Det ou r r oa ds a r e u s u a lly s u bject ed t o
h ea vier loa ds a n d mor e t r a ffic t h a n t h eir
des ign s pecifica t ion s . Beca u s e in cr ea s ed
ma in t en a n ce is u s u a lly r equ ir ed t o keep
det ou r s pas s able, s t ockpile s u r facin g
ma t er ia l a lon g t h e r ou t e, ca r efu lly pla n
ma in t en a n ce oper a t ion s , a n d keep la bor
a n d ma t er ia l con s t a n t ly a va ila ble.
Pla ce s ign s a t det ou r en t r a n ces , r oa d in t er -
s ect ion s , a n d t u r n s t o dir ect t r a ffic. Pos t
wa r n in g s ign s a t da n ger ou s poin t s . Pla ce
ot h er s ign s or ma r kin gs , a s r equ ir ed, t o en -
s u r e min imu m t r a ffic dela y. In s t a ll ba r -
r ica des a t ea ch en d of t h e r oa d s ect ion
u n der r epa ir . Refer t o Ch a pt er 8 of
FM 5-36 for t h e t ypes an d pos t in g of r oad
s ign s .
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Sa fe t y of Ma i n t e n a n c e Pe r s on n e l
Give s pecia l a t t en t ion t o t h e s a fet y of ma in -
t en an ce per s on n el wor kin g wh er e t r affic
moves pa s t or a r ou n d t h em. Us e r es t r ict ive
s peed an d war n in g s ign s , bar r icades , an d
fla gmen t o con t r ol t r a ffic a n d les s en t h e
da n ger t o ma in t en a n ce per s on n el. In s t r u ct
cr ew member s t o a void s t eppin g in t o t h e
t r a veled wa y a n d t o be con t in u a lly a ler t t o
pas s in g t r affic. Con s picu ou s ly ma r k ma in -
t en an ce veh icles oper at in g in or on t h e edge
of t h e r oa dwa y wit h r ed fla gs , fla s h in g r ed
ligh t s , or s imilar devices .
WINTER MAINTENANCE
Win t er weat h er may pr es en t s pecial pr ob -
lems in TO ma in t en a n ce. Region s of h ea vy
s n owfa ll r equ ir e s pecia l equ ipmen t a n d
ma t er ia l t o keep pa vemen t a n d t r a ffic a r ea s
in u s a ble con dit ion . Low t emper a t u r es
ca u s e icin g of pa vemen t s a n d fr os t on s u b-
gr a de s t r u ct u r es . Alt er n a t e fr eezin g a n d
t h a win g ma y da ma ge s u r fa ces a n d t en d t o
block dr ain age s ys t ems wit h ice. Spr in g
t h a ws ma y r es u lt in bot h s u r fa ce a n d s u b-
gr ade failu r e. Win t er ma in t en a n ce con s is t s
ch iefly of r emovin g s n ow an d ice, s an din g
icy s u r fa ces , er ect in g a n d ma in t a in in g s n ow
fen ces , an d keepin g dr ain age s ys t ems fr ee
fr om obs t r u ct ion .
Pr e pa r a t i on for Wi n t e r
Or ga n ize s n ow-r emova l cr ews a n d pla ce
equ ipmen t in r eadin es s . St ockpile abr a-
s ives an d ch emicals in locat ion s wh er e t h ey
will be r equ ir ed. Per for m la t e fa ll ma in -
t en a n ce befor e t h e win t er fr eeze. Con t in u e
wit h r ou t in e ma in t en a n ce of dit ch es a n d
s h ou lder s as far in t o t h e win t er as pos s ible,
s o t h a t t h e dr a in a ge s ys t em will be in t h e
bes t pos s ible con dit ion for t h e s pr in g r u n off.
Keep ea r t h a n d gr a vel s u r fa ces s moot h a n d
s h a ped t o pr even t mois t u r e fr om en t er in g
t h e s u bgr ade. Smoot h in g a n d s h a pin g a ls o
pr even t s n owplow blades fr om bein g
obs t r u ct ed by r ou gh , fr ozen s h ou lder a n d
s u r fa ce ma t er ia l. In a r ea s of h ea vy s n ow-
fall, ou t lin e br idges , cu lver t s , an d n ar r ow
pla ces in t h e r oa d wit h poles t h a t ext en d
a bove t h e s n ow, a n d ma r k t h es e loca t ion s
for ma in t en a n ce cr ews .
Sn ow Fe n c e s
Con du ct r econ n a is s a n ce befor e win t er t o
det er min e wh er e s n ow fen ces will be n eeded
t o con t r ol dr ift in g s n ow. Beca u s e it is fin e
a n d compa ct s in t o a den s e ma s s , dr ift ed
s n ow obs t r u ct s t r a ffic mor e t h a n a n equ a l
dept h of fr es h ly fa llen s n ow. Dr ift s for m
wh en win d-bor n e s n ow is picked u p in
open s paces , los es velocit y, an d is depos it ed
in s h elt er ed places . Dan ger s pot s , t h er e-
for e, a r e r oa ds a t gr ou n d level or in cu t s a d-
ja cen t t o la r ge, open a r ea s . Dr ift s a ls o
for m in t h e lee (down -win d s ide) of bu ild-
in gs , s ign boar ds , an d s imilar win d bar r ier s .
Simila r ly, h igh s n owba n ks left clos e t o t h e
r oad by s n owplows fu r n is h bot h t h e con di-
t ion s a n d t h e ma t er ia l for ext en s ive dr ift in g.
Sn ow fen ces a r e n ot n or ma lly r equ ir ed n ea r
h igh fills , in wooded or br u s h y ar eas , or
wh er e veget a t ion pr even t s s n ow fr om dr ift -
in g on t h e r oa d.
Placement . Place s n ow fen ces on t h e
win dwar d s ide of r oads accor din g t o pr evail-
in g win ds (Figu r e 8-7). Th e h eigh t of t h e
fen ce det er min es t h e dis t an ce it is t o be
pla ced fr om t h e t r a veled wa y. Gen er a lly,
t h e pr oper dis t an ce is 20 t imes t h e h eigh t
of t h e fen ce. Th is dis t an ce is in cr eas ed
wh er e win ds ar e of h igh velocit y. Accor din g
t o t h e a bove r a t io, a 4-foot fen ce er ect ed
1 foot a bove t h e gr ou n d s h ou ld be pla ced a t
leas t 80 feet beyon d t h e poin t wh er e dr ift -
in g is t o be pr even t ed. In ext r eme cas es , a
dis t a n ce a s gr ea t a s 300 feet ma y be
n eces s ar y.
Fen ces s h ou ld be as lon g as pos s ible wit h -
ou t an y h oles or open in gs . Open in gs pr o-
vide for dis per s ion of s n ow on t h e back s ide
of t h e fen cin g. Th e effect of a s n ow fen ce
in con t r ollin g dr ift s ca u s ed by a r oa d cu t is
s h own in Figu r e 8-8. Two or mor e par allel
fen ces may be r equ ir ed, bu t on e t all fen ce
is gen er a lly bet t er t h a n t wo s h or t on es . If
fen ces a r e s et t oo fa r a wa y, t h ey h a ve lit t le
or n o effect in r edu cin g dr ift s . If fen ces ar e
pla ced t oo clos e t o t h e r oa d, dr ift s t o t h e
leewar d s ide of t h e fen ce fall on t h e r oad.
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 8-7. Location of snow fences
Figure 8-8. Snow fence control of road cut
drifts
win dwar d s ide. In r egion s of h ea vy s n ow,
u s e lon g pos t s s o t h a t fen cin g ma y be
r ais ed on t h e pos t s as t h e s eas on pr ogr es -
s es . Th is will in cr eas e s n ow s t or age t o t h e
leewar d s ide. In s t a ll fen cin g wit h t h e bot -
t om a bou t 6 in ch es a bove gr ou n d level t o
pr even t t h e en ds of t h e picket s fr om fr eez-
in g fa s t a n d t o pr even t t h e fen ce fr om ch ok-
in g wit h s n ow. Fr ozen en ds make it dif-
ficu lt t o r a is e t h e fen ce a n d ma y ca u s e t h e
picket s t o br eak wh en s wayed by t h e win d.
Br a ce t h e pos t s a ccor din g t o t h e a n t icipa t ed
win d velocit ies .
Ty pes of Snow Fences . Commer cia l s n ow
fen ces ar e common ly u s ed. Th ey con s is t of
met a l pos t s a n d wooden la t h s or met a l pick-
et s a bou t 5 feet lon g, woven t oget h er wit h
wir e. Su ch fen cin g is por t able, eas ily
er ect ed an d dis man t led, an d may be r olled
u p a n d s t or ed in t h e s u mmer . Per ma n en t
s n ow fen ces in clu de open -boar d fen ces on
pos t s an d ever gr een or decidu ou s s h r u b
h edges . Plas t ic s n ow fen cin g is ligh t er an d
mor e efficien t t h a n wooden fen cin g.
Ot h er t ypes of s n ow fen cin g in clu de wood
s lat s or pr es s ed-s t eel s lat s mou n t ed on col-
laps ible A-fr ames , wor m fen ces , an d br u s h
or br an ch es s u s pen ded on wir e. Local
ma t er ia ls , s u ch a s cor n s t a lks , br u s h , a n d
coar s e gr as s an ch or ed in place by wir e or
wood, may be u s ed. Figu r e 8-9, page 8-14,
s h ows t h r ee t ypes of s n ow fen ces .
Erection. Er ect s n ow fen ces befor e t h e
gr ou n d is fr ozen . Dr ive met a l pos t s in t o
t h e gr ou n d a n d mou n t wir e fen cin g on t h e
Maintenance. In s pect s n ow fen ces aft er
h ea vy s t or ms . Repa ir br oken t ies a n d
br aces , an d s t r aigh t en blown -down s ec-
t ion s . Ra is e fen ces t o exceed t h e h eigh t of
a ccu mu la t ed s n ow on t h e leewa r d s ide.
Lower in g of fen ces ma y be r equ ir ed a ft er
mids ea s on t h a ws or lon g per iods of s et t lin g.
Removal and Storage. Remove s n ow fen ces
in t h e s pr in g an d r epair damaged s ect ion s .
Th e fen ces ar e fr equ en t ly s t or ed on du n -
n a ge a t t h e dr ift loca t ion for u s e t h e follow-
in g win t er .
Sn ow Re mova l
Pr ompt s n ow r emova l is es s en t ia l t o pr even t
t r a ffic in t er fer en ce a n d ice for ma t ion on t h e
r oa d. Begin r emova l oper a t ion s wh en t h e
s n ow s t a r t s . Th e a mou n t of equ ipmen t
n eces s ar y depen ds on t h e in t en s it y of t h e
s t or m. If pos s ible, s t or e equ ipmen t a t in t er -
va ls a lon g r oa d s ect ion s or r oa dn et s t h a t
a r e t o r eceive ea r ly a t t en t ion , a n d h a ve
oper a t or s r ea dy t o move pr ompt ly wh en a
s n ows t or m a r r ives .
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 8-9. Types of snow fences
Pr ovide for r elief cr ews , s in ce s n ow-r emoval
equ ipmen t mu s t fr equ en t ly be oper a t ed on
a 24-h ou r bas is du r in g per iods of h eavy
s t or ms . Us e s n owplows t o pa t r ol a r ea s or
s ect ion s of r oa ds t h a t a r e s u bject t o dr ift in g
in win dy wea t h er . St a n da r d s n ow-r emova l
equ ipmen t con s is t s of va r iou s a t t a ch men t s
mou n t ed on t r u cks or s imila r pr ime mover s .
Th es e in clu de on e-way, r ever s ible, an d
r ot a r y-t ype s t r a igh t bla des ; s t r a igh t u n der -
body blades ; V-t ype plows ; an d r ot ar y
s n owplows . Th es e it ems ar e des cr ibed in
Ch apt er 11 of TM 5-624. Gr ader s , dozer s ,
an d loader s ar e als o u s efu l in s n ow
r emova l. Impr ovis ed equ ipmen t , s u ch a s
dr a gs , ma y be u s ed in expedien t s it u a t ion s .
Us e compa r a t ively ligh t a n d fa s t s n ow-
r emova l equ ipmen t for ligh t s n owfa lIs a n d
a t t h e begin n in g of s ever e s t or ms . Us e
h ea vier equ ipmen t t o widen t r a ffic la n es
a n d for h ea vy s n owfa lls . Con t in u e s n ow-
r emova l oper a t ion s u n t il t h e s n ow h a s been
pu s h ed back, leveled, or h au led t o a
dis pos al poin t . Wh en s n ow r emoval is
dela yed or in t er r u pt ed, t h e s n ow ma y be-
come t oo deep for a va ila ble equ ipmen t t o
h a n dle, dr ift in g ma y wor s en , or wet s n ow
ma y fr eeze.
Tr u cks wit h 2 1/ 2- t o 5-t on capacit ies an d
equ ipped wit h on e-way blades ar e bes t
a da pt ed for lon g s t r et ch es of r oa ds . Th is
equ ipmen t t r a vels a t s peeds of 15 t o 25
miles per h ou r (mph ), r emoves s n ow fr om
t h e r oa d befor e it is compa ct ed, a n d
pr ovides a n open t r a ck for t r a ffic.
Us e 5- t o 10-t on t r u cks equ ipped wit h
eit h er s t r a igh t or V-s h a ped bla des for
h ea vier s n owfa lls a n d t o widen t r a ffic la n es .
Th is equ ipmen t oper a t es a t a bou t 15 mph .
Us e V-s h a ped plows t o br ea k t h r ou gh h ea vy
dr ift s . Us e eit h er s t r a igh t or V-s h a ped
plows equ ipped wit h s ide win gs t o pu s h t h e
s n ow beyon d t h e s h ou lder lin e, t o pr even t
dr ift in g, a n d t o pr ovide r oom for a ddit ion a l
s n ow s t or a ge.
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Tr u cks u s ed for plowin g gen er ally car r y
a br a s ives a s a ba lla s t for bet t er t r a ct ion .
Tr a ct or s a r e s omet imes r equ ir ed for h ea vy
s n ows a n d dr ift s . Gr a der s a r e s a t is fa ct or y
for ligh t s n ow. In a r ea s of ver y h ea vy s n ow-
fa ll, r ot a r y plows a n d blower s ma y be
n eeded.
Su r fa c e Ic e Con t r ol
Th e for ma t ion of r oa d ice r es u lt in g fr om
packed s n ow, s lu s h , or melt in g s n owban ks
is pr even t ed if s n ow r emoval is effect ively
per for med an d dr ain age is pr ovided. Wh en
pos s ible, pu s h s n owban ks away fr om
pa vemen t s s o t h a t melt ed wa t er will n ot
r u n on t o clea r ed s u r fa ces .
Us e plows an d gr ader s t o r emove s lu s h
fr om t h e r oa d t o pr even t fr eezin g a n d icin g
or t o r emove ice t h a t h a s pr eviou s ly for med.
Us e ca r e t o a void da ma gin g t h e pa vemen t .
Dr y s n ow compa ct s u n der t r a ffic bu t ca n
u s u ally be loos en ed an d bladed off wit h ou t
difficu lt y. Wet s n ow or s lu s h , if it is al-
lowed t o fr eeze in pla ce, s t icks t igh t ly t o t h e
pa vemen t a n d ca n n ot be ea s ily r emoved
wit h ou t a per iod of wa r m wea t h er or t h e
u s e of s a lt s .
Va r iou s con dit ion s ca u s e icin g of r oa d s u r -
faces . Dan ger ou s icin g is mor e likely t o
occu r du r in g t h e la t e fa ll a n d ea r ly s pr in g
wh en fr equ en t t emper a t u r e ch a n ges occu r .
Midda y t h a win g a n d n igh t fr eezin g is a com-
mon ca u s e of icin g. Ra in ; s leet ; or ligh t ,
wet s n ow fa llin g on cold pa vemen t ca n for m
ice films t oo t h in t o be r emoved by mech a n i-
ca l mea n s a n d ca n ma ke lon g s ect ion s of
t h e r oa d h a za r dou s . Cu r ves a n d gr a des a r e
cr it ical poin t s u n der icin g con dit ion s , an d
h igh -cr own ed r oads can become difficu lt t o
t r a vel a t a n y poin t wh en iced over .
Us e of Salts . At t h e begin n in g of a s t or m,
apply s odiu m ch lor ide or calciu m ch lor ide
t o wet s n ow a n d s leet t o keep it in a
s lu s h y con dit ion a n d pr even t it fr om s t ick-
in g t o t h e s u r fa ce. Limit t h e u s e of s a lt s
on con cr et e pa vemen t s t o on e or t wo a p-
plica t ion s per yea r or t h e pa vemen t will pit
an d s cale. Sa lt s do n ot da ma ge bit u min ou s
s u r faces . To pr even t blockage of t h e dr ain s
by fr eezin g. pla ce ba gs of s a lt s a t dr a in
in let s or ca t ch ba s in s s o t h ey do n ot
obs t r u ct flow.
Us e of Abras ives . Tr ea t icy pa vemen t s wit h
abr as ives an d s alt s t o r edu ce s lippin g an d
s kiddin g. Sa n d, bot h t r ea t ed a n d u n -
t r eat ed; cin der s ; an d cr u s h ed r ock or s lag
s cr een in gs a r e common ly u s ed. Ot h er
mat er ials in clu de pea gr avel, coal s t ock,
an d coke s cr een in gs . Th e ch oice of mat er -
ials is bas ed on t h e availabilit y an d t h e
len gt h of t h e h a u l. Sh a r p, a n gu la r ma t er ia l
embeds it s elf r eadily, an d dar k-color ed
ma t er ia l a bs or bs t h e mos t h ea t fr om t h e
s u n . Un t r ea t ed ma t er ia ls a r e fa ir ly effect ive
on compa ct ed s n ow bu t a r e ea s ily blown or
t h r own fr om t h e t r a veled wa y.
For t h e mos t effect ive u s e, mix ca lciu m
ch lor ide wit h abr as ive mat er ial. Th e cal-
ciu m ch lor ide cau s es t h e abr as ive t o embed
in t h e ice a n d impr oves s u r fa ce t r a ct ion .
Tr eat abr as ives wit h 40 t o 75 pou n ds of cal-
ciu m ch lor ide per cu bic yar d for s t ockpil-
in g, an d add an ot h er 25 t o 50 pou n ds per
cu bic yar d of calciu m ch lor ide wh en apply-
in g it t o a r oa d. Sodiu m ch lor ide ma y be
u s ed in place of calciu m ch lor ide bu t is n ot
r ecommen ded for t emper a t u r es below 10 F.
St or e a br a s ive ma t er ia ls wh er e t h ey a r e
qu ickly available wh en n eeded. Es t ablis h
s t ockpiles for h a n d a pplica t ion a t cr it ica l
locat ion s s u ch as s t eep gr ades an d cu r ves .
Ma ke wider dis t r ibu t ion wit h t r u cks by
eit h er h a n d or mech a n ica l s pr ea din g. Hea t -
in g a n a br a s ive ma t er ia l befor e pla cin g it on
t h e r oa d will a llow it t o melt in t o t h e ice
a n d pr even t it fr om bein g for ced ou t by
t r a ffic.
Mechanical Removal of Ice. Gr a der s ca n
s omet imes r emove ice t h a t is n ot t igh t ly
bon ded t o t h e r oa d s u r fa ce. Ext r emely icy
con dit ion s can be r edu ced by u s in g s car i-
fier s or r ot ar y t iller s equ ipped wit h s pecial
t eet h . Exer cis e ext r eme ca r e n ot t o da ma ge
t h e r oa d s u r fa ce.
Cor r e c t ion of Spr in g Br e a k u p Pr oble ms
In r egion s s u bject t o fr os t a n d s n ow, s pr in g
is a cr it ica l t ime in t h e ma in t en a n ce of
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
pa vemen t a n d ot h er t r a ffic a r ea s . Abn or -
ma l a n d r epet it ive t r a ffic loa ds du r in g t h e
s pr in g br eaku p per iod may cau s e s u bgr ade
pu mpin g of con cr et e s u r faces an d br eak-
t h r ou gh of bit u min ou s s u r fa ces . Melt in g
ice an d s n ow, s pr in g r ain s , an d fr os t leav-
in g t h e gr ou n d a ll h a ve a t en den cy t o s a t -
u r a t e per mea ble s u r fa ces . Dr a in a ge
obs t r u ct ion s ma y r a is e t h e wa t er t a ble a n d
make s u bbas es u n s t able.
Ditches . Wh en t h e s pr in g t h aw begin s ,
open dit ch es a t cr it ica l poin t s s o t h a t
melt ed wa t er will n ot flow on t o t h e r oa d.
Ou t let s of cu t s a n d r oa d s ect ion s n ext t o
s n owba n ks r equ ir e s pecia l a t t en t ion . As
t h e s n ow begin s t o melt , s n owplows or gr a d-
in g equ ipmen t ma y be r equ ir ed t o clea r
s n ow fr om t h e s h ou lder s t o a void er os ion .
Ha n dwor k is u s u a lly r equ ir ed t o clea r t h e
s h ou lder s a n d open dit ch ou t let s . Remove
a ccu mu la t ion s of ice in cu lver t s a n d s ma ll
dr a in a ge s t r u ct u r es by h a n d or t h a w t h em
wit h t r u ck-mou n t ed s t ea mer s .
Fros t Heaves . Fr os t h eaves ar e in dicat ed
by t h e localized r ais in g of r oad s u r faces
a n d pa vemen t s . Da ma ge occu r s a s a r es u lt
of t h e h ea vin g of t h e s u bgr a de s oil du e t o
t h e for ma t ion of ice len s es . Th is expa n din g
s u bgr a de ca u s es a n u ph ea va l of t h e s u r fa ce
a n d s u bs equ en t r edu ct ion in over a ll
s t r en gt h . Fr os t h ea ves a r e mos t pr eva len t
in s ilt an d clay s u bgr ades .
Fros t Boils . Fr os t boils ar e in dicat ed by t h e
br eakin g u p of a localized s ect ion of r oad
s u r fa ces a n d pa vemen t s wh en s u bject ed t o
t r a ffic. Du r in g t h a win g, t h e melt ed wa t er
pr odu ces a flu id s u bgr ade con dit ion wit h
ver y limit ed or n o s u ppor t in g capacit y. Th e
t r a ffic impos es a for ce on t h e pa vemen t a n d
t h u s t o t h e exces s wa t er in t h e s u bgr a de.
Th is in t u r n exer t s a n equ a lizin g pr es s u r e
in all dir ect ion s . Th is pr es s u r e is r elieved
t h r ou gh t h e poin t of lea s t r es is t a n ce (u p
t h r ou gh t h e pa vemen t s u r fa ce) a n d
pr odu ces a s ma ll mou n d s imila r in a p-
pear an ce t o an over s ized boil.
Fr os t boils ar e oft en lar ge an d deep en ou gh
t o ma ke t h e r oa d impa s s a ble u n t il r epa ir ed.
Repa ir s ma y be ma de by on e or a combin a -
t ion of t h e followin g pr ocedu r es :

Br idge s oft s pot s wit h t imber , la n din g
ma t s , s a plin g ma t s , cor du r oy, or ot h er
a va ila ble ma t er ia l. St or e ma t er ia ls in
a dva n ce a t or n ea r loa d s ect ion s wh er e
fr os t boils ma y occu r . Su ch r epa ir s a r e
t empor a r y; t h er efor e, r emove t h e ma t er -
ia l wh en t h e r oa d t h a ws a n d dr ies .

Pa t ch s oft s pot s wit h cr u s h ed r ock or
gr avel. Place lar ge r ocks in s oft s pot s
a n d cover t h em wit h s ma ller on es . It is
bet t er t o r emove s oft , wa t er -s oa ked
ma t er ia l befor eh a n d, a lt h ou gh mor e
t ime is r equ ir ed.
For bes t r es u lt s , pr ovide a dequ a t e
dr a in a ge a lon g wit h t h e r epa ir wor k t o
cor r ect t h e ca u s e of t h e pr oblem.
Remove s oft ma t er ia l a n d dig a n ou t let
dit ch t o on e s h ou lder . A t empor a r y
br idge of plan ks or ot h er mat er ial per -
mit s t r a ffic t o pa s s . Th e exca va t ed s oft
s pot an d t h e dit ch ar e backfilled wit h
r ock, gr a vel, or ot h er s u it a ble ma t er ia l.
Dr a in a ge t ile ma y be in s t a lled in t h e
dit ch befor e backfillin g.
Pr e ve n t i ve Ma i n t e n a n c e
Th e bes t main t en an ce of an y r oad is pr even -
t ive ma in t en a n ce. Du r in g t h e s pr in g
br ea ku p, t h e bes t ma in t en a n ce of a r oa d
s u bject t o fr os t h eaves an d boils is t o pr o-
h ibit a ll t r a ffic du r in g t h e cr it ica l 2- or
3-day per iod. Met h ods t o elimin a t e or min i-
mize t h e da ma gin g effect s of fr os t a ct ion a r e
dis cu s s ed fu r t h er in Ch apt er 12 of FM
5-430-00-2/ AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 2.
FORDS AND BRIDGES
Th e a ppr oa ch es a n d bot t oms of for ds mu s t
be kept s moot h an d clear of lar ge bou lder s
an d debr is . Repla ce ma r kin g pos t s t h a t
h ave been kn ocked down or was h ed ou t .
Refer t o FM 5-446 for a ddit ion a l in for ma -
t ion .
Fr equ en t ly in s pect br idge a bu t men t s ,
t r es t les , pier s , a n d t r u s s es for da ma ge a n d
det er ior a t ion . Repa ir defect s a t t h e ea r lies t
oppor t u n it y. Th e ma in t en a n ce cr ew n or ma l-
ly obt ain s h elp t o r ebu ild or r epair t h e
br idge.
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
AIRFIELD AND HELlPORT MAINTENANCE
Air field a n d h elipor t ma in t en a n ce is t h e
r es pon s ibilit y of t h e pr imar y u s er . For Air
For ce air bas es , s u ch main t en an ce is n or -
mally clon e by an Air For ce civil en gin eer in g
s qu a dr on (CES) or s imila r u n it . Ar my a ir -
fields a n d h elipor t s a r c n or ma lly ma in -
t a in ed by Ar my en gin eer u n it s . Wh en t h e
r epa ir a n d r eh a bilit a t ion r equ ir emen t s of
Air For ce bas es exceed t h e immediat e, emer
gen cy-damagce r ecover y capabilit y of t h e air
bas e, Ar my en gin eer u n it s will be as s ign ed
t o per for m t h e wor k.

AIR BASE DAMAGE REPAIR
Th e immedia t e, emer gen cy-da ma ge r ecover y
of air bas es gen er ally is con s ider ed t o be
t h e min imu m wor k r equ ir ed t o per mit
a ir cr a ft t o la n d a n d t a ke off.

Th e Air For ce is pr imar ily r es pon s ible for
t h e emer gen cy r epair of t h e air bas e. Th is
in clu des t h e emer gen cy r epair of t h e air
bas e paved s u r faces , wh ich is called r apid
r u n wa y r epa ir (RRR). Th is is a ccomplis h ed
t h r ou gh t h e employmen t of Air For ce ba s e
civil en gin eer in g t r oop as s et s ; pr ime bas e
en gin eer emer gen cy for ces (Pr ime BEEF),
an d r apid en gin eer in g deployable h eavy
oper a t ion a l r epa ir s qu a dr on s , en gin eer in g
(RED HORSE) u n it s . Th e Ar my is r es pon -
s ible for s emiper ma n en t con s t r u ct ion , t h e
byon d-emer gen cy r epair of t h e air bas e
a n d, u pon r equ es t , emer gen cy r epa ir s
wh ich exceed t h e Air For ces capabilit y.
J oin t s er vice r egu la t ion AR 4 15-30/
AFR 93-10 s pecifics t h es e r epair r es pon -
s ibilit ies for each s er vice.

Ar my Re s pon s i bi li t i e s for Ai r Ba s e
Da ma ge Re pa i r (ADR)
Th e Ar my pr ovides en gin eer s u ppor t t o t h e
Air For ce over s ea s . It en s u r es t h a t u n it s
a r e equ ipped, ma n n ed, a n d t r a in ed t o s u p-
por t Air For ce n eeds . Th is s u ppor t in -
cludes

As s is t in g in emer gen cy r epair of war -
da ma ged a ir ba s es wh er e r equ ir emen t s
exceed t h e Air For ces or gan ic r epair
capabilit y.
Repa ir in g a n d r es t or in g da ma ged a ir
bas es wit h beyon d-emer gen cy r epair s .
Developin g en gin eer des ign s , plan s , an d
ma t er ia ls t o meet Air For ce n eeds a s
agr eed u pon by t h e Air For ce. Wh er e
pr act icable, des ign s will be bas ed on
t h e Ar my Fa cilit ies Compon en t Sys t em
(AFCS).
Su pplyin g con s t r u ct ion ma t er ia ls a n d
equ ipmen t , except for t h a t pr ovided by
t h e Air For ce.
Upon r equ es t , a s s is t in g wit h in t h eir
ca pa bilit ies in t h e r emova l of UXO
declar ed s afe by EOD per s on n el an d
limit ed da ma ge a s s es s men t oper a t ion s .
Ma n a gin g a n d s u per vis in g t h e r epa ir
a n d r es t or a t ion of wa r da ma ge per -
for med by Ar my per s on n el. Th e Air
For ce ba s e comma n der s et s t h e
pr ior it ies for air bas e r epair .
Ai r For c e Re s pon s i bi li t i e s for ADR
Th e Air For ce pr ovides milit ar y t r oop en -
gin eer in g s u ppor t fr om it s r es ou r ces . Th e
Air For ce en s u r es t h a t u n it s a r c equ ipped,
ma n n ed, a n d t r a in ed a dequ a t ely t o s u ppor t
it s n eeds . Th is s u ppor t inclu d es
Emer gen cy r epa ir of wa r da ma ge t o a ir
bas es .
Or ga n izin g h os t -n a t ion s u ppor t (over -
s eas ).
For ce beddown of u n it s an d weapon s ys -
t ems , exclu din g Ar my ba s e developmen t
r es pon s ibilit ies .
Oper a t ion a n d ma in t en a n ce of fa cilit ies
a n d in s t a lla t ion s .
Cr as h r ecu e an d fir e s u ppr es s ion .
Ma n a gin g for ce beddown a n d t h e emer -
gen cy r epa ir of wa r da ma ge.
Su pplyin g ma t er ia l a n d equ ipmen t t o
per for m it s en gin eer in g mis s ion .
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Pr ovidin g logis t ica l s u ppor t t o t h e Ar my
for all clas s es of s u pply except II, V, VII,
a n d IX.
Con du ct in g da ma ge a s s es s men t a n d
r emova l of UXO.
Pr ovidin g n u clear , biological, ch emical
(NBC) collect ive s h elt er s an d es t ab-
lis h in g an d oper at in g per s on n el an d
equ ipmen t decon t a min a t ion s it es for
t h e a ir ba s e a n d t h e Ar my. Th er e a r e
s h or t a ges of t h es e a s s et s on a ir ba s es ,
a n d s u ppor t t o a r my u n it s ma y be
limit ed.
Air ba s e s u ppor t a gr eemen t s ma y be es t a b-
lis h ed in s ome t h ea t er s bet ween t h e Air
For ce a n d t h e h os t n a t ion wh er e ADR s u p-
por t ca pa bilit y exis t s . Th es e h os t -n a t ion
s u ppor t a gr eemen t s ma y in clu de equ ipmen t ,
ma t er ia ls , a n d ma n power a s s et s .
For a det ailed des cr ipt ion of per s on n el,
equ ipmen t , a n d ma t er ia l r equ ir emen t s a n d
cr it ical pat h s ch edu les for r epair of r u n -
ways cr at er ed by h igh -explos ive bombs ,
r efer t o AFR 93-2. For a fu r t h er , det a iled
dis cu s s ion of gen er a l ADR, r efer t o
TC 5-340.
TURF SURFACES
Pla n t gr a s s t o pr ovide a t u r f s u r fa ce on
s h ou lder s an d all gr aded ar eas . Tu r f aids
in ca mou fla ge, r edu ces du s t , a n d min imizes
er os ion . Tu r f s u r fa ces a r e limit ed t o a r ea s
wh er e t h e clima t e a n d s oil a r e fa vor a ble.
Table 8-1 gives t h e ch ar act er is t ics of man y
n at ive gr as s es t o aid in s elect in g pr oper
gr as s s eed or s od.
MUD CONTROL
Mu d on t h e r u n wa y cr ea t es s lipper y s u r -
fa ces t h a t impede t a keoff a n d in cr ea s e t h e
difficu lt ies an d dan ger s of lan din g. Mu ddy
t a xiwa y a n d r u n wa y s u r fa ces decr ea s e t ir e
life a n d in cr ea s e t h e wea r a n d ma in t en a n ce
of br akes . Flyin g mu d pa r t icles ma y da m-
age pr opeller s , r ot or s , an d jet en gin es .
Removin g mu d fr om wh eels , s t r u t s , a n d
fu s ela ge is a n a ddit ion a l ma in t en a n ce bu r -
den .
Mu d on air field an d h elipor t s u r faces is
eit h er depos it ed by veh icu lar t r affic fr om ad-
jacen t mu ddy ar eas or cau s ed by s u bgr ade
fa ilu r e beca u s e of exces s mois t u r e a n d t h e
pu mpin g of mu d t o t h e s u r fa ce u n der t r a ffic.
En for ce mu d dis ciplin e by limit in g acces s t o
t axiways on ly t o r equ ir ed s er vice veh icles .
Als o, r emove mu d fr om t h e wh eels a n d u n -
der car r iages of veh icles befor e t h ey en t er
t h e t a xiwa y. Th e mos t s a t is fa ct or y s olu t ion
is t o pr ovide s u r faced s er vice r oads t o all
h a r ds t a n ds .
Re p a i r s
Loca lized s oft or mu ddy s pot s in a n ot h er -
wis e s at is fact or y s u r face ar e r epair ed by
r epla cin g t h e u n s a t is fa ct or y s u bgr a de
ma t er ia l wit h a mor e s u it a ble on e. If t h e
mu ddy a r ea s a r e wides pr ea d, it ma y be
n eces s a r y t o s t op a ll t r a ffic u n t il t h e s u r -
face dr ies . In ext r eme con dit ion s , r es u r fac-
in g may be n eces s ar y.
Mu d Re mova l
In s ome in s t a n ces , s u r fa ces ma y be kept in
oper a t ion a l con dit ion by r emovin g t h e s u r -
fa ce mu d. Remove mu d by h a n d s h ovelin g,
bladin g, or dr aggin g. Ligh t mu d or s lu s h is
s omet imes r emoved by h a n d or wit h r ot a r y
br ooms .
Wh en a gr a der is u s ed on a la n din g-ma t
s u r fa ce, t a ke pr eca u t ion s t o pr even t t h e
bla de fr om t ea r in g t h e s u r fa cin g. A s a t is fa c-
t or y met h od is t o bolt a 4- by 12-in ch
h a r dwood moldboa r d over t h e cu t t in g edge
an d ext en din g 2 in ch es below it . Th is
pr ovides a s cr apin g edge wit h s u fficien t
s pr in g t o r emove t h e mu d fr om ir r egu la r -
it ies in t h e la n din g ma t , yet s oft en ou gh t o
pr ot ect t h e ma t . A piece of 1/ 2-in ch r u b-
ber belt in g (or t h e ca p fr om a wor n t ir e)
bolt ed bet ween t h e blade an d t h e mold-
boa r d a n d ext en din g a n in ch below t h e cu t -
t in g edge makes an effect ive s qu eegee for
r emovin g ligh t mu d a n d s lu s h . Gr a der
oper a t ion s for r emovin g mu d a n d s lu s h
fr om t h e r u n wa y a r e s imila r t o t h os e
employed for s n ow r emova l. St a r t in t h e
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9
Table 8-1. Characteristics of grasses
RuI.tane.
Nam. of gra .. grouped by region to traffle Drought Acid Rat. of M.thod of
sm __ ju-m ___
of aultablllty _M and Pr.ferred .011 t.xtur. ,..I.tlInce tol.rane. .atabll.". .at.bO.". tor worlc
mDWIng men'
m.nt
_ .. _--- ---
TURF GRASSES
COOL, HUMID REGION
1-
1. Kentucky bluegrass (Poapratensis) Good Loam. clayey loam
I FaW
Slow Seed, sod Fat or
I Number 2
spring
2. Creeping red fescue and chewing Traffic, Sandy to gravelly Good Good Fast Seed Early fal White cIowr and
fescue (Festuca rubra and festuca good loam number 1
rubra lallax) Mowing,
lair
3. Smooth brome (Bromus inermis) Good Various Good Medium, Seed
I
Spring I Mix with native grass
last
WARM, HUMID REGION
4. Bennuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) Excellent Sandy to clayey loam Excellent Fast Sprigs, sod, Spring or
I Seed alone or with
or seed summer carpet grasses
5. Common carpet grass (Axonopus Good Moist days, dayey Fair Medium, Seed, sod Spring or Seed alone or with
alfinis) loam last summer carpet grasses
6. St Augustine grass (Stenotaphrum Fair Moist, various Fair Fast Sprigs Spring or
secundatum) summer
DRY REGION
7. Buffalo grass (Buchloe dactylokles) Excellent
I
Clayey loam to loam I Excellent I ----- Medium, Block. sod
I
Spring
I Seed blue grama
last between buffalo-
grass-sod blocks
ROUGH TURF AND BUNCH GRASSES
COOL, HUMID REGION
8. Common ryegrass (LoIium multi- Good Various Good Good Fast Seed FaD or
I Number 9
tIorum and L perenne) spring
9. Orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata) Fair loam to day Good Excellent Fast Seed Fall or Number 8
spring
WARM, HUMID REGION
10. Hairy crabgrass (Dig itaria
I
Excellent loam to day Excellent Fast Hayseed
I
Summer
sanguinais) ing
11. Bluestem (broom sedge) (Andropogan) Fair loam to day Excellent Excellent Medium Hayseed Fan
ing
12. Korean lespedeza (lespedeza Excellent loam to day Excellent Medium Seed Spring
stipulacea)
DRY REGION
13. l.iUIe bluestem (And ropogon Moist, sandy to loamy Seed, hay Spring , Other grasses suited
scoporius) seeding to soil
14. Blue grama (Bouteloug gracilis) loam to day Seed, hay Spring Seed between blocks
seeding 01 buffalo grass
15. Crested wheatgrass (Agropyron Clayey loam to loam Slow Seed Spring Other native grasses
cristatum)
..
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
cen t er of t h e r u n way an d pr oceed pr ogr es -
s ively t o t h e edge, over lappin g s ever al feel
on each pas s .
SNOW REMOVAL AND ICE CONTROL
Sn ow r emova l met h ods , t h e or der of oper a -
t ion s , a n d t h e a s s ign men t of equ ipmen t a r c
es t ablis h ed in advan ce of t h e win t er s eas on .
Fact or s t o be con s ider ed in plan n in g t h e
s n ow-h a n dlin g pr ogr a m a r e clima t ic con d-
t ion s t h e a ver a ge s n owfa ll, t h e a ir cr a ft t o
be a ccommoda t ed, t h e equ ipmen t a va ila ble,
a n d t h e ca mou fla ge r equ ir emen t s . Air cr a ft
may be equ ipped wit h eit h er wh eels or lan d-
in g s kis . Ski-equ ipped air cr aft oper at e s u c-
ces s fu lly on packed s n ow. Air cr a ft wit h
la n din g wh eels ca n n ot oper a t e in mor e t h a n
3 in ch es of loos e s n ow. Th is limit at ion ap-
plies t o fr es h s n ow on a clea r r u n wa y, fr es h
s n ow on pr eviou s ly packed s n ow, or melt in g
s n ow pr eviou s ly packed on a r u n way. For
c a mofl a ge it is u n des ir able t o r emove all
s n ow fr om a r u n wa v wh en t h e s u r r ou n din g
t er r a in is bla n ket ed wit h s n ow.
Con t r ollin g wit h Equ ipme n t
Equ ipmen t u s efu l for h a n dlin g s n ow in -
clu des r u bber -t ir ed t r act or s , s coop loader s ,
gr a der s r ot a r y br ooms , a n d ba n d br ooms .
Su pplemen t a r y equ ipmen t ma y in clu de
s in gle-win g on e-way, an d r ever s ible s n ow
plows : V t ype plows ; r ot ar y plows ; blower s ;
r oller s ; a n d ot h er s n ow-r emova l equ ipmen t .
Pa c k i n g
In r egion s of h ea vy s n owfa lls wit h
pr olon ged cold weat h er r elat ively fr ee fr om
s u dden t h aws . s n ow may be h an dled by
packin g. Th e r u n way, s h ou lder s , an d as
mu ch a dja cen t a r ea a s pr a ct ica l a r c pa ck-
ed. Rollin g begin s as s oon as 3 in ch es of
s n ow h a ve fa llen a n d con t in u es du r in g t h e
s n owfall. Sn ow is packed by r oller s dr awn
beh in d a t r a ct or wit h s n ow t r ea ds .
Smoot h in g is don e wit h a dr a g equ ipped
wit h met a l cu t t in g edges on t h e fr on t a n d
r ea r or wit h a gr a der . Us u a lly on e t r a ct or
is u s ed t o pu ll bot h t h e dr a g a n d t h e
r oller s , wit h t h e dr a g a h ea d of t h e r oller s .
Roller s can be made t o an y des ir able
dia met er a n d len gt h wit h a s h ell of 10-ga ge
cor r u gat ed s t eel. Th e s h ell is s u ppor t ed on
a n a xle by t wo s t r u ct u r a l fr a mes , or
s pider s , a t t h e t h ir d poin t s , a n d t wo s t eel-
plat ed bu lkh eads at each en d. On e plat e
h a s a h ole t o per mit fillin g t h e r oller wit h
s a n d t o in cr ea s e it s weigh t .
Cle a r i n g a n d Re movi n g
Sn ow clea r in g a n d r emova l a r e r equ ir ed
wh er e clima t ic con dit ion s will n ot per mit
packin g or wh er e s n owfalls ar c in exces s of
t h a t wh ich ca n be pa cked on t h e r u n wa y.
Remove ligh t s n owfa lls wit h a gr a der or
r ot a r y br oom. Ver y ligh t s n owfa lls ca n be
blown off t h e r u n wa y by t h e pr op wa s h of
Sever al air cr aft lin ed u p alon g on e edge.
Remove h ea vy s n owfa lls wit h t r u ck-
mou n t ed plows , r ot a r y s n owplows , r u bber -
t ir ed t r a ct or s , or s coop loa der s . Dr ift s ma y
be open ed by a t r u ck or t r a ct or wit h a
V-t ype bla de or by a r ot a r y s n owplow.
Equ ip t r u cks wit h t ir e ch a in s a n d ca r r y ba l-
la s t for t r a ct ion wh ile plowin g. Keep a ll
bla des a bou t 1/ 2 in ch a bove t h e r u n wa y
s u r face. es pecially if t h e s u r face is a lan d-
in g mat . Th is clear an ce is accomplis h ed by
r u n n er s mou n t ed a t ea ch en d of t h e bla de.
Th e a s s ign men t of plows va r ies wit h t h e
con dit ion a t ea ch a ir field a n d t h e t ype of
equ ipmen t a va ila ble. Ar r a n gin g t h e plows
in t o u n it s s implifies coor din a t ion of s n ow
r emova l wit h t h e con t r ol t ower . Or din a r ily,
on c- wa y, t r u ck -mou n t ed s n owplows oper a t e
in ech elon t o expedit e s n ow r emoval.
Remove s n ow n ea r la n din g ligh t s a n d ot h er
obs t r u ct ion s wit h a blower , if a va ila ble, or
by h an d.
Th e r a pid r emova l of s n ow r equ ir es a r ot a r y
blower , s n ow loader , or ot h er s pecial equ ip-
men t . Tr u cks u s ed for h a u lin g s n ow a r c
equ ipped wit h n igh s ideboar ds . Tr act or -
dr awn s leigh s bu ilt of lu mber may be u s ed
as an expedien t h au lin g device or t o s u pple-
men t s n ow-h a n dlin g t r u cks .
Aba t in g Ic e Con dit ion s
Spr in kle ice coa t in gs on r u n wa ys , t a xiwa vs ,
a n d h a r ds t a n ds wit h u r ea , coa r s e s a n d, or
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
cin der s , s pr ead by h an d or by mech an ical
s pr eader s . If pr act ical, h eat abr as ives
befor e s pr eadin g. Remove a ccu mu la t ed
abr as ives in t h e s pr in g by br oomin g, ice
con dit ion s on air fields u s ed by jet air cr aft
ar c a ver y s er iou s pr oblem becau s e
a br a s ives ca n n ot be u s ed. Do n ot u s e
s odiu m ch lor ide an d calciu m ch lor ide for
ice con t r ol wit h ou t a ppr ova l beca u s e t h es e
s a lt s ma y pr omot e cor r os ion of met a l
a ir cr a ft pa r t s .
MAINTENANCE DURING FLYING
OPERATIONS
Coor din a t e ma in t en a n ce a n d r epa ir wor k
du r in g flyin g oper a t ion s , a n d pla n t h e wor k
for min imu m in t er fer en ce wit h a ir a n d
gr ou n d t r a ffic. Mu ch of t h e ma in t en a n ce
wor k ma y n eed t o be don e a t n igh t or
du r in g in clemen t wea t h er in or der n ot t o in -
t er fer e wit h flyin g oper a t ion s .

Do n ot lea ve equ ipmen t h a za r dou s t o
a ir cr a ft on t h e r u n wa y or ot h er a r ea s .
Clea r ly ma r k con s t r u ct ion or r epa ir a r ea s
on t h e r u n wa y s o t h a t t h ey a r e vis ible fr om
t h e a ir . Ma r k r epa ir s on t a xiwa ys s o t h a t
t h ey ar e vis ible t o pilot s wh ile t axiin g.

REHABILITATION OF CAPTURED
AIRFIELDS

Th e decis ion t o r eh a bilit a t e a ca pt u r ed
en emy a ir field a n d t h e decis ion a s t o t h e
t ype a n d con s t r u ct ion s t a n da r d of t h e
r eh a bilit a t ed field a r e Air For ce a n d Ar my
r es pon s ibilit ies . Th e wor k is or din ar ily ac-
compi s h ed by a combat -h eavy en gin eer bat -
t a lion . Th e en gin eer mis s ion is t o con ver t
t h e exis t in g fa cilit ies , wh ich a r c u s u a lly
da ma ged, t o t h e s t a n da r d decided u pon by
t h e Air For ce a n d Ar my, wit h a min imu m
ou t la y of la bor , equ ipmen t , a n d ma t er ia ls .
Con s ider able dis cr et ion mu s t be exer cis ed
in applyin g s t an dar d s pecificat ion s t o cap-
t u r ed air fields . No lar ge-s cale r elocat ion of
facilit ies s h ou ld be u n der t aken mer ely t o
con for m t o s t a n da r d pa t t er n s , if t h e exis t -
in g pat t er n s will s er ve t h e s ame pu r pos e in

a s a t is fa ct or y ma n n er . Sen s ible, exis t in g
s u bs t it u t ion s an d deviat ion s fr om s pecified
a r r a n gemen t s mu s t be r ecogn ized a n d a c-
cept ed.
An a ppr a is a l of t h e da ma ge don e t o a ca p-
t u r ed field pr ecedes t h e decis ion t o
r eh a bilit a t e it . Occa s ion a lly, it is n eces s a r y
t o expen d mor e effor t t o r es t or e a ba dly
da ma ged a ir field t h a n t o con s t r u ct a n ew
on e. Th e da ma ge t o t h e in s t a lla t ion in -
clu des wa r da ma ge by ou r for ces in a n y ba t -
t le for t h e air field an d t h e deliber at e
da ma ge t h a t t h e en emy did befor e yieldin g
t h e field t o ou r for ces . Complet e des t r u c-
t ion of a n a ir field is a ma jor u n der t a kin g;
t h er efor e, t h e en emy will likely r es or t t o on c
or mor e of t h e followin g les s des t r u ct ive
mea s u r es :
Placin g delayed-act ion bombs , min es ,
a n d booby t r a ps .
Demolis h in g dr ain age s ys t ems an d pave-
men t s .
Placin g obs t acles an d debr is in t h e r u n -
wa y.
Plowin g t u r fed a r ea s .
Floodin g s u r faced ar eas .
Blowin g cr a t er s in r u n wa ys , t a xiwa ys ,
a n d h a n ds t a n ds .
Demolis h in g bu ildin gs , u t ilit ies , an d
s imila r in s t a lla t ion s .
As s u me t h es e da ma ges wer e in flict ed wh en
con du ct in g s u ch r econ n ais s an ce.
Us e t h e cr it er ia t h a t follow t o pr ior it ize
r eh a bilit a t ion oper a t ion s :

Wh en r es t or in g a ca pt u r ed a ir field, t h e
fir s t pr ior it y is t o es t a blis h min imu m
facilit ies an d u t ilit ies t o in clu de t h e es -
t a blis h men t of a min imu m oper a t in g
s t r ip for immedia t e oper a t ion of fr ien dly
air cr aft . Th is als o in clu des r emovin g
UXO, dela yed-a ct ion bombs , min es , a n d
booby t r a ps fr om t h e t r a ffic a r ea s ; clea r -
in g debr is fr om t h os e ar eas ; an d r epair -
in g cr a t er s on t h e r u n wa y a n d t a xiwa y
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
s u r fa ces . Pr ompt ly r epa ir t h e dr a in a ge
s ys t em. Con cen t r a t e r u n wa y wor k fir s t
on a min imu m oper a t in g s t r ip; s econ d,
on a n a cces s r ou t e; a n d fin a lly, on ot h er
t r a ffic a r ea s . Give ea r ly a t t en t ion t o t h e
pr ovis ion of s u it a ble s a n it a r y a n d wa t er
facilit ies . Ch apt er 7 of TC 5-340 gives
det a iled in for ma t ion r ega r din g t h es e
a r ea s .

Th e s econ d pr ior it y is impr ovemen t s t o
t h e min imu m oper a t ion a l fa cilit ies . Re-
s t or e r ema in in g r u n wa ys , t a xiwa ys ,
h ar ds t an ds , par kin g apr on s , acces s an d
s er vice r oads , an d fu el an d bomb
s t or a ge a r ea s befor e r eh a bilit a t in g
ot h er , les s vit al facilit ies .
Th e t h ir d pr ior it y is t h e r epair of bu ild-
in gs s u ch a s t h e con t r ol t ower , oper a -
t ion al bu ildin gs , cr ew s h elt er s , com-
mu n ica t ion cen t er s , a n d ot h er ma in -
t en an ce facilit ies .
Th e fou r t h pr ior it y is t h e ca mou fla ge of
in s t a lla t ion s ; t h e r es t or a t ion of u t ilit ies
(ma kin g u s e of a n y u t ilit y ma p a n d a n y
a va ila ble cit izen la bor fa milia r wit h t h e
in s t a lla t ion s u t ilit ies ); a n d t h e r epa ir or
es t a blis h men t of ba t h in g, din in g, a n d
r ecr ea t ion a l fa cilit ies . A complet e
clean u p of t h e gr ou n ds , in clu din g t h e
r emoval of debr is an d s eedin g an d s od-
din g, is t h e la s t ph a s e of a r eh a bilit a -
t ion pr oject .
CHAPTER 9
Road Design
Geometric Design
Vertical Alignment
Structural Design
Spray Applications and Expedient-Surfaced Roads
Use of Polymer Cells (Sand Grit) to Build Roads in Sandy Soils
Surface Treatments
Construction Methods
General Road Structural Design
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
ROAD DESIGN
Roa d s e le ct ion a n d d e s ign d e pe n d on t h e n a t u re of t h e s u bgra d e ; t h e
t ra f f ic a n d d ra in a ge con d it ion s ; t h e con s t ru ct ion t im e a v a ila b le ; t h e
s u p p ly of loca l a n d im p ort e d m a t e ria ls ; a n d t h e e n gin e e r e qu ip m e n t ,
p e rs on n e l, a n d e x p e rt is e a v a ila b le . Th e com p le t e d d e s ign m u s t t h e n
m e e t t h e re qu ire m e n t s f or t h e giv e n loa d cla s s a n d a llow s a f e a n d
efficient traffic movement.
Th e loa d -ca rry in g ca pa cit y of a roa d s u rf a ce d e pe n d s on con t in u ou s ,
s t a ble s u pport f u rn is h e d by t h e s u bgra d e . S u bgra d e s t a bilit y re qu ire s
ad equate d rainage and proper load d is tribution by the s urface and bas e
cou rs e s . S u rf a ce a n d ba s e cou rs e s of s u f f icie n t t h ick n e s s a n d qu a lit y
to s pread the w heel load s over the s ubgrad e are neces s ary s o that the
a pplie d s t re s s is le s s t h a n t h e u n it loa d ca pa cit y of t h e s u bgra d e . in
a re a s w h e re s e a s on a l f re e z in g a n d t h a w in g occu r. t h e loa d -ca rry in g
ca pa cit y of in a d e qu a t e ly d e s ign e d or imprope rly con s t ru ct e d roa d s ca n
be d ra ma t ica lly d e cre a s e d t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t f a ilu re ma y occu r.
For s afe and s peed y traffic movement, the geometric d es ign requirement
for given road clas s es mus t be met. In a combat z one, military urgency
d ict a t e s rou gh , h a s t y w ork d e s ign e d t o me e t pre s s in g n e e d s . An im-
prov e d n e t w ork of w e ll-s u rf a ce d , h igh -qu a lit y roa d s ma y be re qu ire d in
re a r a re a s a n d n e a r m a jor a irf ie ld s , p ort s , a n d s u p p ly in s t a lla t ion s .
Roa d d e s ign u s e s s t a ge con s t ru ct ion f or t h e progre s s iv e improv e me n t
of the road to meet increas ed traffic d emand s . Road d es ign als o us es
ma n y t e ch n ica l t e rms . Figures 9-1 and 9-2, page 9-2, s how terms us ed
t o d e s ign a t e roa d f e a t u re s a n d compon e n t s . In a d d it ion t o t h is ch a pt e r
TM 5 -3 3 7 p rov id e s a d d it ion a l d e t a ile d in f orm a t ion on t h e d e s ign of
bit u min ou s a n d con cre t e -s u rf a ce d roa d s .
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
Th e geomet r ic des ign pr oces s begin s wit h 1. Dr a w t h e pr opos ed cen t er lin e on t h e
good-qu a lit y t opogr a ph ic s u r veys . In mos t t opogr aph ic s u r vey.
ca s es , a min imu m 5-foot con t ou r in t er va l is
r equ ir ed t o clear ly des cr ibe t h e t er r ain . 2. Plot t h e cen t er lin e on plan -an d-pr ofile
Th e des ign pr oces s can be des cr ibed in t h e paper .
followin g s t eps :
Road Design 9-1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 9-1. Road nomenclature
3. Calcu lat e gr ades , t h e degr ee of cu r va- 5. Adju s t t h e cen t er lin e, if pos s ible, t o
t u r e of h or izon t a l cu r ves , a n d cu r ve len gt h s r edu ce a n y ca lcu la t ed gr a des a n d limit
of ver t ical cu r ves .
h or izon t a l a n d ver t ica l cu r ves t h a t exceed
4. Compa r e t h e va lu es of s t ep 3 wit h t h e
t h e s pecificat ion s .
milit a r y r oa d s pecifica t ion s s t a t ed in Ta ble
9-1.
Figure 9-2. Road cross section and nomenclature
9-2 Road Design
T
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Deeign COntr ..... nd Elements
Oeeign Cont .....
1. Traffic compos"",n
A .. ,,1IlI" ddy trallic (ADn (45% lrucks)
Design hourly volume (DHV)
Sight distance restriction, %
2 Design speed M, mph (kph)
Average running speed, mph (kph)
Cr......s.ctlon Elementa
3. Pavements
Minimum width of traffic lane, It (m)
with barrier eurb
without barrier curb
(1)
(2)
(3)
Minimum distance belween curb tac"", It (m)
Lateral clearance from edge
01 trallle lane to obstructIOns, It (m)
Normal cross slope (crown slope) rate
4. Shoulders
Minimum width w/O barrier curbs, It (m)
Normal cross slope, rate
Type, (perm road)
5. Bridge clearance (perm)'
6. Curb oIIsellor barrier curb, It (rn)
Allgnmenl Elements
7. Sight distance
Minimum stop sight distance, It (m)
Minimum pass sight distance. It (m)
8. Horizontal alignment
Maximum horizontal curvature
Pavement widening, It (m)
9. Vertical alignment
Grade
Maximum grade, %
Crtlcal length, It (m)
Minimum grade, %
Vertical curves
Overt (crest) vertical curve k, It (m)
Invert (sag) vertical curve k. It (m)
Absolute minimum length. It (m)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
Table 9-1. Geometric design data for military roads
Cl ... A Cl B Ct ... C
Cl ...
(4 lIone) (2 Lane) (2 L""e) (1 Lane)
3,400-6,700 935-3,400 2QO.935 Under 200
51(}I,OOO 14(}510 30140 Under 30
4(}0 80-0 80-40 100
60 (97) 60 (97) 40 (64) 30 (48)
45 (72) 45 (72) 35 (56) 25 (4q
12 (3.658) 12 (3.658) 10 (3046) 10 (3.048)
12 (3.658) 12 (3,658) 10 (3048) 10 (3.048)
53 (16.154) 29 (8,839) 25 (7.620! 15 (4.572)
6 (1.829) 6 (1.829) 6 (1 829) 4 (1.219)
0.0104-0.0108 0.010400206 o 0208- 0 0417 0,02080.0417
10 (3.048) 10 (3.048) 6 (1 829) 4 (1.219)
0.0417-0.0625 0.041700625 00417-0.0625 0,04170,0625
Dustless SlAble Compacted $ O ~ Cam peeted . o ~
2.5 (0,762) 2.5 (0.762) 2.0 (0610) 2.0 (0,6H))
475 (144.780) 475 (144.780) 275 (83 820) 200 (80.960)
N/A 2, lOO (640.081) 1,500 (457201) N/A
55" 55" 14.5' 26.7'
None None 24 (0610-1.12'9) 2-5.5 (0610
1676)
6 6 10 15
700 (213.360) 700 (213 360) 450 ('37 160) 250 (76.200)
03 03 03 0.3
lOO (48.768) lOO (48768) 55 (16764) 35 (10.668)
105 (32.004) 105 (32 004) 55 (16764) 28 (8,534)
180 (54,664) 180 (54.864) 120 (36 576) BO (24,384)
Remarks:
(1) The DHV shown for all roads IS in total vehicles per
hour for all lanes in both directions. The OHV IS
approximately 15 percent of the ADT
(2) The values shown lor this term Indicate the combined
effecl$ 01 horizontal (CUrY6) and vertical (grade)
alignment on capacity. A value of zero percent indicates
an absolutely straight, nat alignment with no restriction on
sight distance, A value of 100 percent indicates a road
W1th numerous sharp curves and grade changes on wtllcn
the sight distance IS less than 1,500 1t(457,20t m) at any
point on the road
(3) If the anticipated traffic includes a Significant number
of vehICles having widths in excess 01 8.5 It (2.591 m).
the traffic lanes should be widened in the amount by
which the vehicle width exceeds 8.5 It (2.591 m),
(4) There should be a color or texture contrast between
traffc lane and shoulder surfaces.
(5) Values shown are calculated on basis of maximum
rate of super elevation of 0.100.
(6) Pavement widening lor a class C or class 0 road
varies 2105,5 It (0610 to 1.676 m) as the curvature
varies trom 2 to 26.7", Values obtained may ba rounded
off to the nearest 0.5 ft (0. I 52 m).
(7) The term critical length is used to indICate the
maximum length of a designated upgrade upon wtllch a
k>aded truck can operate wrthout an unreasonable
reduction in speed. Crtical lengths may be increased at
an approximate rate 01 50 It (15,240 m) per percent
decrease In grade from the values shown.
(8) The minimum lengths of vertical curves are
determined by multiplying k by the algebraic differences
In grades (in percent)
Notes:
1. A!fj can be seen, cap.citiea are shown _ a range
of values. " maximum (or minimum) de.gn values
shown .re rigidly adhered to, then the reautbint
""pKiIy 01 Ihe road wMI be on Ihe lower aide 01 Ihe
""pKiIy r.nge. Therefore, discretion should be uaed
in selecting design values by avoiding maximums or
minimums whenever possible.
2. Tumout. shoutd be provided at 1/4-mile
(402.250 m) interv". on cla ... O rowl ..
3. Curba will gen",.ily not be provided in open
.rea ..
"Bridge clearance (permanent) width of the Iraveled way should be equal to the WIdth of the lanes plus 5 It (1.524 m) 12.5 It (0762 m)] on each side; 14.75 It (4.498 m) vertical ctearance,
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
6. Plot n ew t a n gen t s (s t r a igh t s ect ion s of
r oad) on t h e plan an d pr ofile in t h os e loca-
t ion s wh er e h or izon t a l a n d ver t ica l cu r ves
exceed t h e milit ar y r oad s pecificat ion s .
7. Des ign h or izon t a l a n d ver t ica l cu r ves
for a ll t a n gen t in t er s ect ion s .
8. Plot n ewly des ign ed cu r ves on t h e plan
an d pr ofile.
9. Develop a ma s s dia gr a m for t h e pr oject .
Ba la n ce t h e cu t s a n d fills a n d opt imize
r u lin g gr a de a n d ea r t h wor k volu mes .
10. Des ign s u per elevat ion s (cu r ve ba n k -
ing) a n d widen in g for a ll h or izon t a l cu r ves .
11. Dr aw t ypical cr os s s ect ion s .
12. Des ign t h e r equ ir ed dr ain age s t r u c-
t u r es an d br idges .
SELECTION OF ROAD TYPE
St r u ct u r a l ch a r a ct er is t ics s h ou ld a ccom-
moda t e t r a ffic volu mes t h r ou gh ou t t h e
r oads des ign life. Table 9-1, page 9-3,
s h ows fou r pos s ible r oad t ypes . Th ey ar e
bas ed on expect ed t r affic volu mes an d s h ow
t h e va lu es for t h e des ign con t r ol elemen t s
for each r oad clas s . Th e capacit ies ar c
s h own a s a r a n ge of va lu es . On ly r oa d cla s -
s es B, C, a n d D a pply t o TO con s t r u ct ion .
If t h e ma ximu m (or min imu m) des ign va lu e
for t h e va r iou s cr it er ia is a lwa ys a dh er ed
t o, t h e r es u lt in g veh icle ca pa cit y of t h e r oa d
will be on t h e lower s ide of t h e r an ge. Us e
dis cr et ion by des ign in g t h e r oad t o t h e bes t
pos s ible s t an dar d in a given r oad clas s .
DESIGN CALCULATION
Th e valu es in Table 9-1 for each geomet r ic
fea t u r e mu s t be a t t a in ed t o en s u r e t h a t t h e
des ir ed r oa d will h a ve a ca pa cit y equ a l t o
or gr ea t er t h a n eit h er t h e a ver a ge da ily t r a f-
fic (ADT) or des ign h ou r ly volu me (DHV)
s h own . Th e fir s t s t ep in t h e des ign of a
r oa d is t o es t ima t e t h e da ily or h ou r ly n u m-
ber of veh icles in a milit a r y or ga n iza t ion .
Wh er e t h is ca n n ot be don e, t h e n u mber of
veh icles or ga n ic t o t h e u n it s t h a t will u s e
t h e r oa d, mu lt iplied by a fa ct or of t wo, is
s u gges t ed a s a r ea s on a ble es t ima t e. Th is
con s er va t ively a s s u mes t h a t ea ch veh icle
u s es t h e r oad t wice (on e r ou n d-t r ip) per day.
Figu r e 9-3 s h ows t h e r elat ion s h ip bet ween
DHV a n d s igh t dis t a n ce r es t r ict ion . If
eit h er a n t icipa t ed DHV or ADT is kn own
an d t h e s igh t dis t an ce r es t r ict ion can be es -
t ima t ed fr om pr elimin a r y pla n s , t h e n eces -
s a r y r oa d t ype ca n be det er min ed fr om Fig-
u r e 9-3. If ADT or DHV a n d t h e r oa d t ype
des ir ed ar e kn own , s igh t -dis t an ce-r es t r ic-
t ion r equ ir emen t s ca n be det er min ed fr om
Figu r e 9-3.
A r an ge of pos s ible DHV valu es is given for
each r oad clas s ificat ion in Table 9-1. Th e
a ct u a l DHV for a r oa d is a fu n ct ion of t h e
s igh t -dis t a n ce-r es t r ict ion fa ct or , wh ich a ls o
h a s a n a llowa ble r a n ge for ea ch t ype of
r oa d. Th e DHV va r ies dir ect ly wit h a
ch an ge in t h e s igh t -dis t an ce-r es t r ict ion fac-
t or . Figu r e 9-3 s h ows t h is s t r a igh t -lin e
r ela t ion s h ip.
Aft er t h e s igh t -dis t a n ce-r es t r ict ion fa ct or is
det er min ed fr om t h e des ign pla n s of a n a s -
s u med r oa d cla s s , t h e a ct u a l DHV is det er -
min ed t o en s u r e t h a t t h e ca pa cit y is a de-
qu a t e.
Exa mple:
A r oa d is t o be des ign ed for a milit a r y or -
ga n iza t ion h a vin g a ppr oxima t ely 250
veh icles .
ADT = 250 x 2 = 500 a n d DHV = 0.15 x
500 = 75. Th e 0.15 fact or clu s t er s t h e t r af-
fic in t o r u s h h ou r s . Ot h er wis e, t h e h ou r ly
volu me = 500 veh icles (per day)/ 24 h ou r s
(per day) - 21 veh icles per h ou r .
Solu t ion :
Th e ca lcu la t ed DHV of 75 cou ld be met by
a cla s s C r oa d. Th er efor e, a s s u min g a
clas s C r oad is u s ed, plan -an d-pr ofile
des ign s cou ld be dr awn an d a s igh t -r es t r ic-
t ion fa ct or ca n be det er min ed fr om t h e
des ign .
9-4 Road Design
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Sight distance restriction, percent
Figure 9-3. Interpolation of DHV for selection of road class (not to scale)
Fr om Figu r e 9-3, a s igh t -dis t an ce-r es t r ic-
t ion fa ct or of 62 per cen t is det er min ed
(ba s ed on a cla s s C r oa d a n d a DHV of 75).
Us in g Figu r e 9-3, t h e ma ximu m s igh t -dis -
t a n ce-r es t r ict ion fa ct or for a cla s s C r oa d is
80 per cen t . Th is pr ovides a DHV for a
clas s C r oad of on ly 30. Sin ce t h e s igh t -dis -
t a n ce-r es t r ict ion fa ct or for t h e exa mple (62
per cen t ) is les s t h a n t h e ma ximu m of 80,
t h is meet s t h e in it ia l r equ ir emen t of t h e
DHV bein g gr ea t er t h a n or equ a l t o 75.
Th er efor e, t h e clas s C r oad as s u mpt ion is
a dequ a t e. If a DHV of 75 cou ld n ot be
h an dled by t h e clas s C r oad, it wou ld be
n eces s a r y t o con s t r u ct a cla s s B r oa d.
ESTIMATING CAPACITY
Th e in for mat ion in Figu r e 9-3 an d Table 9-
1, pa ge 9-3, is a dequ a t e for t h e geomet r ic
des ign of milit a r y r oa ds . However , a ddit ion -
al in for mat ion is available in TM 5-822-2.
Th e in for ma t ion ca n be u s ed t o eva lu a t e t h e
capacit y of exis t in g r oads by obt ain in g per -
t in en t ch a r a ct er is t ics a n d compa r in g t h em
t o t h e va lu es in Ta ble 9-1. If t h e da t a does
n ot con for m t o t h a t s h own for a given r oa d
t ype, u s e dis cr et ion in es t ima t in g t h e r oa d
t ype a n d ADT or DHV t o wh ich t h e da t a
bes t con for ms . Th e volu me a n d ca pa cit y
valu es in Table 9-1 ar e for r oads of a given
clas s wh en t h ey ar e n ew or in good con di-
t ion . As t h e r oa d s u r fa ce det er ior a t es , t h e
r oa d is les s a ble t o a ccommoda t e t h e t r a ffic
Road Design 9-5
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
for wh ich it was des ign ed. Plan an d car r y
ou t a ma in t en a n ce pr ogr a m t o keep t h e
r oa d in good con dit ion .
GRADE AND ALIGNMENT
Befor e bu ildin g a r oad or an air field, t h e en -
gin eer mu s t det er min e t h e bes t ver t ica l a n d
h or izon t a l a lign men t of t h e fa cilit y con -
cer n ed. Des ign bot h h or izon t a l a n d ver t ica l
a lign men t t o keep s igh t dis t a n ce r es t r ic-
t ion s t o a min imu m. Defin e t h e r ou t e by a
s er ies of s t r a igh t lin es a n d cu r ves t o meet
t h e s t a t ed mis s ion a n d ca pa cit y. Th is
pr ovides t h e s h or t es t , mos t efficien t r ou t e
t h a t r equ ir es t h e lea s t con s t r u ct ion effor t .
Defin e t h e r ou t e ver t ica lly in a s er ies of
gr a des a n d cu r ves t h a t fa ll wit h in a ccept -
able s pecificat ion s an d r equ ir emen t s .
Hor izon t a l a n d ver t ica l a lign men t a r e in t er -
r elat ed an d mu s t be con s ider ed con cu r r en t -
ly. However , t h e pr in ciples on each ar e
bes t s t u died s epa r a t ely. Hor izon t a l a n d ver -
t ical cu r ves of all t ypes ar e dis cu s s ed in FM
5-233.
HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT AND
HORIZONTAL CURVES
Th e pr in ciples of h or izon t a l a lign men t a r e
s u mma r ized a s follows :
Ta n gen t s (s t r a igh t s ect ion s of r oa d) s h ou ld
be as lon g as pos s ible, becau s e t h e s h or t es t
dis t a n ce bet ween t wo poin t s is t h e con n ect -
in g s t r a igh t lin e. Ter r ain con dit ion s , h ow-
ever , s eldom per mit t h e con s t r u ct ion of a
r ou t e bet ween t wo poin t s in on e t a n gen t
lin e. Th er efor e, t h e en gin eer s h ou ld make
ea ch t a n gen t a s lon g a s pos s ible, limit t h e
n u mber of cu r ves , a n d pr ovide lon g s t r a igh t
s t r et ch es , t h er eby impr ovin g t h e r ou t e
ca pa cit y.
Make cu r ves as gen t le as pos s ible. Lon g,
gen t le cu r ves in cr ea s e t h e ca pa cit y of t h e
r oadway by per mit t in g h igh er s peeds . Th ey
a ls o pr ovide a s a fer pa t h of t r a vel for t h e
veh icle. Ma kin g gen t le, h or izon t a l cu r ves
will in cr eas e t h e cu r ve len gt h , t h er eby
decr ea s in g t h e t a n gen t len gt h . However ,
t h is r edu ct ion in t a n gen t len gt h is min or
compar ed t o t h e ben efit s gain ed by r edu c-
in g t h e t ot a l n u mber of cu r ves .
Ta n gen t s s h ou ld in t er s ect ot h er r oa ds a n d
r a ilr oa ds a t r igh t a n gles . Milit a r y r oa ds n or -
ma lly s u pplemen t exis t in g r oa dn et s a n d
h a ve in t er s ect ion s a t on e or bot h en ds of
t h e milit a r y r oa d. Oper a t in g efficien cy
u s u ally is impr oved wh en t h es e in t er s ec-
t ion s a ppr oa ch r igh t a n gles .
Fr equ en t ly u s ed h or izon t a l cu r ves a r e
s h own in Figu r e 9-4. Th e mos t common
ar e t h e s imple cu r ve, t h e r ever s e cu r ve, t h e
compou n d cu r ve, an d t h e s pir al cu r ve.

A s imple cu r ve u s es t h e ar c of a cir cle
t o pr ovide a s moot h t r a n s it ion bet ween
t wo t a n gen t s . Th is cu r ve is u s ed fr e-
qu en t ly in t h e TO beca u s e it fills t h e
n eeds of t h e low-s peed des ign r oads n or -
ma lly u s ed a n d is ea s y t o con s t r u ct . A
r ever s e or compou n d cu r ve can be
des ign ed u s in g t h e s ame bas ic equ a-
t ion s .

A r ever s e cu r ve u s es t wo s imple cu r ves
t a n gen t t o a common lin e a t a common
poin t . Th eir cen t er s ar e on oppos it e
s ides of t h e common lin e. Th e r adii of
t h e cu r ves ma y or ma y n ot be equ a l in
len gt h .
Figure 9-4. Types of horizontal curves
9-6 Road Design
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1

A compou n d cu r ve h a s t wo s imple cu r -
ves t a n gen t t o a common lin e a t a com-
mon poin t . Th e cen t er s of t h es e cu r ves
a r e on t h e s a me s ide of t h e common
lin e, an d t h e cu r ves h ave r adii of dif-
fer en t len gt h s .

A s pir al cu r ve is a s imple cu r ve in t h e
cen t er wit h pa r t s of a s pir a l on ea ch
en d t o s moot h t r a n s it ion t o t h e t a n gen t .
Th e s pir al is u s ed on ly on h igh -s peed
r oads (clas s es A an d B). Det ailed s t eps
for t h e des ign a n d la you t of s pir a l t r a n -
s it ion cu r ves ar e in FM 5-233. Low
des ign s peeds of clas s -C an d -D r oads
do n ot r equ ir e s pir a l t r a n s it ion s ect ion s .
ELEMENTS OF A HORIZONTAL CURVE
Th e followin g ar e elemen t s of a s imple,
h or izon t a l cu r ve a s s h own in Figu r e 9-5:
Th e PC is t h e poin t wh er e t h e cu r ve
begin s or lea ves t a n gen t At h e t a n gen t
n ea r es t t h e or igin of s t a t ion in g (s t a t ion
0 + 00) or s t a r t of t h e pr oject .

Th e PT is t h e poin t wh er e t h e cu r ve
en ds or join s t a n gen t B.

Th e PI is t h e in t er s ect in g poin t of t wo
t a n gen t s t h a t mu s t be con n ect ed by a
h or izon t a l cu r ve.

Th e t an gen t dis t an ce (T) is t h e dis t an ce
fr om t h e PI t o t h e PC or fr om t h e PI t o
t h e PT.
Th e r a diu s (R) of cu r va t u r e is t h e r a diu s
of t h e cir cle wh os e a r c for ms t h e cu r ve
fr om t h e PC t o t h e PT.
Th e len gt h of cu r ve (L) is t h e dis t an ce
fr om t h e PC t o t h e PT a lon g t h e cu r ve,
mea s u r ed a s a n a r c or a s a s er ies of
100-foot ar cs . Railr oad en gin eer s
mea s u r e L a s a s er ies of 100-foot
ch or ds .
Th e an gle of in t er s ect ion (I) is t h e ex-
t er ior a n gle a t t h e PI for med by t a n -
gen t s A an d B. Th e cen t r al an gle, be-
t ween t h e r a diu s poin t s a t O, is equ a l t o
t h e ext er ior a n gle.
Th e ext er n al dis t an ce (E) is t h e dis t an ce
fr om t h e PI t o t h e midpoin t of t h e cu r ve.
Th e lon g ch or d (C) is t h e s t r aigh t -lin e
dis t a n ce fr om t h e PC t o t h e PT.
Th e middIe or din at e (M) is t h e dis t an ce
fr om t h e midpoin t of t h e cu r ve t o t h e
midpoin t of t h e lon g ch or d.

Figure 9-5. Elements of 8 simple, horizontal curve
Road Design 9-7
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
DEGREE OF CURVATURE
Th e con n ect in g cu r ve bet ween t wo t a n gen t s
ma y be s h or t a n d s h a r p or lon g a n d gen t le,
depen din g on t h e pr oper t ies of t h e cir cle
ch os en . Sh ar pn es s is defin ed by t h e r adiu s
of t h e cir cle. For exa mple, a cu r ve ma y be
called a 150-foot cu r ve. However , a cu r ve
is s eldom r efer r ed t o by it s r adiu s becau s e
t h e cen t er of t h e cu r ve is oft en in acces s ible
on t h e lon g, gen t le cu r ves u s ed on moder n
h igh wa ys . Th e mor e pr a ct ica l a n d common
r efer en ce t er m for defin in g cu r ve s h ar pn es s
is t h e degr ee of cu r vat u r e (D). Th e degr ee
of cu r va t u r e is es t a blis h ed a s a wh ole or
h alf degr ee. Th e degr ee of cu r vat u r e may
be s t a t ed in t er ms of eit h er t h e a r c or t h e
ch or d.
Ar c De fi n i t i on
Th e degr ee of cu r va t u r e, D, is t h a t a n gle
wh ich s u bt en ds a 100-foot a r c a lon g t h e
cu r ve. (See Figu r e 9-6.) Th is defin it ion is
u s ed by s t a t e h igh wa y depa r t men t s a n d t h e
Cor ps of En gin eer s in r oad des ign .
Ch or d De fin it ion
Th e degr ee of cu r vat u r e, D, is t h e an gle
wh ich s u bt en ds a 100-foot ch or d on t h e
cu r ve. (See Figu r e 9-7.) Th is defin it ion
r es u lt s in a s ligh t ly la r ger a n gle t h a n t h e
a r c met h od, a n d it is u s ed by t h e r a ilr oa d
in du s t r y an d t h e Cor ps of En gin eer s in r ail-
r oad des ign .
Th e differ en ce bet ween t h e ar c an d ch or d
defin it ion s is ver y s ligh t an d n ear ly in s ig-
EQUATI ONS FOR SI MPLE,
HORIZONTAL-CURVE DESIGN
Figure 9-6. Arc definition for degree of
curvature
n ifican t (fr equ en t ly well below 1 per cen t ) for
TO con s t r u ct ion . However , beca u s e t h e a r c
defin it ion is t h e mos t widely u s ed pr oce-
du r e in r oad des ign , on ly it s defin it ion will
be u s ed t h r ou gh ou t t h e r es t of t h e ch a pt er .
Th e t wo met h ods common ly u s ed t o s olve
h or izon t al cu r ve pr oblems ar e t h e 1-degr ee-
cu r ve met h od a n d t h e t r igon omet r ic
met h od. Bot h met h ods ma y be u s ed wit h
t h e s ame degr ee of accu r acy. Th e 1-degr ee-
cu r ve met h od r equ ir es t h e Fu n ct ion s of a
1-Degr ee Cu r ve t able s h own in Appen dix F
of t h is ma n u a l.
Appen dix F is bas ed on t h e t r igon omet r ic
r elat ion s h ips for a cu r ve of D = 1. Cu r ves
of differ en t degr ees of cu r vat u r e can be
r eadily des ign ed becau s e of t h e pr opor -
t ion alit y bet ween all cu r ves an d t h e l-de-
gr ee cu r ve. For exa mple, a cu r ve of D =
15 h a s on e-fift een t h t h e L, E, T, a n d M
valu es as for a 1-degr ee cu r ve (D = 10). Th e
on ly in for ma t ion n eeded t o obt a in t h e L, E,
T, an d M valu es for a 1-degr ee cu r ve is t h e
a n gle of in t er s ect ion (I), a n d I is a lwa ys
kn own a t t h e on s et of t h e des ign pr oces s .
Th e t r igon omet r ic met h od r equ ir es a ca l-
cu la t or wit h t r igon omet r ic fu n ct ion s or
t r igon omet r ic t a bles fou n d in TM 5-236 or
a n y s u r veyin g ma n u a l.
Figure 9-7. Chord definition for degree of
curvature
9-8 Road Design
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Ra diu s of Cu r va t u r e
As pr eviou s ly des cr ibed in t h e ar c defin i-
t ion , D is t h at an gle s u bt en ded by a 100-
foot a r c on a cir cle. By compar in g t h e 100-
foot a r c a n d t h e t ot a l cir cu mfer en ce of t h e
cir cle, an equ at ion for R is developed in
t er ms of D.
Ta n ge n t Di s t a n c e
In t h e r igh t t r ia n gle s h own in Figu r e 9-5,
page 9-7, t h e ver t ices ar e at PC (or PT), PI,
a n d O. Th e t a n gen t dis t a n ce (T) is fou n d
u s in g t h e 1-degr ee-cu r ve met h od, as follows :
is fou n d in Appen dix F, Table F-1, for a
given I. Us e Table F-2 t o det er min e t h e
ch or d cor r ect ion .
Ext e r n a l Di s t a n c e
Us in g t h e 1-degr ee-cu r ve met h od (r efer t o
Figu r e 9-8), t h e ext er n al dis t an ce (E) is
fou n d a s follows :
Mi ddle Or di n a t e
Us in g t h e 1-degr ee-cu r ve met h od (r efer t o
Figu r e 9-8), t h e middle or din at e (M) is
fou n d a s follows :
Le n gt h of Cu r ve (L)
Mea s u r e t h e len gt h of t h e cu r ve in 100-foot
ar cs . Becau s e D s u bt en ds a 100-foot ar c,
t h e t ot a l n u mber of s u ch a r cs in a h or izon -
t a l cu r ve mu s t be t h e n u mber of t imes t h a t
D can be in clu ded in t h e cen t r al an gle I.
Th e cen t r al an gle s u bt en ded by t h e en t ir e
h or izon t a l cu r ve h a s s ides t h a t a r e r a dii t o
t h e PC an d PT. Bot h of t h es e r adii ar e per -
pen dicu la r t o t h e t a n gen t s t h a t for m t h e
Figure 9-8. Derivation of external distance
Road Design 9-9
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
in t er s ect ion a n gle I. Th e qu a dr ila t er a l
for med by t h e fou r poin t s of PI (180-I), PC
(900), O (I), an d PT (90) mu s t t ot al 360.
1(180-I) + 90 + I + 90 = 360.] Hen ce, t h e
cen t r a l a n gle is equ a l t o t h e a n gle of in t er -
s ect ion I.
DESIGNING HORIZONTAL CURVES
Th e en gin eer des ign in g h or izon t al cu r ves
mu s t kn ow t wo fa ct s a bou t t h e cu r ve fr om
t h e pr elimin a r y s u r vey: t h e loca t ion a n d
s t a t ion of t h e PI a n d t h e a n gle bet ween in -
t er s ect in g t an gen t lin es (I). Th e cu r ves can
be des ign ed aft er t h is in for mat ion is ob-
t a in ed.
Th e fir s t s t ep is t o det er min e t h e des ir ed

s h ar pn es s of t h e cu r ve. Th is is defin ed by
t h e r a diu s or t h e degr ee of cu r va t u r e.
Topogr aph ic con dit ion s gover n t h e fin al loca-
t ion of t h e cen t er lin e a n d s h a r pn es s of t h e
cu r ve. A ma ximu m or min imu m t a n gen t
dis t a n ce ma y fit t h e t er r a in con dit ion s , or
t h er e ma y be a limit on t h e ext er n a l dis -
t a n ce or t h e middle or din a t e. If a r es t r ic-
t ion exis t s , s olve for t h e degr ee of cu r va t u r e
by t r a n s pos in g t h e equ a t ion s pr eviou s ly
given . Wh er e n o t er r a in con dit ion dict a t es
t h e s h ar pn es s of t h e cu r ve, ch oos e a degr ee
of cu r va t u r e wit h in a llowa ble s pecifica t ion s .
Wh en ch oos in g a degr ee of cu r vat u r e,
r emember t h a t gen t le cu r ves a r e mor e
des ir able. However , t h es e lon g cu r ves may
in cr ea s e s u r veyin g a n d con s t r u ct ion t ime,
ma t er ia ls , a n d effor t r equ ir ed. Th er e is n o
r es t r ict ion on t h e len gt h of t h e cu r ve wit h
r es pect t o a min imu m degr ee of cu r va t u r e.
However , t h e ma ximu m a llowa ble degr ee of
cu r vat u r e is s pecified by t h e r oad clas s ifica-
t ion . Table 9-1, page 9-3, s pecifies t h e max-
imu m degr ee of cu r va t u r e for ea ch cla s s of
r oa d a s s t a t ed in t h e r ow t it led Ma ximu m
h or izon t a l cu r va t u r e.
Aft er t h e degr ee of cu r vat u r e is s elect ed,
det er min e t h e s t a t ion s of t h e PC a n d t h e
PT. Next , des ign t h e cu r ve except for t h e
ca lcu la t ion s n eeded t o loca t e s t a t ion in g
poin t s of t h e cu r ve bet ween t h e PC an d PT.
Th e followin g s t eps s h ow t h e des ign of
h or izon t al cu r ves u s in g t h e 1-degr ee-cu r ve
met h od:
1. Fin d t h e degr ee of cu r vat u r e, D, by on e
of t h r ee met h ods :
If t h e cu r ve is u n r es t r ict ed,
wh er e R = t h e r a diu s of t h e cu r ve
If t h e cu r ve is r es t r ict ed by t h e t a n gen t
dis t an ce,
wh er e
t an gen t dis t an ce for a 1-degr ee cu r ve
(fou n d in Appen dix F, bas ed on t h e an gle of
in t er s ect ion )
r es t r ict ed t a n gen t dis t a n ce for a
h or izon t a l cu r ve
If t h e cu r ve
dis t an ce,
is r es t r ict ed by t h e ext er n a l
wh er e
ext er n al dis t an ce for on e-degr ee cu r ve
(fou n d in Appen dix F, bas ed on t h e an gle of
in t er s ect ion )
= r es t r ict ed ext er n a l dis t a n ce for
a h or izon t a l cu r ve
2. Rou n d u p t h e degr ee of cu r va t u r e t o t h e
n ext h alf degr ee wh en pos s ible.
3. Det er min e t h e len gt h of t h e t a n gen t .
4. Fin d t h e s t a t ion in g of PC.
PC = P I - T
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FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
5. Ca lcu la t e t h e len gt h of t h e cu r ve.
6. Fin d t h e s t a t ion in g of PT.
P T = P C + L
Hor i zon t a l-Cu r ve De s i gn Exa mple s
Th is s ect ion des cr ibes t h e h or izon t al-cu r ve
des ign pr ocedu r es for t h r ee common s it u a -
t ion s :
No t er r a in r es t r ict ion wh ich limit s T or
E.
Ter r a in r es t r ict ion of t h e t a n gen t dis -
t a n ce.
Ter r a in r es t r ict ion of t h e ext er n a l dis -
t a n ce.
Exa mple:
Degr ee of Cu r va t u r e wit h No Ter r a in Res t r ic-
t ion . Figu r e 9-9 illu s t r a t es t h e followin g
compu t a t ion s :
Given : I = 50, PI at 14 + 28
Fin d t h e s t a t ion a n d loca t ion of PC a n d PT
for a cla s s C r oa d.
Solu t ion :
A degr ee of cu r vat u r e, D, of 6 is s elect ed
a s a fla t , gen t le cu r ve. D = 6 is fa r below
t h e ma ximu m a llowa ble of D = 14.5 for
clas s -C r oads an d is s ligh t ly s h ar per t h an
t h e ma ximu m a llowa ble of D = 5.5 for
clas s -B r oads .
Figure 9-9. Horizontal curve with no
sharpness restriction
PC = PI - T = (14 + 28) - (445.29')
= (9 + 82.71)
PT = PC + L = (9 + 82.71) + (833.33')
= (18 + 16.04)
Th e s t at ion of t h e PT is det er min ed by ad-
din g t h e cu r ve len gt h t o t h e s t a t ion of t h e
PC, n ot by a ddin g T t o t h e s t a t ion of t h e PI.
However , t h e a ct u a l poin t of t h e PT is fou n d
by mea s u r in g a dis t a n ce T (a t a n gle I) fr om
t h e PI. Th e s t a t ion is t h e dis t a n ce fr om t h e
poin t of or igin a t s t a t ion (0+ 00), a s
mea s u r ed a lon g t h e cen t er lin e.
Exa mple:
Terrain Restriction of the Tangent Distance.
Figu r e 9-10 illu s t r at es t h e followin g com-
pu t a t ion s :
Given : I = 32, PI at 25 + 87, is 282'
(du e t o br idge)
Fin d t h e s t a t ion a n d loca t ion of PC a n d PT.
Solu t ion :
Kn owin g t h a t T mu s t n ot exceed 282 feet
a n d t h a t t h e D t h a t will give t h is va lu e is
Figure 9-10. Horizontal curve with restriction
on tangent
Road Design 9-11
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
pr oba bly n ot equ a l t o a wh ole or h a lf de-
gr ee, it is n eces s ar y t o fir s t fin d wh ich D
gives 282 feet for
off, a s s h own .
a n d t h en r ou n d it
If t h e valu e of T was s pecified as exact ly
282 feet (a s oppos ed t o a ma ximu m or
r es t r ict ed valu e), t h e valu e for D of 550'
mu s t be u s ed. Rou n din g D u p t o t h e n ext
h alf degr ee (D = 6) will s ligh t ly s h ar pen t h e
cu r ve an d will r edu ce T s ligh t ly below t h e
282-feet ma ximu m.
In cr eas in g t h e degr ee of cu r vat u r e decr eas es
t h e va lu es of t h e r a diu s a n d t a n gen t dis -
t an ce an d vice ver s a. Wh en t h e degr ee of
cu r va t u r e wa s ch a n ged fr om 550 t o 600',
it ca u s ed t h e r a diu s a n d t h e t a n gen t dis -
t an ce t o decr eas e fr om 983.5 feet t o 954.9
feet an d 282 feet t o 273.8 feet , r es pect ively.
Th er efor e, if t h e ma ximu m va lu e of t h e t a n -
gen t dis t a n ce is u s ed t o det er min e a t r ia l
va lu e of D, t h e r ou n din g mu s t be t o t h e
n ext h igh er h a lf degr ee. If min imu m va lu e
of t h e t a n gen t is given , t h e r ou n din g is t o
t h e n ext lower h a lf degr ee.
Exa mple:
Terrain Restriction on the External Distance.
Figu r e 9-11 illu s t r at es t h e followin g com-
pu t a t ion s :
Given : E 85 feet , I = 80, St a PI a t 43 +
32. 75
If E exceeds 85 feet , t h e r oad cen t er lin e will
be clos er t h an 25 feet t o t h e bu ildin g.
Fin d t h e s t a t ion a n d loca t ion of PC a n d PT.
Solu t ion :
Beca u s e t h e limit in g va lu e for t h e ext er n a l
dis t a n ce a n d t h e va lu e u s ed t o get t h is t r ia l
va lu e of D a r e ma ximu ms , it is n eces s a r y t o
r ou n d t o t h e n ext h igh er h a lf degr ee, t h er e-
by decr eas in g T an d E.
Figure 9-11. Horizontal curve with restriction
on the external distance
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St a t ion Adju s t me n t s Du e t o Cu r ve In s t a l-
la t ion
Hor izon t al cu r ves occas ion ally ar e des ign ed
a t t h e s it e by t h e s u r veyin g t ea m. Wh en
t h is is don e, t h e r ou t e is s t a ked ou t a n d
s t at ion ed pr ogr es s ively alon g t h e cen t er lin e
fr om t h e poin t of or igin of t h e pr oject . It is
n ot n eces s a r y t o ca lcu la t e s t a t ion a dju s t -
men t s r equ ir ed by t h e s h or t en in g of t h e
over all cen t er lin e len gt h by a dis t an ce of
2T-L. However , wh en h or izon t a l cu r ves a r e
des ign ed in t h e office wit h dat a s u pplied by
t h e pr elimin a r y s u r vey, t h e a dju s t men t s
mu s t be ca lcu la t ed.
Wh en t h e pr elimin a r y t a n gen t a lign men t of
a r ou t e is fir s t det er min ed a n d s t a t ion in g
a lon g t h e t a n gen t lin es is a ccomplis h ed, t h e
s t a t ion of a n y poin t r epr es en t s it s dis t a n ce
fr om t h e poin t of or igin a s mea s u r ed a lon g
s t r a igh t lin es on ly. Wh en a h or izon t a l
cu r ve is in s t alled an d becomes t h e cen t er -
lin e of t h e r ou t e, t h e s t a t ion in g dis t a n ce
fr om t h e PC t o t h e PT is s h or t en ed by 2T-L
for ea ch h or izon t a l cu r ve.
In Figu r e 9-5, page 9-7, t h e in it ial cen t er -
lin e dis t a n ce fr om t h e PC t o t h e PT is
mea s u r ed a lon g t h e t wo t a n gen t s a n d is
equ al t o 2T. Wh en t h e cu r ve is in s t alled
an d t h e n ew cen t er lin e is cr eat ed, t h e fin al
cen t er lin e dis t a n ce fr om t h e PC t o t h e PT
becomes L. At t h is poin t , t h e cen t er lin e s t a -
t ion ed a h ea d wou ld n eed t o be r es t a t ion ed
or a dju s t ed in s ome ma n n er . To pr even t
r es t a kin g t h e r es t of t h e pr oject cen t er lin e,
a n a dju s t men t is ma de t o t h e con s t r u ct ion
s t a ke a t t h e PT. Th e met h od of a dju s t men t
will pr odu ce a s t a t ion in g equ a t ion a t t h e
poin t of a dju s t men t t h a t will s a t is fy bot h
t h e s t a t ion in g ba ck a n d t h e s t a t ion in g
a h ea d. Th e equ a t ion will h a ve a s t a t ion
wh ich cor r es pon ds wit h t h e cor r ect s t a t ion
t o t h e r ea r (or ba ck) a n d t h e cor r ect s t a t ion
for wa r d (or a h ea d). Th e equ a t ion will be
wr it t en on t h e con s t r u ct ion s t a ke a s follows :
wh er e
PT = poin t of t a n gen t
EQ = equ a t ion
BK = cor r ect s t a t ion ba ck
AH = cor r ect s t a t ion a h ea d
Equ a t ion s mos t oft en will occu r a t t h e PT
bu t ma y be u s ed a n ywh er e a n a dju s t men t
t o t h e cen t er lin e s t a t ion in g is r equ ir ed. Th e
equ a t ion in dica t es t h a t a n a dju s t men t t o
t h e cen t er lin e s t a t ion in g h a s occu r r ed for
s ome r ea s on . For exa mple, if t h e s u r vey
cr ew acciden t ly placed t wo cen t er lin e s t akes
wit h t h e s a me s t a t ion n u mber , s a y 13 + 00,
t h e equ a t ion s t a ke wou ld look like t h is :
Th e adju s t men t s s h own in t h e pr ecedin g
equ a t ion in dica t e t h a t t h e t ot a l len gt h of
t h e r oad h as been s h or t en ed by t h e dif-
fer en ce of 24 feet in t h e fir s t example an d
len gt h en ed by 100 feet (or on e s t at ion ) in
t h e s econ d example.
Equ a t ion s n or ma lly a r e s h own in t h e pr ofile
s ect ion of t h e pla n s a s a ga p in t h e gr a de
wit h t h e ba ck a n d a h ea d s t a t ion s wr it t en
ou t .
Fie ld Me t h ods of Cu r ve La you t
Th e loca t ion a n d s t a t ion of t h e PC a n d PT
of a h or izon t a l cu r ve con s t it u t e on ly t wo
poin t s on t h e cu r ve. Th ey do n ot a dequ a t e-
ly defin e t h e n eces s ar y con s t r u ct ion . Th e
followin g met h ods a r e a pplica ble t o milit a r y
con s t r u ct ion for loca t in g poin t s on t h e
cu r ve:
Arc Method. Wh en t h e r adiu s of a cu r ve is
les s t h an 100 feet an d t opogr aph ic con di-
t ion s per mit , loca t e t h e cen t er of t h e cir cle
a n d s win g a n a r c t o loca t e a cu r ve or fillet ,
Cu r ves wit h a s ma ll r a diu s a r e s eldom u s ed
except a t s t r eet in t er s ect ion s a n d for fillet s
bet ween h a r ds t a n ds , t a xiwa ys , or ot h er
oper a t ion a l fea t u r es of a n a ir field.
External-Dis tance Method . For s h or t cu r ves
wh er e t h r ee poin t s a r e a dequ a t e for t h e con -
s t r u ct ion s t a n da r d des ir ed, ca lcu la t e t h e ex-
t er n a l dis t a n ce a n d u s e it t o loca t e t h e cen -
t er of t h e cu r ve. Th is met h od is n ot r ecom-
men ded for pr ecis e con s t r u ct ion or for lon g
cu r ves . It is impr a ct ica l wh en t h e t er r a in
on t h e cu r ve s ide of t h e PI is difficu lt t o
n egot ia t e a n d mea s u r e.
Deflection-Angle Method . Th is met h od of
cu r ve la you t u s u a lly is t h e fa s t es t a n d mos t
Road Design 9-13
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
exa ct met h od, pa r t icu la r ly for cu r ves wit h a
lon g r adiu s . In t h e ar c defin it ion , a deflec-
t ion a n gle is t h e a n gle for med bet ween a
t a n gen t lin e a n d a ch or d fr om t h e s a me
poin t . (See Figu r e 9-12.)
Figure 9-12. Deflection angle
In t r ia n gle OAB
NOTE: In ot h e r wor ds , t h e de fle c t ion
a n gle i s a lwa ys on e -h a lf t h e i n t e r c e pt e d
c e n t r a l a n gle .
If t h e in it ia l a r c is 100 feet lon g, t h e cen t r a l
an gle will be t h e degr ee of cu r vat u r e D, an d
t h e deflect ion an gle will be on e-h alf t h e de-
gr ee of cu r va t u r e D, or D/ 2, a s s h own in
Figu r e 9-13. Wit h t h e addit ion of each 100-
foot a r c, t h e t ot a l cen t r a l a n gle in cr ea s es by
D a n d t h e t ot a l deflect ion a n gle in cr ea s es
by D/ 2.
Figure 9-13. Deflection angles for 100-foot
arcs
Wh en la yin g ou t a cu r ve, it is common pr a c-
t ice t o loca t e s t a kes a t ever y fu ll s t a t ion .
In view of t h is an d becau s e t h e PC of an y
cu r ve r a r ely fa lls on a n even s t a t ion , t h e
fir s t ar c will be s omet h in g les s t h an 100
feet in len gt h (called a s u bar c). Th e deflec-
t ion a n gle for t h e s u ba r c t o t h e fir s t fu ll s t a -
t ion is t h e s a me pr opor t ion of D/ 2
s u bar c is t o 100 feet (Figu r e 9-14).
t h a t t h e
Figure 9-14. Subarc deflection
On ce loca t ed a t a fu ll s t a t ion , t h e
angles
cu r ve con -
t in u es by 100-foot ar cs . Th er efor e, t h e
cen t r al an gle in cr eas es by D an d t h e deflec-
t ion an gle in cr eas es by D/ 2 (Figu r e 9-15).
Figure 9-15. Calculation of chord lengths
Th e len gt h of t h e ch or d for a 100-foot a r c
on t h e cu r ve is equ a l t o 2R Sin (D/ 2).
For t h e fir s t a n d la s t a r cs , wh ich a r e a l-
mos t a lwa ys les s t h a n 100 feet , t h e
mea s u r ed ch or d Is equ a l t o 2R Sin
[(D/ 2)(L/ 100)] wh er e L is t h e dis t a n ce fr om
t h e PC or PT t o t h e clos es t fu ll s t a t ion .
9-14 Road Design
A s u mma r y of t h e deflect ion -a n gle a n d
ch or d-len gt h calcu lat ion s is s h own in Fig-
u r e 9-16.
Figure 9-16. Deflection-angle
determinations
and chord-length
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Exa mple:
In t h e exa mple of a h or izon t a l cu r ve wit h
n o t er r a in r es t r ict ion s , t h e s t a t ion of PC is
9 + 82.71, t h e s t at ion of PT is 18 + 16.04,
an d t h e deflect ion an gles an d ch or d dis t an -
ces ar e s h own in Table 9-2. A u s efu l ch eck
on t h e lon g s er ies of compu t a t ion s is t h a t
t h e fin a l deflect ion a n gle fr om t h e PC t o t h e
PT mu s t a lwa ys equ a l I/ 2. Th is is ba s ed
on t h e pr eviou s ly s t a t ed pr in ciple t h a t t h e
deflect ion an gle (fr om PC t o PT) is on e-h alf
t h e t ot al an gle s u bt en ded (I). Th is ch eck is
illu s t r at ed in Table 9-2 for d = 25 = 1/ 2 =
500/ 2 for s t at ion , (18 + 16.04), wh ich is t h e
PT.
La you t Te c h n iqu e s
Wh en u s in g t h e deflect ion -an gle met h od,
s et t h e t r a n s it u p a t t h e PC. Set zer o on
t h e ver n ier , s igh t t h e PI (or t a ke a ba ck-
s igh t down t h e cen t er lin e), a n d t u r n t h e
fir s t deflect ion a n gle. Mea s u r e t h e s u ba r c
dis t a n ce a lon g t h e in s t r u men t s lin e of
s igh t . To loca t e t h e s econ d poin t on t h e
Table 9-2. Deflection angles and chord distances
Road Design 9-15
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
cu r ve (s t a t ion 11 + 00), t u r n t h e s econ d
deflect ion a n gle (t h e a n gle is mea s u r ed t u r n -
in g fr om t h e PI t o s t a t ion 11 + 00) wit h t h e
t r a n s it s t ill a t t h e PC. Mea s u r e t h e in t er s ec-
t ion of t h is lin e of s igh t a n d t h e 100-foot
a r c fr om t h e pr ecedin g s t a t ion t o loca t e s t a -
t ion 11 + 00. La y ou t t h e r es t of t h e cu r ve
in t h is ma n n er .
If t h e cu r ve is lon g s o t h a t t h e t r a n s it mu s t
be moved or if a n obs t r u ct ion pr even t s a
clea r lin e of s igh t , move t h e t r a n s it t o a n in -
t er media t e s t a t ion . Th e s a me deflect ion
an gles pr eviou s ly calcu lat ed may be u s ed t o
loca t e t h e r es t of t h e cu r ve. (See Figu r e
9-17.)
If s t a t ion 17 + 00 ca n n ot be s igh t ed, move
t h e t r a n s it t o s t a t ion 16 + 00. Set zer o on
t h e ver n ier , ba cks igh t t h e PC, a n d t u r n t h e
an gle 2131'6" t o s igh t s t at ion 17 + 00. Fig-
u r e 9-17 s h ows t h a t a n gle D mu s t be
t u r n ed for t h e t r a n s it a t s t a t ion 16 + 00 t o
become t a n gen t t o t h e cu r ve a t t h a t poin t .
On ce t h e t r a n s it is t a n gen t t o t h e cu r ve,
a n gle D/ 2 mu s t be t u r n ed t o loca t e t h e
n ext s t a t ion beca u s e t h e a r c is 100 feet
lon g. Th e t ot a l a n gle t u r n ed is + D/ 2,
wh ich is as or igin ally calcu lat ed.
Fr e qu e n c y of Pla c in g Su r ve y St a k e s (In
Fe e t )
Hor izon t a l cu r ves s h ou ld be s t a ked a t a
min imu m in t er va l of 100 feet . Th e s t a kin g
in t er va l on h or izon t a l cu r ves s h ou ld be
ba s ed on t h e degr ee of cu r va t u r e a n d ca n
be det er min ed fr om t h e followin g t a ble:
Degree of
Curvature Radius Staking
(100) (meters) interval
0 to 3 > 1,910 100
> 3to 8 1,910 to 721 50
> 8 to 16 720 to 360 25
> 16 < 360 10
Hor i zon t a l Cu r ve De s i gn Us i n g Me t r i c
Un i t s
Th e des ign of h or izon t al cu r ves u s in g
met r ic u n it s is es s en t ia lly t h e s a me a s in
En glis h u n it s . Th e on ly differ en ce lies in
t h e r ela t ion s h ips of a r c len gt h t o t h e degr ee
of cu r vat u r e as s h own in Figu r es 9-18a,
9-18b, an d 9-18c.
NOTE: Th e fu n c t i on s of a 1 c u r ve t a ble
a r e a ls o a ppli c a ble t o me t r i c de s i gn ba s e d
on t h e r e la t ion s h ip s h own in Figu r e
9 -1 8 b. Howe ve r , i f de s i gn i n g u s i n g
me t r i c u n i t s , t h e le n gt h s of T, E, M, a n d
R a r e i n me t e r s .
Figure 9-17. Obstruction on a curve
9-16 Road Design
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 9-18a. D based Figure 9-18b. D based Figure 9-18c. D based
on a 100-ft arc on a 100-m arc on a 20-m arc
If you des ign t h e cu r ve bas ed on m,
bu t in t en d on s t a kin g a t a n in t er va l of
20 m, you mu s t det er min e t h e degr ee of cu r -
va t u r e ba s ed on 20 m t o det er min e
t h e cor r ect deflect ion a n gles . A s u mma r y of
t h e deflect ion -an gle an d ch or d-len gt h cal-
cu lat ion s bas ed on is s h own in Fig-
u r e 9-18d.
Fr e qu e n c y of Pla c in g Su r ve y St a k e s (In
Me t e r s )
Hor izon t a l cu r ves s h ou ld be s t a ked a t a
ma ximu m in t er va l of 20 met er s (m). Th e
s t a kin g in t er n a l on h or izon t a l cu r ves s h ou ld
be bas ed on t h e degr ee of cu r vat u r e an d
ca n be det er min ed fr om t h e followin g in for -
ma t ion :
Degree of
Curvature Radius Cord Lengths
(100) (meters) (meters)
0 to 3 >585 20
>3 to 8 585 to 221 10
>8 to 16 220 to 110 5
>16 <110 5
NOTE: is t h e dis t a n c e fr om t h e PC or PT t o t h e c los e s t fu ll s t a t ion .
Figure 9-18d. Deflection-angle and chord length selection based on
Road Design 9-17
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
Th e capabilit ies of veh icles or air cr aft u s in g
a n y pa r t icu la r r oa d or a ir field det er min e
t h e ma ximu m a llowa ble gr a des t h a t s h ou ld
be es t a blis h ed. However , ot h er fa ct or s ma y
be con s ider ed. Exces s ive gr ades can be in -
s t alled wh er e s peed an d capacit y ar e n ot es -
s en t ial. Wh en ever pos s ible, gr ades s h ou ld
be les s t h a n t h e pr es cr ibed ma ximu m
valu es s t at ed in Table 9-1, page 9-3.
Wit h in limit a t ion s impos ed by va r iou s ot h er
cr it er ia , pla ce t a n gen t gr a de lin es s o t h a t
ea r t h wor k is min imized. Th e ea r t h wor k r e-
qu ir ed in mos t r oa d-con s t r u ct ion pr oject s is
u s u a lly t h e la r ges t , s in gle wor k it em. An y-
t h in g t h a t r edu ces ea r t h wor k will impr ove
job efficien cy a n d econ omy. At t empt t o
ba la n ce t h e ea r t h wor k oper a t ion s bet ween
cu t a n d fill in a n y a r ea , wit h in t h e
capabilit ies of available equ ipmen t . Wh en
dr awin g t h e gr ade lin es , t h e en gin eer can
u s u ally do t h is balan cin g by in s pect ion ,
keepin g t h e pr ofile a r ea of cu t equ a l t o t h e
pr ofile ar ea of fill. Th es e a r ea s a r e n ot
n eces s a r ily pr opor t ion a l t o t h e a ct u a l
volu mes in volved, bu t t h ey s er ve as a bas is
for compa r is on . It is impr a ct ica l t o ba Ia n ce
a volu me of cu t wit h a n equ iva len t volu me
of fill a t a dis t a n ce beyon d t h e h a u lin g
ca pa bilit ies of t h e a va ila ble equ ipmen t .
Alon g a n y pr opos ed r ou t e will be poin t s a t
wh ich t h e elevat ion is alr eady fixed. In t er -
s ect ion s wit h exis t in g r oa ds a n d r a ilr oa d
cr os s in gs pr es en t pr edet er min ed elevat ion s
t h a t t h e en gin eer mu s t meet wh en loca t in g
t h e t a n gen t gr a de lin es .
In a ddit ion t o t h e con t r ollin g s pecifica t ion s
for gr a des , ot h er cr it er ia ma y con t r ol t h e
placemen t of gr ade lin es . Th es e cr it er ia in -
clu de t h e min imu m a llowa ble gr a dien t s , t h e
ma ximu m a llowa ble ch a n ge in gr a de a t a n y
In t er s ect ion poin t , t h e per mis s ible dept h of
cu t or fill, a n d t h e ma ximu m gr a dien t s in
appr oach in g br idges or poin t s of in t er s ec-
t i o n .
PLOTTING A PROFILE VIEW
Th e pr ofile of a r oad or air field is a s ide
view of t h e pr oject . It r epr es en t s t h e
h or izon t a l dis t a n ce, or s t a t ion s , a s a bs cis s a
(x a xis ) a ga in s t t h e eleva t ion s a t t h es e s t a -
t ion s , wh ich a r e plot t ed a s or din a t es (y
axis ). Wh en a h or izon t a l a lign men t is s et
a n d t h e pr oject s t a t ion ed, det er min e t h e
eleva t ion of cr it ica l poin t s a lon g t h e cen t er -
lin e. En gin eer s u s u ally calcu lat e t h e eleva-
t ion a t a ll h a lf a n d fu ll s t a t ion s , PVC, PVT,
a n d HP a n d LP eleva t ion s .
A br eak poin t wh er e t h e pr evailin g gr ade
makes an appr eciable ch an ge s h ou ld be s t a-
t ion ed a n d t h e eleva t ion a s cer t a in ed. Th e
mos t common pr ocedu r e for det er min in g ex-
is t in g t er r a in eleva t ion s is by a gr ou n d s u r -
vey. However , it is pos s ible t o obt ain eleva-
t ion s for s pecific poin t s fr om a con t ou r ma p
on wh ich t h e pr opos ed h or izon t a l a lign men t
h as been plot t ed. Un les s t h e s cale of t h e
con t ou r ma p is la r ge, t h is met h od is in a c-
cu r at e an d s h ou ld be u s ed on ly for pr elimi-
n a r y pla n n in g a n d in it ia l loca t ion . Th e
cen t er lin e pr ofile ma y n ot r epr es en t t h e t ypi-
cal or pr evailin g con dit ion acr os s t h e en t ir e
s ect ion a t a n y pa r t icu la r poin t . Th is er r or
may be n ot iceable wh en t h e s ect ion is wide,
as for an air field. In s u ch cas es , addit ion al
pr ofiles may be n eeded alon g t h e s h ou lder
lin e. It is als o pos s ible t o make a t ypical
pr ofile t h a t r epr es en t s t h e a ver a ge eleva t ion
a cr os s t h e en t ir e s ect ion .
PLOTTING TRIAL GRADE LINES
Aft er s t u dyin g t h e pr ofile, det er min e t h e t a n -
gen t gr ade lin es . Th es e gr ade lin es s er ve
as t h e pr opos ed fin al pr ofile of t h e pr oject .
It is pos s ible for r ou gh , pion eer con s t r u c-
t ion t o follow exis t in g con t ou r s wit h a lit t le
s moot h in g of r ou gh s pot s . Su ch a r ou t e
pr ovides a r ou gh an d r elat ively u n s afe
r oa dbed t h a t is n ot ca pa ble of ca r r yin g a
lar ge volu me of t r affic. A well-des ign ed
r ou t e h a s a s er ies of t a n gen t gr a des wit h a
s moot h t r a n s it ion bet ween t h em. Th es e t a n -
gen t gr ade lin es can be det er min ed wit h a
good pr ofile.
9-18 Road Design
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
GRADE DETERMINATION
Th e degr ee of s t eepn es s meas u r ed lon -
git u din ally is n or mally defin ed as t h e per -
cen t a ge of gr a de. It is es t ablis h ed as a
r elat ion s h ip bet ween ver t ical r is e or fall for
ea ch 100-foot h or izon t a l dis t a n ce a n d is ex-
pr es s ed as a per cen t age (per 100).
Th e equ a t ion for det er min in g gr a des is
wh er e
G = per cen t a ge of gr a de
V = r is e or fa ll bet ween t h e t wo poin t s
H = h or izon t a l dis t a n ce bet ween t h e t wo
poin t s
NOTE: V a n d H mu s t be i n t h e s a me
u n it s .
To differ en t iat e bet ween r is in g an d fallin g
gr ades alon g t h e cen t er lin e, a plu s s ign is
u s ed t o den ot e r is in g gr ades in t h e dir ec-
t ion of in cr ea s in g s t a t ion s a n d a min u s s ign
is u s ed 10 den ot e fallin g gr ades .
VERTICAL CURVES
Aft er gr ade lin es ar e placed, defin e t h e
r ou t e ver t ically in a s er ies of gr ade lin es
(s t r a igh t s egmen t s of con s t a n t gr a de) be-
t ween poin t s of ver t ica l in t er s ect ion .
Des ign a t r a n s it ion t h a t pr ovides s moot h ,
ea s y movemen t fr om on e gr a de lin e t o
a n ot h er a t t h es e in t er s ect ion s . Th e ver t ica l
cu r ves u s ed for t h is t r a n s it ion a n d it s per -
t in en t dimen s ion s a r e ea s ily ca lcu la t ed.
Type s of Ve r t i c a l Cu r ve s
Two t ypes of ver t ical cu r ves mu s t be con -
s ider ed: over t a n d in ver t . (See Figu r e
9-19.) Over t cu r ves ar e common ly called
cr es t cu r ves , an d in ver t cu r ves ar e r efer r ed
t o as s ag cu r ves . Bot h t ypes ar e des ign ed
t h e s a me wa y bu t differ en t s pecifica t ion s
gover n t h eir dimen s ion s .
Ele me n t s of Ve r t i c a l Cu r ve s
Figu r e 9-20 s h ows a t ypical ver t ical cu r ve
in s t alled bet ween t wo gr ade lin es . Th e
par t s of a ver t ical cu r ve in clu de t h e follow-
i n g:
Figure 9-19. Types of vertical curves
Th e PVI is t h e in t er s ect ion of t wo gr a de
lin es . Th is s t a t ion is a lwa ys r ea d fr om
t h e pr ofile view.
Th e PVC is t h e poin t a lon g t h e fir s t
gr a de lin e a t wh ich t h e ver t ica l cu r ve
begin s . Th e gr ade lin e is t an gen t t o t h e
pa r a bolic cu r ve a t t h is poin t . By con -
ven t ion . t h e PVC is a lwa ys on e-h a lf t h e
len gt h of t h e ver t ica l cu r ve fr om t h e
PVI, mea s u r ed h or izon t a lly.
Th e PVT is t h e poin t alon g t h e s econ d
gr a de lin e a t wh ich t h e ver t ica l cu r ve
en ds . It h a s t h e s a me pr oper t ies a s t h e
PVC.
Th e per cen t a ge of gr a de (G) on t h e
gr a de lin e n ea r es t t h e poin t of or igin is
called G1, an d t h e ot h er gr ade lin e per -
cen t age is called G2. Th es e t wo gr ade
lin es , wh ich a r e t a n gen t t o t h e pa r a bolic
cu r ve a t t h e PVC a n d PVT, in t er s ect a t
t h e PVI.
Figure 9-20. Elements of a vertical curve
Road Design 9-19
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Th e len gt h of ver t ical cu r ve (L) is t h e
h or izon t a l dis t a n ce fr om t h e PVC t o t h e
PVT. Th e walkin g dis t an ce alon g t h e ac-
t u al cu r ve h as n o s ign ifican ce. Th e PVI
is h or izon t a lly midwa y bet ween t h e PVC
a n d PVT. Th er efor e, t h e dis t a n ce fr om
t h e PVC t o t h e PVI is L/ 2, a n d t h e dis -
t a n ce fr om t h e PVI t o t h e PVT is a ls o
L/ 2.
Offs et s a r e t h e ver t ica l dis t a n ces
fr om t h e gr a de lin es t o t h e ver t ica l
cu r ve. Th e h eigh t s of offs et s ar e com-
pu t ed for s elect ed poin t s alon g t h e
len gt h of t h e ver t ical cu r ve. Th e
s elect ed poin t s a r e u s u a lly a t ever y s t a -
t ion a n d h a lf s t a t ion .
Th e ma ximu m offs et (MO) is t h e offs et
a t t h e PVI. It is a lwa ys t h e gr ea t es t off-
s et a lon g t h e ver t ica l cu r ve.
De s i gn of Ve r t i c a l Cu r ve s
Th e des ign of ver t ical cu r ves in clu des t wo
t a s ks -det er min in g t h e cu r ve len gt h a n d ca l-
cu la t in g t h e h eigh t s of a s u fficien t n u mber
of offs et s t o a dequ a t ely defin e or loca t e t h e
fin al gr ade lin e.
Length Determination. It is pos s ible t o
des ign ver t ical cu r ves t o be lon g an d gen t le
(fla t ) or s h or t a n d a br u pt . Th is is don e by
va r yin g t h e cu r ve len gt h . Depen din g on t h e
fa cilit y t o be con s t r u ct ed a n d t h e s t a n da r ds
of con s t r u ct ion des ir ed, t h er e a r e cer t a in
limit a t ion s on cu r ve len gt h . Min imu m
len gt h s u s u ally ar e s pecified.
Change of Grade Th e d iffer en ce in
gr ade bet ween t h e t wo gr ade lin es is called
t h e ch a n ge of gr a de. Th is differ en ce, wh ich
Is s ymbolized a s is compu t ed a s
wh ich r epr es en t s t h e a bs olu t e va lu e of
Th e cu r ve in s t alled bet ween t wo
gr a de lin es wit h a la r ge wh ich migh t
occu r a t t h e t op of a s t eep h ill, is lon ger
t h a n t h e cu r ve r equ ir ed bet ween t wo gr a des
wit h a s ma ller
Allow able Rate of Change of Grade [r).
Cr it er ia h ave been es t ablis h ed t o en s u r e
t h a t t h e r a t e a t wh ich t h e ch a n ge in
gr a dien t is ma de t h r ou gh ou t a ver t ica l
cu r ve is con s is t en t wit h t h e oper a t in g ch a r -
a ct er is t ics of t h e veh icles or a ir cr a ft u s in g
t h e fa cilit y. On e cr it er ion (called r ) is ex-
pr es s ed a s a n a llowa ble r a t e of ch a n ge of
gr a de for a s pecific h or izon t a l dis t a n ce. For
exa mple, wit h a cr it er ion of 0.5 per cen t
ch an ge in gr ade over 500 feet , a of 1.0
per cen t r equ ir es a cu r ve len gt h of 1,000
feet . However , r is u s u ally expr es s ed as t h e
allowable gr adien t ch an ge in 100 feet of
len gt h . Th e t er m r is fr equ en t ly u s ed for
air field ver t ical cu r ve des ign .
Sight Dis tance (S). Wh en an over t cu r ve is
t r a ver s ed, t h e a bilit y of t h e dr iver t o s ee
down t h e r oa d or a ir field is cu r t a iled. If a
ver t ica l cu r ve is qu it e s h or t , t h e dis t a n ce
t h a t ca n be s een a h ea d becomes cr it ica lly
s h or t . Redu ced s peed is r equ ir ed t o r edu ce
t h e s a fet y h a za r d. Sigh t dis t a n ce depen ds
u pon t h e des ign s peed per mit t ed.
Vertical-Curve-Length Factor (k ). Th is fa ct or
is u s ed wh en det er min in g r oad ver t ical
cu r ve len gt h s . It is equ a l t o t h e h or izon t a l
dis t an ce, in feet , r equ ir ed t o effect a 1-per -
cen t ch an ge in gr adien t wh ile pr ovidin g t h e
min imu m s t oppin g dis t a n ce.
Determination of the Vertical Curve Length.
Det er min e t h e ver t ica l cu r ve len gt h by
u s in g t h e ver t ical-cu r ve-len gt h fact or (s ee
Table 9-1, page 9-3) for t h e given clas s of
r oa d (A, B, C, or D) a n d for t h e t ype of
cu r ve. Th e fact or k is u s ed in t h e follow-
in g equ a t ion :
wh er e
L = len gt h of ver t ica l cu r ve in 100-foot s t a -
t ion s
k = ver t ical-cu r ve-len gt h fact or (Table 9-1)
= ch a n ge of gr a de
If len gt h L, a s compu t ed, is n ot in wh ole
s t a t ion s , r ou n d u p t o t h e n ext fu ll 100-foot
s t a t ion . Th e len gt h der ived by t h is pr oce-
du r e is compa r ed t o t h e a bs olu t e min imu m
len gt h fou n d in Table 9-1.
9-20 Road Design
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Kn owin g t h e cu r ve len gt h a n d t h e s t a t ion of
t h e PVI, compu t e t h e s t a t ion of t h e PVC
a n d t h e PVT.
PVC = PVI - L/ 2
PVT = PVI + L/ 2
Offs et Determinations . For t h e cu r ve t o be
defin ed, t h e en gin eer mu s t det er min e eleva-
t ion s a t va r iou s loca t ion s a lon g t h e cu r ve.
In or der t o do s o, t h e en gin eer mu s t det er -
min e t h e offs et wh ich is t h e ver t ical dis -
t a n ce fr om t h e or igin a l gr a de lin e t o t h e
des ign ed cu r ve.
Maximum Offs et. As pr eviou s ly s t a t ed, t h e
MO will a lwa ys be loca t ed a t t h e PVI. Th e
followin g for mu la is u s ed t o ca lcu la t e MO:
wh er e
MO = ver t ica l h eigh t of t h e ma ximu m
offs et in feet
L = len gt h of ver t ica l cu r ve in s ect ion s
= ch a n ge of gr a de in per cen t
Intermed iate Offs ets . Offs et s a t loca t ion s
a lon g t h e cu r ve ot h er t h a n t h e PVI a r e
r efer r ed t o a s in t er media t e offs et s . Sin ce it
is common pr a ct ice t o s t a ke ver t ica l cu r ves
a t wh ole a n d h a lf s t a t ion s , in t er media t e off-
s et s a r e det er min ed a t ever y wh ole a n d h a lf
s t a t ion a lon g t h e cu r ve. Us e t h e followin g
for mu la t o ca lcu la t e t h e in t er media t e offs et s :
wh er e
= offs et a t a dis t a n ce, d, fr om t h e PVC
or PVT in feet
d = s elect ed dis t a n ce (in s t a t ion s ) fr om
t h e PVC or PVT a t wh ich a n offs et dis t a n ce
is t o be calcu lat ed
L = cu r ve len gt h in s t a t ion s
Sin ce an d L h ave been det er min ed pr ior
t o u s in g t h is equ a t ion , t h e t er m is a
con s t a n t . Fin din g t h e offs et s is a s imple
ma t t er of va r yin g t h e va lu e of d.
NOTE: Th e offs e t s a t e qu a l di s t a n c e s
fr om t h e PVC or PVT a r e e qu a l. In ot h e r
wor ds , t h e offs e t s a r e s ymme t r ic a bou t
t h e PVI. (Th is doe s n ot me a n t h a t t h e
r e s u lt in g c u r ve is s ymme t r ic (u n le s s =
Th u s , t h e offs e t for on ly on e s ide
of a ve r t i c a l c u r ve n e e ds t o be c a lc u la t e d.
Th e r e for e , t h e a bove e qu a t i on c a n be
u s e d t o c a lc u la t e t h e offs e t a t a n y poin t
wi t h i n t h e ve r t i c a l c u r ve .
Elevations Along Vertical Curves . Ver t ica l
cu r ves h a ve t h e s h a pe of a pa r a bola . Us e
t h e followin g equ a t ion t o ca lcu la t e eleva -
t ion s a lon g t h e ver t ica l cu r ve:
In ver t cu r ve:
Over t cu r ve:
wh er e
ch a n ge in eleva t ion + offs et
ch a n ge in eleva t ion + offs et
ch an ge in elevat ion - offs et
ch an ge in elevat ion - offs et
y
= eleva t ion of poin t on cu r ve in feet
d = h or izon t a l dis t a n ce of poin t on cu r ve
fr om PVC or PVT in s t a t ion s
= per cen t s lope of fir s t gr ade lin e
= per cen t s lope of s econ d gr ade lin e
Elev PVC = eleva t ion a t poin t of ver t ica l
cu r ve in feet
High or Low Point of a Vertical Curve.
Wh en t h e t a n gen t gr a des a r e
equ a l, t h e h igh or low poin t of t h e cu r ve oc-
cu r s a t t h e PVI. (See t h e followin g exa mple:)
Road Design 9-21
FM 5-430-00-11/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Wh en t h e t a n gen t gr a des a r e t h e s a me s ign
(bot h pos it ive or bot h n ega t ive), t h e h igh
a n d low poin t s cor r es pon d wit h eit h er t h e
PVC or PVT. (See t h e followin g example:)
Wh en t h e t a n gen t gr a des a r e u n equ a l, t h e
h igh or low poin t of t h e cu r ve a lwa ys fa lls
on t h e fla t t er of t h e t wo gr a des . (See t h e
followin g example:)
To det er min e t h e loca t ion a lon g t h e cu r ve of
t h e ma ximu m (or min imu m) eleva t ion , u s e
t h e followin g equ a t ion :
wh er e
d = h or izon t a l dis t a n ce a lon g cu r ve fr om
PVC (or PVT) in s t a t ion s
L = len gt h of ver t ica l cu r ve in s t a t ion s
G = per cen t s lope of fla t t es t gr a de
Cut or Fill Values . By u s in g t h e ca lcu la t ed
cu r ve eleva t ion s a n d t h e exis t in g gr ou n d
eleva t ion s , we ca n det er min e t h e cu t or fill
va lu es t o pla ce on t h e gr a de s t a kes for con -
s t r u ct ion oper a t ion s . Th e gr ou n d eleva t ion s
can be det er min ed fr om t h e pr ofile view es -
t ablis h ed fr om t h e in it ial s u r vey. Th e dif-
fer en ce in elevat ion bet ween t h e cu r ve an d
t h e gr ou n d eleva t ion con s t it u t es t h e cu t or
fill valu e. For example, if t h e gr ou n d eleva-
t ion a t a poin t on a cu r ve wa s 86 feet a n d
t h e cu r ve eleva t ion a t t h a t poin t wa s 82
feet , t h e con s t r u ct ion s t a ke wou ld in dica t e
a cu t of 4 feet (86 feet - 82 feet ).
Des ign St eps .
Th e followin g s t eps s h ow t h e des ign pr oce-
du r e for ver t ical cu r ve:
1. Compu t e t h e ch a n ge of gr a de.
2. Compu t e t h e ver t ica l cu r ve len gt h (L).
Rou n d u p t o t h e n ext h igh er fu ll s t a t ion (if
pos s ible).
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Det er min e t h e PVC.
Det er min e t h e PVT.
Det er min e t h e eleva t ion of PVC.
Det er min e t h e eleva t ion of PVT.
Det er min e t h e ma ximu m offs et (MO).
Det er min e fin a l cu r ve eleva t ion s . Com-
pu t e a t ever y h a lf s t a t ion a n d fu ll s t a t ion
a lon g t h e cu r ve.
a . Det er min e gr a de-lin e eleva t ion s (GLEs ).
b. Det er min e in t er media t e offs et s
c. Det er min e cu r ve eleva t ion s .
9-22 Road Design
9. Det er min e t h e loca t ion of ma ximu m (or
min imu m) eleva t ion , if r equ ir ed.
10. Det er min e t h e h igh es t (lowes t ) eleva-
t ion , if r equ ir ed.
Exa mple:
Complet e t h e des ign of a ver t ica l cu r ve t o in -
elu de PVC, PVT, a n d offs et s , wit h cu t s a n d
fills det er min ed ever y 50 feet (on e-h alf s t a-
t ion ).
Given :
Th e u n it s u r vey s ect ion h a s complet ed a
cen t er lin e s u r vey for a pr opos ed ver t ical
cu r ve. Th e r oad is clas s D.
Solu t ion :
PVI = 5 + 00, elevat ion = 73.00
= +3.1%, = -5.75%
(1) Det er min e
= 8.85%
(2) Det er min e L.
Fr om Table 9-1, page 9-3, k for cr es t ver t i-
cal cu r ve on a clas s -D r oad is 35.
Us e L = 4, s t a t ion s = 400
(3) Det er min e t h e PVC.
= (3 + 00)
(4) Det er min e t h e PVT.
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
(5) Det er min e t h e eleva t ion of PVC.
(6) Det er min e t h e eleva t ion of PVT.
(7) Det er min e t h e ma ximu m offs et (MO).
(8) Det er min e fin al cu r ve elevat ion s .
(a ) Det er min e GLEs (Figu r e 9-21).
(b) Det er min e in t er media t e offs et s
NOTE: Th e t e r m / 2 L be c ome s a c on -
s t a n t (1 . 1 0 6 ).
Figure 9-21. Compiling vertical curve design
data
Road Design 9-23
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Wh er e
= offs et fr om t h e GLE t o t h e cu r ve
d = dis t a n ce, fr om t h e PVC or PVT in s t a -
t ion s
(9) Det er min e t h e loca t ion of t h e ma xi-
mu m or min imu m eleva t ion , if r equ ir ed.
(Th e ma ximu m or min imu m eleva t ion is a l-
wa ys on t h e fla t t es t gr a de wh en gr a des
h ave oppos it e s ign s .)
St a t ion ma ximu m eleva t ion poin t =
PVC + d (or PVT - d)
St a t ion ma ximu m eleva t ion poin t =
( 3 + 0 0 ) + ( 1 + 4 0 ) = 4 + 4 0
(10) Det er min e t h e h igh es t eleva t ion , if
r equ ir ed.
NOTE: + or - i s de t e r mi n e d by i n s pe c t i on .
y = 66.80 + 4.34 - 2.17 = 68.97
Vertical Curve Through a Know n Point.
Wh en t h e ver t ica l cu r ve mu s t go t h r ou gh a
kn own poin t a n d t h e kn own poin t is a t t h e
PVI, t h e len gt h of t h e cu r ve ca n be det er -
min ed u s in g t h e followin g for mu la :
Wh en t h e kn own poin t is a t a loca t ion
ot h er t h a n t h e PVI, t h e len gt h of t h e cu r ve
can be det er min ed u s in g t h e followin g for -
mu la :
Wh er e
A = h or izon t a l dis t a n ce fr om PVI t o kn own
poin t
= offs et bet ween eleva t ion of kn own poin t
a n d GLE of kn own poin t
NOTE: mu s t be e n t e r e d a s a de c i ma l.
On ce t h e len gt h of t h e cu r ve h as been det er -
min ed, t h e r ema in der of t h e des ign mu s t be
complet ed a ccor din g t o t h e ver t ica l cu r ve
des ign pr ocedu r es pr eviou s ly ou t lin ed.
Exa mple:
A n ew r oa d wit h a PVI a t s t a t ion 12 + 50
a n d a n eleva t ion a t 73.00 feet is t o pa s s
over a 24-in ch cu lver t a t s t a t ion 11 + 00.
Th e in ver t of t h e cu lver t is at elevat ion 85.8
feet .
Solu t ion :
Det er min e t h e len gt h of t h e ver t ica l cu r ve
r equ ir ed t o clea r t h is cu lver t wit h 1 foot of
cover .
1. Det er min e t h e h or izon t a l dis t a n ce (A)
fr om t h e PVI t o t h e kn own poin t .
A = 1,250 - 1,100 = 150
2. Det er min e (a s a decima l).
9-24 Road Design
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
3. Det er min e t h e eleva t ion of t h e ver t ica l
cu r ve r equ ir ed t o clea r t h e cu lver t wit h 1
foot of cover (a t t h e kn own poin t ).
= 85.8 + 2.0 (pipe diamet er ) +
1.0 (cover r equ ir ed)
4. Det er min e t h e GLE a t t h e kn own poin t
(dir ect ly below t h e cu lver t ).
GLE =
kn own poin t )
GLE
GLE = 85.15
5. Det er min e t h e offs et bet ween t h e
eleva t ion of kn own poin t a n d t h e GLE of
kn own poin t .
= 88.8- 85.15 = 3,65
6. Det er min e t h e len gt h of t h e ver t ica l
cu r ve.
= 388.48 + 246,82
= 635.30
Vertical-Curve Des ign Us ing Metric Units .
Th e des ign of ver t ical cu r ves u s in g met r ic
u n it s is t h e s a me a s in En glis h u n it s . Th e
on ly differ en ce lies in t h e u s e of met er s as
u n it s of mea s u r emen t for eleva t ion s a n d dis -
t a n ces .
Frequency of Placing Survey Stak es . Ver t i-
cal cu r ves s h ou ld n or mally be s t aked at 50-
foot (ever y h a lf s t a t ion ) or 10-met er in t er -
va ls . On ext r emely r u gged t er r a in , t h e in t er -
val s h ou ld be r edu ced.
THE CROWNED SECTION
Th e t ypical cr os s s ect ion of a r oad is t h e
cr own ed cr os s s ect ion . Th e a mou n t of
cr own pr ovided depen ds on t h e t ype of s u r -
face u s ed. Nor mal cr own s lopes ar e pr o-
vided in Table 9-1, page 9-3. Figu r e 9-22
s h ows a t ypical cr os s s ect ion for a clas s -A
r oa d. If t h e r oa d is t o be s u r fa ced, t h e s u b-
gr ade an d t h e fin is h ed s u r face t ill h ave t h e
s a me cr own .
SUPERELEVATION
Th e ou t er edge of a r oa d is eleva t ed t o
balan ce t h e over t u r n in g for ces exper ien ced
by a veh icle r ou n din g a h or izon t a l cu r ve.
Th e a mou n t of s u per eleva t ion is gover n ed
by t h e degr ee of cu r va t u r e (or t h e cu r ve
r adiu s ) an d t h e des ign s peed. Det ailed in -
for ma t ion for des ign in g s u per eleva t ion on
Figure 9-22. Normal crown cross section for a class-A road
Road Design 9-25
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table 9-4 lis t s pavemen t widen in g r equ ir e-
men t s . As s h own in Figu r e 9-24, t h e t r a n s i-
t ion fr om a n or ma l cr os s s ect ion on a t a n -
gen t (A-A) t o a fu lly s u per elevat ed, widen ed
cr os s s ect ion on a cu r ve (D-D) is a u n ifor m,
gr a du a l ch a n ge. Th e len gt h of h igh wa y
n eeded t o a ccomplis h t h is t r a n s it ion is
given in Table 9-3. Two-t h ir ds of t h e
s pecified t r an s it ion len gt h is affect ed on t h e
t a n gen t a n d on e-t h ir d is a ffect ed on t h e
cu r ves is in FM 5-233. Table 9-3 lis t s s u -
per eleva t ion r a t es a n d a ppr opr ia t e t r a n s i-
t ion len gt h s t o develop t h e s u per elevat ed
s ect ion as a fu n ct ion of t h e des ign s peed
an d degr ee of cu r vat u r e. Figu r e 9-23
s h ows a cla s s -A r oa d s ect ion wit h a s u per -
elevat ed cu r ve.
As a s a fely fa ct or , t h e pa vemen t widt h on
t h e in s ide lan e of a cu r ve is in cr eas ed. Th e
amou n t of in cr eas e is gover n ed by t h e de- cu r ve.
gr ee of cu r vat u r e an d t h e des ign s peed.
Table 9-3. Superelevation lengths and transition lengths
cross section Figure 9-23. Superelevated
9-26 Road Design
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table 9-4. Pavement widening
Figure 9-24. Method for transition (not to scale)
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
In t h e TO, few r oa ds r eceive a bit u min ou s
or por t la n d-cemen t con cr et e s u r fa ce. Mos t
t wo-la n e r oa ds a r e s u r fa ced wit h s a n d,
gr avel, cr u s h ed r ock, or t h e bes t locally
a va ila ble ma t er ia l. Expedien t s u r fa cin g
me t h od s a r e u s e d wh e n r e q u i r e d .
Th is s ect ion des cr ibes t h e pr ocedu r es t o im-
pr ove n a t u r a l ea r t h s u r fa ces a n d t o r es u r -
fa ce t h em wit h s a n d, gr a vel, or ot h er ma t er i-
a ls . In clu ded a r e s ome common met h ods of
expedien t s u r facin g, gu idan ce, an d cr it er ia
t o det er min e t h ickn es s r equ ir emen t s for bi-
t u min ou s pa vemen t s in t h e TO. Th e des ign
of mixes a n d a ggr ega t es a n d t h e pr ocedu r es
for pla cin g bit u min ou s a n d con cr et e s u r -
faces ar e in TM 5-337. For s u bgr ade an d
ba s e-cou r s e r equ ir emen t s , r efer t o Ch a pt er
5 of t h is ma n u a l. Addit ion a l in for ma t ion in
Ch apt er 12 of FM 5-430-00-2/ AFPAM
32-8013, Vol 2, s u pplemen t s t h e fr os t -de-
s ign pr ocedu r es in t h is ch apt er .
Road Design 9-27
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Roa d s u r fa ces in t h e TO con s is t of ea r t h in
t h e mos t expedien t cir cu ms t a n ces . Wh en
in -pla ce s oil is n ot s t r on g en ou gh , it ma y
be ch emically or mech an ically s t abilized or
cover ed wit h a bit u min ou s s u r fa ce t r ea t -
men t . As t ime becomes a va ila ble, ea r t h en
r oads can be impr oved for in cr eas ed t r affic
loa ds by cover in g t h em wit h ma t er ia l fr om a
bor r ow pit or wit h pr oces s ed ma t er ia l.
EARTH
Ea r t h en r oa ds con s is t of n a t ive s oils gr a ded
a n d dr a in ed t o for m a s u r fa ce for ca r r yin g
t r affic. Th ey ar e des ign ed t o s at is fy immedi-
at e t r affic n eeds an d pr ovide a s u bgr ade for
s u r fa ces of bet t er qu a lit y. Th eir u s e is
gen er a lly limit ed t o dr y wea t h er a n d ligh t
t r affic. For con t in u ed u s e, per iodic main -
t en an ce by gr ader s an d dr ags is n eces s ar y
t o ma in t a in a h igh cr own a n d s moot h s u r -
fa ce for dr a in in g s u r fa ce wa t er . Du s t con -
t r ol mu s t a ls o be pr ovided in dr y clima t es
or du r in g dr y wea t h er .
Ea r t h en r oa ds become impa s s a ble in wet
wea t h er beca u s e of t h e r u t t in g a ct ion of
h ea vy t r a ffic. Gen er a lly, t h ey a r e u s ed in
comba t a r ea s wh er e s peed of con s t r u ct ion
is r equ ir ed wit h limit ed equ ipmen t a n d per -
s on n el. Th ey ar e als o u s ed as h au l r oads
in con s t r u ct ion a r ea s a n d a s s er vice r oa ds
for milit a r y in s t a lla t ion s .
TREATED SURFACE
Ea r t h en r oa ds ma y be t r ea t ed wit h
bit u min ou s ma t er ia ls t o con t r ol du s t a n d t o
wat er pr oof t h e s u r face. Th is h elps pr even t
s oft en in g of t h e s u r fa ce in wet wea t h er .
Tr ea t ed s u r fa ces a r e mos t s u cces s fu l wit h
s ilt or clay s oils . Th e bit u min ou s ma t er ia l
s h ou ld be of low vis cos it y an d s h ou ld con -
t a in a wide r a n ge of vola t ile ma t er ia ls of
ligh t fr a ct ion s . Slow-cu r in g liqu id as ph alt s
a r e fr equ en t ly u s ed, pa r t icu la r ly gr a des SC-
70 an d -250. Mediu m-cu r in g cu t back as -
ph alt s , gr ades MC-30, -70, an d
-250, h ave als o been u s ed s u cces s fu lly.
Roa d t a r s h a ve been u s ed t o s ome ext en t ,
es pecially RT-1.
Man y r es idu al oils fr om oil r efin er ies h ave
been u s ed in t h is wor k. In on ly expedien t
s it u a t ion s , wa s t e milit a r y oils (s u ch a s
cr an kcas e oils ) can be u s ed. Th e amou n t
of oil r a n ges fr om a bou t 1/ 2 t o 1 ga llon per
s qu a r e ya r d a n d is a pplied in t wo or t h r ee
in cr emen t s , depen din g on t h e t ype an d con -
dit ion of t h e oil. Th e s er iou s en vir on men -
t a l, ecologica l implica t ion s of t h es e met h ods
mu s t be con s ider ed. Als o, u s in g t h es e
met h ods will gr ea t ly impa ir t h e a bilit y of
bit u min ou s a dmixt u r es a n d s u r fa ce a pplica -
t ion s t o pr oper ly cu r e, if applied lat er .
STABI LI ZED SOI L
Bit u min ou s , s t a bilized s oil mixt u r es a n d
s oil-cemen t a r e u s ed a s r oa d s u r fa ces t o
ca r r y ligh t t r a ffic in expedien t s it u a t ion s for
r elat ively br ief per iods . Mech an ically s t abi-
lized s oil mixt u r es ar e widely u s ed as s u r -
fa ces for milit a r y r oa ds u n der fa vor a ble con -
dit ion s . Requ ir emen t s for mech a n ica lly s t a -
bilized s u r faces ar e dis cu s s ed below:
Gr a da t ion r equ ir emen t s for mech a n ica lly
s t abilized s oils u s ed dir ect ly as s u r faces ar e
s h own in Ta ble 9-5. Mixt u r es t h a t h a ve a
ma ximu m s ize of a ggr ega t e of 1 t o 1 1/ 2 in -
ch es ar e pr efer r ed becau s e t h e lar ge par -
t it les t en d t o wor k t o t h e s u r fa ce u n der t r a f-
fic. Somewh at fin er s oil is des ir able in a
mixt u r e t h a t will s er ve a s a s u r fa ce com-
par ed wit h on e u s ed for a bas e. Th e fin er
s oil ma kes t h e s u r fa ce r es is t a n t t o t h e
a br a s ive effect s of t r a ffic a n d t o t h e pen et r a -
t ion of pr ecipit a t ion . Su ch a s u r fa ce will
Table 9-5. Suggested grading requirements
for gravel and composite-type surface course
of processed materials
9-28 Road Design
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
als o mor e eas ily r eplace (by capillar y act ion )
mois t u r e t h a t is los t by eva por a t ion .
Roa d s u r fa ces r equ ir e a n LL of 35 or les s
an d a PI r an gin g bet ween 4 an d 9. For
bes t r es u lt s , t h e PI of a s t a bilized s oil t h a t
will fu n ct ion fir s t a s a wea r in g s u r fa ce a n d
t h en a s a ba s e, wit h a bit u min ou s s u r fa ce
t o be pr ovided lat er , s h ou ld be 5 or les s .
Th e LL s h ou ld be les s t h an 25. Compac-
t ion , bea r in g va lu e, a n d fr os t a ct ion a r e im-
por t a n t con s ider a t ion s for s u r fa ces of t h is
t ype.
SAND CLAY
On e t ype of mech an ically s t abilized s oil s u r -
face is called a s an d-clay r oad. It con s is t s
of a n a t u r a l or a r t ificia l mixt u r e of s a n d
a n d cla y t h a t is gr a ded a n d dr a in ed t o for m
a r oa d s u r fa ce. Alt h ou gh difficu lt t o ob-
t a in , t h e PI s h ou ld be les s t h a n 5 a n d LL
les s t h an 25, in cas e t h is layer becomes a
s u bbas e aft er placin g addit ion al layer s
a bove t h e s a n d cla y. Th e gr a da t ion r equ ir e-
men t s for a t ypica l s a n d-cla y s u r fa ce a r e in
Table 5-4, page 5-12, u n der t h e colu mn for
1 -in ch s an d-clay. Th e addit ion of fin e
gr avel (s ligh t ly lar ger t h an t h e No. 4 s ieve)
u s u a lly a dds s t a bilit y.
Sa n d-cla y r oa ds will ca r r y ligh t t r a ffic
r eas on ably well an d h eavy t r affic except
u n der ba d wea t h er con dit ion s . Th e a mou n t
of mois t u r e t h es e r oa ds a bs or b det er min es
t h eir s t a bilit y u n der t r a ffic loa ds . Du s t con -
t r ol, bladin g, an d dr aggin g ar e n eeded.
Sa n d-cla y r oa ds wit h s t a n d t r a ffic bet t er
t h a n or din a r y ea r t h en r oa ds , bu t t h eir u s e
is limit ed t o a r ea s wh er e a s u it a ble mixt u r e
of s a n d a n d cla y occu r s n a t u r a lly or wh er e
a deficien cy of eit h er is r eadily cor r ect ed.
As a ba s e cou r s e for fu t u r e s u r fa cin g, s a n d-
clay r oads pr odu ce poor r es u lt s , u n les s t h e
plas t icit y can be r edu ced by addin g a ch emi-
ca l s t a biliza t ion a gen t s u ch a s lime.
t o fin e, wit h a ma ximu m a llowa ble s ize of 1
in ch . Recommen ded gr a da t ion r equ ir e-
men t s for a gr a vel s u r fa ce a r e given in
Table 9-6. A n at u r al pit - or ban k-r u n
gr a vel ma y meet t h es e r equ ir emen t s wit h ou t
fu r t h er pr oces s in g ot h er t h a n s cr een in g.
Some pit - or ba n k-r u n gr a vels ma y r equ ir e
bot h s cr een in g a n d wa s h in g t o meet t h e r e-
qu ir emen t s . River -r u n gr a vels n or ma lly r e-
qu ir e t h e a ddit ion of bin der t o t h e s oil, a s
do mech a n ica lly s t a bilized s oil mixt u r es .
River -r u n gr a vels ma y a ls o r equ ir e cr u s h in g
t o pr ovide a r ou gh , a n gu la r s u r fa ce r a t h er
t h a n t h e n a t u r a l, s moot h s u r fa ce ch a r a c-
t er is t ic of r iver -r u n ma t er ia ls . Th e a bilit y
t o ca r r y h ea vy, s u s t a in ed t r a ffic depen ds on
t h e s t r en gt h a n d h a r dn es s of t h e gr a vel, t h e
coh es iven es s of t h e clay bin der , t h e t h ick-
n es s of t h e la yer , a n d t h e s t a bilit y of t h e
s u bgr ade. Th es e r oads can be bu ilt r apidly,
even in cold weat h er . Or ga n iza t ion a l equ ip-
men t of comba t en gin eer u n it s is r ea dily
a da pt ed t o h a u lin g a n d pla cin g a gr a vel s u r -
face.
Like ot h er u n t r ea t ed s u r fa ces , gr a vel r oa ds
r equ ir e con s ider a ble ma in t en a n ce s u ch a s
bla din g a n d du s t con t r ol in dr y wea t h er .
Du r in g wet wea t h er , pr oper ma in t en a n ce is
difficu lt , es pecially u n der h eavy t r affic.
Gr a vel r oa d s u r fa ces wit h low pla s t icit y
ma ke excellen t ba s e cou r s es for la t er -s t a ge
pa vemen t s .
Table 9-6. Suggested grading requirements
for coarse-graded type surface course of
processed materials
GRAVEL
Gr a vel r oa ds con s is t of a compa ct ed la yer
of gr a velly s oil t h a t meet s t h e pla s t icit y r e-
qu ir emen t s for mech a n ica lly s t a bilized s oil
mixt u r es . Th e gr a vel is gr a ded fr om coa r s e
Road Design 9-29
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
PROCESSED MATERIALS
r equ ir emen t s in Table 9-6, page 9-29. Th e
in for ma t ion pr es en t ed h er e a bou t gr a vel
Pr oces s ed mat er ials ar e pr epar ed by cr u s h -
in g an d s cr een in g r ock, gr avel, or s lag. A
r oads gen er ally applies t o r oads of
pr oces s ed mat er ials . Wh en gr avel or s an d-
compos it e-t ype s u r fa ce ma t er ia l s h ou ld
clay is available, pr oces s ed mat er ials s h ou ld
meet t h e gr a da t ion r equ ir emen t s of Ta ble
n ot be u s ed except wh en t h eir u s e will s ave
9-5, page 9-28. A coar s e-gr aded t ype of
t ime a n d effor t .
s u r fa ce ma t er ia l s h ou ld meet t h e gr a da t ion
EXPEDIENT-SURFACED ROADS
Sever al t ypes of r oads ar e con s ider ed ex-
pedien t s u r faced. Th es e ar e u n s u r faced
r oa ds a n d r oa ds wh er e s ome ma t er ia l h a s
been pla ced on t h e n a t u r a l s oil t o impr ove
t h e r oadway. Types of expedien t -s u r faced
r oads in clu de cor du r oy, ch es palin g, lan din g
ma t s , Ar my t r a ck, pla n k t r ea d, wir e mes h ,
s n ow an d ice, an d s an d gr id.
CORDUROY-SURFACED ROADS
A cor du r oy r oa d is a n expedien t r oa d wh ich
u s es logs or s ma ll t r ees a s t h e r oa d s u r fa ce
(deckin g). Th is met h od of con s t r u ct ion is
u s ed in ext r emely mu ddy t er r a in wh en
t h er e is a s u fficien t s u pply of n a t u r a l
ma t er ia l. Th er e a r e t h r ee t ypes of cor du r oy
con s t r u ct ion : s t a n da r d cor du r oy, cor du r oy
wit h s t r in ger s , a n d h ea vy cor du r oy.
St a n da r d Cor du r oy
Th e mos t fr equ en t ly u s ed cor du r oy r oa d,
s h own in Figu r es 9-25 an d 9-26, is bu ilt of
6- t o 8-in ch dia met er logs a bou t 13 feet
lon g. Th e logs ar e placed acr os s t h e r oad
s u r fa ce a dja cen t t o ea ch ot h er fr om bu t t t o
t ip. Alon g t h e edges of t h e r oa dwa y, pla ce
6- t o 8-in ch -diamet er logs as cu r bs an d
Figure 9-25. Standard corduroy
a t t a ch t h em in pla ce wit h dr ift pin s . Dr ive
picket s a bou t 4 feet lon g in t o t h e gr ou n d a t
r egu la r in t er va ls a lon g t h e ou t s ide edge of
t h e r oa d t o h old t h e r oa d in pla ce. To give
t h is s u r fa ce gr ea t er s moot h n es s , fill t h e
gaps bet ween logs wit h br u s h , r u bble, or
t wigs . Cover t h e wh ole s u r fa ce wit h a la yer
of gr a vel or dir t . Con s t r u ct s ide dit ch es
a n d cu lver t s a s for n or ma l r oa ds .
Cor du r oy wit h St r in ge r s
A mor e s u bs t a n t ia l cor du r oy r oa d is ma de
by placin g log s t r in ger s , as s h own in Figu r e
9-27, par allel t o t h e cen t er lin e on abou t 3-
foot cen t er s . La y a s t a n da r d cor du r oy over
t h em, Secu r ely pin t h e cor du r oy deckin g t o
t h e s t r in ger s , a n d pr epa r e t h e s u r fa ce a s
des cr ibed in t h e pr ecedin g par agr aph .
He a vy Cor du r oy
Sleeper s (h eavy logs 8 t o 10 in ch es in
dia met er ) a r e u s ed for h ea vy cor du r oy
r oa ds . Th e s leeper s mu s t be lon g en ou gh
t o s pan t h e en t ir e r oad. Place t h e s leeper s
a t r igh t a n gles t o t h e cen t er lin e on 4-foot
cen t er s . Bu ild a cor du r oy wit h s t r in ger s ,
as s h own in Figu r e 9-28, on t op of t h e
s leeper s .
Figure 9-26. Standard corduroy - oblique view
9-30 Road Design
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 9-27. Corduroy with stringers
Figure 9-28. Heavy corduroy
Ch oic e of Cor du r oy Type
Gen er a lly, s oft er gr ou n d r equ ir es a h ea vier
t ype of cor du r oy. Th e s t r in ger s an d
s leeper s do n ot in cr eas e t h e bear in g
capacit y of t h e deckin g. Th ey s er ve as a
cr ib, keepin g t h e r oad s u r face above t h e
level of t h e s u r r ou n din g mu d. Th ey s in k
in t o t h e gr ou n d u n t il a s t r a t u m ca pa ble of
s u ppor t in g t h e load is r each ed. On fair ly
fir m gr ou n d, t h e s t a n da r d cor du r oy ma y be
a dequ a t e; on s oft er gr ou n d, s t r in ger s a r e
n eeded, Por t a ble cor du r oy ma t s ca n be
pr efabr icat ed an d pu t down qu ickly wh en
n eeded, Th ey ar e made by wir in g 4-in ch -
dia met er logs t oget h er .
Diagon al cor du r oy is pr efer r ed for h eavy
t r a ffic. It is ma de by pla cin g t h e deckin g a t
an an gle of 45 degr ees t o t h e cen t er lin e.
Th is modified con s t r u ct ion is applicable t o
all t h r ee cor du r oy t ypes . Th e an gled deck-
in g decr eas es t h e impact load becau s e each
log s u ppor t s on ly on e wh eel a t a t ime a n d
t h er e is lon git u din a l a n d la t er a l
t r ibu t ion .
CHESPALING
Ch es palin g is a h as t y expedien t
eit h er mu d or s a n d. It is ma de
gr een s aplin gs , pr efer ably abou t
ch es in diamet er an d 6 1/ 2 feet
weigh t dis -
u s ed in
fr om s ma ll,
1 1/ 2 in -
lon g. Th ey
a r e wir ed t oget h er t o for m a 12-foot -lon g
mat as s h own in Figu r e 9-29. Ch es palin g
is oft en r olled in t o bu n dles an d car r ied on
each wh eeled veh icle. Th e mat s ar e u s ed t o
Figure 9-29. Chespaling
Road Design 9-31
FM 5-430-00-1 /AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
cr os s s a n dy t er r a in or t o get ou t of mu d.
Some ma t s a r e con s t r u ct ed fr om dimen -
s ion ed t imber s wir ed t oget h er t o r es emble a
picket fen ce. A var iat ion s ligh t ly mor e effec-
t ive for cr os s in g s a n d is ma de by a t t a ch in g
ch icken -wir e n et t in g t o t h e bot t om of t h e
ma t s .
To bu ild a ch es palin g r oad, lay a dou ble
r ow of ma t s , ea ch ma t h a vin g it s lon g a xis
pa r a llel t o t h e cen t er lin e wit h a 1-foot over -
la y a t t h e cen t er lin e. Wir e t h e ma t s
t oget h er . Keep t h e r oa d wet t o pr even t t h e
s aplin gs fr om becomin g br it t le an d br eakin g.
Ba mboo ma t s a r e a n excellen t ch es pa lin g-
t ype expedien t for beach r oadways . Th es e
ma t s a r e ligh t a n d compa r a t ively s t r on g.
Th ey ar e made by s plit t in g 2-in ch bamboo
r ods a n d wea vin g t h em in t o a ma t in a ma n -
n er s imila r t o r u g wea vin g. Soa k t h e r ods
befor e wea vin g, a n d keep t h e ma t s mois t
wh ile t h ey ar e in u s e. An 11- by 4-foot
ma t t a kes a bou t 15 ma n -h ou r s t o con -
s t r u ct . Th e ma t s a r e pla ced wit h t h e lon g
dimen s ion par allel t o t h e cen t er lin e. Th e
ma t s r ema in s er vicea ble for t h r ee or fou r
mon t h s on fir m gr ou n d or s a n d. Ba mboo
ma t s ca n a ls o be u s ed over mu d.
LANDING MATS
Th e deman d for r apidly con s t r u ct ed air -
fields led t o t h e developmen t of s ever al por i-
a ble, met a l la n din g ma t s . Wh en met a l a ir -
field la n din g ma t s beca me a s t a n da r d s u pp-
ly it em in t h e TO, t h ey wer e qu ickly pu t t o
u s e on beach es as well as on air fields .
Th ey a r e s t ill t h e for emos t expedien t for
cr os s in g s a n dy t er r a in . La n din g-ma t
des ign s fa br ica t ed fr om a lu min u m a lloys
can s u ppor t h eavier loads . Th ey als o pr o-
vide s moot h er s u r fa ces a n d h a ve a lower
weigh t per s qu a r e foot .
Wh en u s ed on s an d, place t h e met al lan d-
in g ma t s dir ect ly on t h e s a n d t o t h e len gt h
an d widt h des ir ed. If pier ced s t eel ma t s a r e
u s ed, place an imper viou s membr an e u n der
t h e ma t t o s moot h a n d fir m t h e s u bgr a de,
t h u s impr ovin g t h e r oa d.
Pla ce t h e ma t s o t h a t it s lon g a xis is per -
pen dicu la r t o t h e flow of t r a ffic. If a widt h
gr ea t er t h a n t h e effect ive len gt h of on e
plan k is r equ ir ed, u s e h alf s ect ion s t o s t ag-
ger t h e join t s . A s econ d layer of t h e s t eel
ma t , la id a s a t r ea dwa y over t h e in it ia l
layer , in cr eas es it s effect iven es s .
La n din g ma t s t en d t o cu r l a t t h e edges .
Th is pr oblem can be over come by an ch or in g
t h e edges pr oper ly. Scr ew-t ype ear t h
a n ch or s fu r n is h ed wit h t h e ma t s et s pr o-
vide t h e bes t mea n s of a n ch or in g. An ot h er
met h od of s ecu r in g t h e edges is t o u s e a
cu r b of t imber on t h e ou t s ide edge of t h e
r oa d a n d eit h er wir e it t igh t ly t o bu r ied logs
la id pa r a llel t o t h e r oa d or s t a ke it . On e
t ype of la n din g-ma t s u r fa ce is s h own in Fig-
u r e 9-30. If MO-MAT (a r ein for ced plas t ic
ma t er ia l) is a va ila ble, it ma y be u s ed a s a
r oa dwa y s u r fa ce for veh icu la r t r a ffic.
ARMY TRACK
A por t a ble t imber expedien t ca lled Ar my
t r ack, s h own in Figu r e 9-31, can be u s ed t o
pas s veh icles acr os s s an dy t er r ain . Th e
t r ack con s is t s of 4- by 4-in ch or lar ger t im-
ber s t h r ea ded a t ea ch en d on t o a 1/ 2-in ch
wir e r ope or a 3/ 4-in ch h emp r ope. Th e
t imber s r es emble r ailr oad t ies , an d a cable
r u n s t h r ou gh t h em on ea ch s ide. Spa ce
t h e t imber s s o t h a t t h e s ma lles t -wh eeled
veh icle u s in g t h e r oa d ca n obt a in t r a ct ion .
Dr ill cable h oles at a 45-degr ee an gle t o t h e
cen t er lin e s o t h e cable will ben d. Th is pr ac-
t ice will pr even t in dividu al t imber s fr om
movin g t oget h er . An ch or t h e cables s ecu r e-
ly at bot h en ds . Fill s paces bet ween t h e
t imber s wit h s elect ma t er ia l t o s moot h ou t
t h e s u r fa ce.
PLANK-TREAD ROAD
Th e plan k-t r ead r oad is s h own in Figu r e 9-
32, page 9-34. To con s t r u ct a pla n k-t r ea d
r oad, fir s t place s leeper s 12 t o 16 feet lon g,
per pen dicu lar t o t h e cen t er lin e on 3- t o 4-
foot cen t er s , depen din g on t h e loads t o be
car r ied an d s u bgr ade con dit ion s . (If
fin is h ed t imber is n ot available, logs may be
u s ed as s leeper s .) Th en place 4- by 10-
in ch pla n ks pa r a llel t o t h e lin e of t r a ffic t o
9-32 Road Design
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 9-30. Landing-mat road
Figure 9-31. Army track
Road Design 9-33
Stakes
Sand
Metal
landing
mat
:::.,....
- - - . . . ~ -:-::::---
..... ..-- ..
1/2" wire cable or
3/4" nemp rope
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 9-32. Plank-tread road
for m t wo t r ea ds a bou t 36 in ch es a pa r t .
St a gger t h e join t s t o pr even t for min g wea k
s pot s . If des ir ed, 6-in ch cu r bs may be in -
s t a lled on t h e in s ide of t h e t r ea ds .
Us e plan k r oads for cr os s in g s h or t s ect ion s
of loos e s a n d or wet , s oft gr ou n d. Wh en
bu ilt wit h a n a dequ a t e ba s e, pla n k r oa ds
la s t for s ever a l mon t h s . Pla n ks 3 t o 4 in -
ch es t h ick, 8 t o 12 in ch es wide, an d at
leas t 13 feet lon g ar c des ir able for floor in g,
s t r in ger s , an d s leeper s . Wh en des ir ed, 3-
by 10-in ch plan ks (r ou gh , n ot fin is h ed) can
r eplace t h e 4- by 10-in ch t imber s s h own in
Figu r e 9-33. Rou gh 3- by 8-in ch an d 3- by
10-in ch plan ks can be cu t t o or der .
Pos it ion s t r in ger s in r egu la r r ows pa r a llel t o
t h e cen t er lin e, on 3-foot cen t er s , wit h s t a g-
ger ed join t s . La y floor pla n ks a cr os s t h e
s t r in ger s wit h a bou t 1-in ch ga ps wh en
s eas on ed lu mber is u s ed. Th e gaps allow
for s well wh en t h e lu mber abs or bs mois -
t u r e. Spike t h e plan ks t o ever y s t r in ger .
Place 6-in ch -deep gu ar dr ails on each s ide,
wit h a 12-in ch gap left bet ween s u cces s ive
len gt h s of t h e gu a r dr a il for s u r fa ce-wa t er
dr ain age. Place picket s alon g each s ide at
15-foot in t er va ls t o h old t h e r oa dwa y in
lin e. Wh er e n eces s ar y, u s e cor du r oy or
ot h er expedien t cr os s s leeper s s paced on
Figure 9-33. Construction details for a plank road
9-34 Road Design
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
3- t o 5-foot cen t er s t o h old t h e s t r in ger s in
pla ce a n d t o ga in dept h for t h e s t r u ct u r e.
For dr a in a ge, con s t r u ct t h e ba s e for a
pla n k r oa d wit h a t r a n s ver s e s lope in s t ea d
of a cen t er cr own . To pr ovide a s moot h er -
r idin g s u r face, place t r eads par allel t o t h e
lin e of t r affic over t h e floor plan ks .
WIRE-MESH ROAD
Mos t wir e-mes h s u r faces ar e expedien t
meas u r es . Applied dir ect ly t o t h e s u bgr ade,
t h ey pr ovide pa s s a ge for a limit ed n u mber
of veh icles for a s h or t t ime. Lon ger life ca n
be obt ain ed by pr oper s u bgr ade pr epar a-
t ion , mu lt ila yer or s a n dwich con s t r u ct ion ,
a n d fr equ en t s t a kin g. Wir e-mes h r oa ds
s h ou ld n ever be cr os s ed by ot h er r oads u n -
les s plan kin g or s ome s u ch mat er ial is
pla ced over t h e mes h t o pr ot ect it .
Ch icken wir e, expan ded met al lat h (u s ed for
plas t er in g walls ), an d ch ain -lin k wir e mes h
may be u s ed as r oad expedien t s in s an d.
Mes h s u r faces s h ou ld n ot be u s ed on
mu ddy r oads becau s e t h ey pr even t gr adin g
a n d r es h a pin g of t h e s u r fa ce wh en r u t s a p-
pea r .
An y wir e-mes h s u r face is mu ch mor e effec-
t ive if a la yer of bu r la p or s imila r
membr a n e ma t er ia l is pla ced u n der n ea t h it
t o h elp con fin e t h e s an d. (See Figu r e 9-34.)
Ligh t er for ms of wir e mes h , s u ch a s ch ick-
en wir e or cyclon e fen cin g, r equ ir e a n ext r a
la yer . Oft en a s a n dwich t ype of con s t r u c-
t ion is u s ed-on e layer of wir e mes h fol-
lowed by on e layer of bu r lap, t h en a s econ d
la yer of wir e mes h .
Wir e mes h mu s t be kept t a u t . An ch or t h e
edges of a wir e-mes h r oa d a t 3- t o 4-foot in -
t er va ls . Dia gon a l wir es cr os s in g t h e cen t er -
lin e a t a 45-degr ee a n gle a n d a t t a ch ed
s ecu r ely t o bu r ied picket s r ein for ce t h e
ligh t mes h .
SNOW AND ICE ROADS
In r egion s wit h h ea vy s n owfa ll a n d wh er e
t emper a t u r es a r e below fr eezin g for ex-
t en ded per iods , expedien t r oads can be con -
s t r u ct ed over t h e s n ow. Wh en t h e r oa d is
Figure 9-34. Construction details for a wire-mesh road
Road Design 9-35
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
la id ou t , ma ke gr a des a n d cu r ves a s gen t le
a s pos s ible. Compa ct t h e s n ow u n t il it is
ca pa ble of s u ppor t in g t h e weigh t of
veh icles . Add wa t er on t h e compa ct ed
s n ow a n d a llow it t o fr eeze t o pr odu ce a
h a r d s u r fa ce. Fr ozen la kes or s t r ea ms ca n
be u s ed t o move t r a ffic, bu t fir s t ca r efu lly
r econ n oit er t h e r ou t e for qu a lit y of ice,
t h ickn es s , cr acks , an d s h or e con dit ion s .
Det er min e t h e loa d-bea r in g ca pa cit y eit h er
by a n a ct u a l t es t or by con s u lt in g Ta ble 9-7.
Table 9-7. Load capacity of ice
USE OF POLYMER CELLS (SAND GRID) TO BUILD
SANDY SOILS
Tr afficabilit y over s an dy s oils is difficu lt t o
ma in t a in . Th e s oil s t r en gt h is a dequ a t e,
bu t t h e s oil will dis place u n der a load, du e
t o it s coh es ion les s n at u r e. Wh eeled
veh icles ar c par t icu lar ly affect ed. In or der
t o impr ove t r afficabilit y, s an d-gr id bas e
layer s can be u s ed.
Sa n d gr id in volves t h e con fin emen t a n d com-
pact ion of s an d or s an dy s oils in in t er con -
n ect ed cellu lar elemen t s called gr ids t o
pr odu ce a load-dis t r ibu t in g bas e layer .
Us es of t h e gr id in clu de r oad an d air field
pavemen t s , air field cr at er r epair , er os ion
con t r ol, field for t ificat ion s , an d expedien t
dike r epair .
Plas t ic gr ids (n at ion al s t ock n u mber (NSN)
5680-01-198-7955) ar e man u fact u r ed an d
s h ipped in collaps ed 4-in ch t h ick, 110-
pou n d s ect ion s . (See Figu r e 9-35. ) Ea ch
expan ded gr id s ect ion is 8 by 20 feet an d
con t a in s a h on eycomb a r r a n gemen t of cells .
Ea ch cell h a s a s u r fa ce a r ea of 39 s qu a r e
in ch es an d a dept h of 8 in ch es . Gr ids ar e
deliver ed in 3,000-pou n d pallet s , each con -
t ain in g 25 collaps ed 8- by 20-foot s ect ion s .
A s a n d-a s ph a lt s u r fa cin g
ROADS IN
is in cor por at ed
wit h in t h e t op por t ion of t h e s a n d-gr id
cells . It s fu n ct ion is t o s ea l t h e s a n d in t o
cells an d pr ovide a wear in g s u r face for
moder a t e a mou n t s of r u bber -t ir ed t r a ffic.
Th e s an d-as ph alt s u r facin g is for med by
s pr a yin g a s u it a ble liqu id-a s ph a lt cemen t ,
emu ls ion , or cu t back (r apid-cu r in g (RC) 250
a t 165+
0
F is pr efer r ed) on t h e s u r face of
Figure 9-35. Plastic grids
9-36 Road Design
t h e s an d-gr id layer . Th e as ph alt u s ed
s h ou ld pen et r a t e in t o t h e t op 1/ 2 t o 1 in ch
of s an d in t h e cells . Over a s an d s u bgr ade,
s u ch a s an d-gr id r oad is capable of h an -
dlin g over 10,000 pas s es of h eavy t r u ck t r af-
fic, in clu din g t a n dem-a xle loa ds of u p t o
53,000 pou n ds . Avoi d t r a c k e d ve h i c le s
t r a velin g over t h is r oa d, a s t h eir t r a cks will
eas ily damage t h e gr id cells .
Th e followin g ar e t h e pr ocedu r es for emplac-
in g s an d gr id.
EQUIPMENT RECOMMENDED
Equ ipmen t r ecommen ded for t h e empla ce-
men t of s an d gr id in clu des bu lldozer s ;
s moot h -bu cket (n o t eet h ) s coop loa der s ;
r ou gh -t er r a in for klift s ; vibr a t or y r oller s ;
wa t er dis t r ibu t or s ; bit u min ou s dis t r ibu t or s ;
lon g-h an dled, r ou n d-poin t ed s h ovels ; an d
3/ 8-in ch by 8-foot by 4-foot plywood s h eet s .
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
SITE PREPARATION
Sit e pr epar at ion in clu des t h e followin g s t eps :
1. Per for m n or ma l cu t or fill oper a t ion s t o
r each des ir cd r oad gr ade.
2. Back blade t h e s u r face for s moot h n es s .
3. Compa ct t h e s a n d s u bgr a de a t a mois -
t u r e con t en t a ppr oa ch in g s a t u r a t ion u s in g
t h e vibr a t or y r oller .
GRID INSTALLATION
Gr id in s t a lla t ion in clu des t h e followin g
St eps :
1. Set u p s t akes an d s t r in g lin es in 8-foot
by 20-foot boxes . See Figu r e 9-36 for
la you t pa t t er n s .
2. Deliver gr id pallet s wit h t h e for klift .
Figure 9-36. Sand-grid layout patterns
Road Design 9-37
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
3. Expan d each gr id s ect ion u s in g t h r ee
people on each en d, pu llin g ou t war d t o
s ligh t ly over 20 feet , t h en s h akin g t h e s ec-
t ion in mida ir t o obt a in u n ifor m cell open -
in gs . (See Figu r e 9-37.) Place t h e s ect ion
wh er e s t r in g lin es dict at e, (8-foot by 20-
fool s t eel fr ames can be or der ed.)
4. Sh ove s a n d fr om r oa d s h ou lder s in t o
each en d cell an d appr oximat ely ever y fift h
s ir t c-edge cell t o an ch or t h e gr id in place.
5. To con s t r u ct join t s bet ween gr ids , u s c
s mall, 3/ 8-in ch plywood s h eet s 10 allow s ol-
dier s t o s t a n d on t op of t h e u n filled gr id, a l-
lowin g acces s t o t h e join t cells . For en d
join t s , t h e r ou n ded en d cells fr om differ en t
s ect ion s s h ou ld t ou ch ea ch ot h er . For lon -
git u din al (s ide-by-s ide) join t s , in t er lock t h e
welded cell por t ion s of each s ect ion , as if
fit t in g a pu zzle. Fill t h e join t ed cells wit h
s an d.
6. Level t h e join t s by placin g plywood over
t h e join t s a n d h a vin g s oldier s wa lk on t op
of t h e plywood.
7. Complet ely fill each gr id u s in g s coop
loader s . (See Figu r e 9-38.) Dr op t h e s an d
ver t ica lly in t o t h e cells fr om a h eigh t of a t
lea s t 2 feet . Do n ot pu s h t h e s a n d for wa r d
or t h e cells will be dis placed. Over fill gr ids
by 2 t o 4 in ch es s o s coop loader s can
oper a t e on t h e s a n d-filled gr id la yer wit h ou t
damagin g an y cells . Have s coop loader s
va r y wh eel pa t h s t o a ch ieve u n ifor m in it ia l
compa ct ion of t h e r oa d.
8. If wa t er is r ea dily a va ila ble, wet t h e
s a n d u s in g a wa t er dis t r ibu t or . Th is will
s ign ifican t ly aid in t h e compact ion pr oces s .
9. Compa ct t h e r oa d s u r fa ce wit h on e or
t wo pa s s es of t h e vibr a t or y r oller .
Figure 9-37. Plastic sand-grid section emplacement
9-38 Road Design
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 9-38. Sand-grid road - filling cells with sand
10. Remove exces s s an d fr om t h e gr id s u r -
13. Apply a ver y ligh t coat (1/ 4 in ch ) of
fa ce wit h a gr a der or by ba ck bla din g wit h
blot t er s an d u s in g s h ovels .
a s moot h -bu cket s coop loa der . Do n ot u s e
a bu cket wit h t eet h , a s cell da ma ge ca n
14. Compa ct t h e r oa d u s in g on e pa s s of a
r es u lt .
11. Recompa ct
t h e vibr a t or y r oller .
9-40. )
n on vi br a t i n g r olle r . Vibr a t in g t h e r oa d a t
t h is poin t will br eak t h e as ph alt ic bon ds ,
t h e r oa d wit h on e pa s s of
(See Figu r e 9-39, page 15. Apply an d compact a 3-in ch s u r face
coa t of 1-in ch (ma ximu m) gr a vel, if a va il-
able. Th is layer will add a pr ot ect ive cover
12. Spr a y t h e a s ph a lt pr odu ct on t h e r oa d
ma t er ia l over t h e s a n d-gr id r oa d, s ign ifica n t -
s u r fa ce a n d a llow en ou gh t ime for t h e a s -
ly in cr eas in g t h e r oad life.
ph a lt pr odu ct t o complet ely s oa k in t o t h e
gr id s t r u ct u r e (u s u a lly a bou t 10 h ou r s ).
(See Figu r e 9-40, page 9-40.)
Road Design 9-39
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 9-39. Sand-grid road - compacting sand with roller
Figure 9-40. Sand-grid road - spraying asphalt coating
9-40 Road Design
.....
- ------- }--. ---
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FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
SPRAY APPLICATIONS AND SURFACE TREATMENTS
Su r fa ce t r ea t men t s a r e t h e mos t econ omica l
t r oop-con s t r u ct ed s u r fa ces . Th ey r equ ir e
t h e fewes t r es ou r ces a n d min ima l qu a lit y
con t r ol effor t , a n d t h ey a r e pla ced in t h e
s h or t es t per iod of t ime. Su r fa ce t r ea t men t s
r a n ge fr om s in gle, ligh t a pplica t ion s of
bit u min ou s ma t er ia l t o mu lt iple s u r fa ce
cou r s es ma de u p of bit u men a n d a g-
gr ega t es . Su r fa ce t r ea t men t s ca n be
divided in t o t wo ca t egor ies : s pr a yed t r ea t -
men t s a n d s pr a yed bit u men wit h a n a g-
gr ega t e s u r fa ce.
Spr a y a pplic a t ion s pr ovide s oil or ag-
gr ega t e s u r fa ces wit h t h e followin g:
Pr ime coa t (wa t er pr oofin g).
Tack coat (bin din g bit u min ou s pave-
men t t o s u r fa ce).
Du s t pr oofin g.
Spr a ye d bit u me n wit h a n a ggr ega t e s u r fa ce
pr ovides a wat er pr oof, abr as ive, wear -r es is -
t a n t s u r fa ce wit h n o s t r u ct u r a l s t r en gt h .
Bit u men wit h a ggr ega t e s u r fa ce pa vemen t s
will be eit h er of t h e followin g:
Sin gle s u r fa ce t r ea t men t .
Mu lt iple s u r fa ce t r ea t men t .
Bit u min ou s ma t er ia ls a r e eit h er t a r s , r oa d-
t a r cu t ba cks , a s ph a lt cemen t , a s ph a lt cu t -
backs , or as ph alt emu ls ion s . Us es of
bit u min ou s ma t er ia ls a r e s h own in Figu r e
9-41, page 9-42. As ph a lt cemen t is t h e
h ea vy ma t er ia l left a t t h e en d of t h e
pet r oleu m dis t illat ion pr oces s . Cr u de oil is
r efin ed in t o gas olin e, ker os en e, dies el,
mot or oil, a s ph a lt , a n d ma n y ot h er
pr odu ct s as s h own in Figu r e 9-42, page 9-
43. As ph a lt cemen t ma y t h en be fu r t h er
modified by cu t t in g ba ck t h e a s ph a lt wit h
s ome pet r oleu m pr odu ct , s pecifically n aph -
t h a , ga s olin e, ker os en e, or dies el, t o for m
a n a s ph a lt cu t ba ck. As ph a lt ma y a ls o be-
come a n emu ls ion by mixin g a s ph a lt ce-
men t , wa t er , a n d a n emu ls ifyin g a gen t
t oget h er wit h va r ia ble-s peed pu mps t o for m
a n a s ph a lt wa t er s u s pen s ion . Emu ls ion s
a r e eit h er a n ion ic (ca r r yin g a n ega t ive
ch a r ge) or ca t ion ic (ca r r yin g a pos it ive
ch ar ge).
Ta r s a r e t h e r es idu e fr om t h e h igh -t emper a -
t u r e con ver s ion of coal t o coke. (See Figu r e
9-43, page 9-44.) Th ey may be modified by
cu t t in g t h em wit h a ligh t t o mediu m coa l
oil t o for m a r oa d-t a r cu t ba ck. Ta r s do n ot
dis s olve in pet r oleu m pr odu ct s . Th ey be-
come s oft a n d bleed a t h igh t emper a t u r es
a n d a r e br it t le a t cold t emper a t u r es . Be-
cau s e of t h eir s u s cept ibilit y to t emp er a t u r e
ch a n ge, t a r s n or ma lly a r c u s ed on ly in
ar eas wh er e fu el s pills ar e common place,
s u ch a s t a n k fa r ms , fu el depot s , a n d
a ir cr a ft r efu el poin t s .
FIELD IDENTIFICATION
Field iden t ificat ion con s is t s of a s er ies of
s imple t es t s des ign ed t o iden t ify an u n -
kn own bit u men pr odu ct in t h e field. Th e
pu r pos e of t h es e t es t s is t o det er min e t h e
u s es of a bit u min ou s ma t er ia l a n d h ow t o
u s e it s a fely, r a t h er t h a n t h e exa ct s pecifica -
t ion s t o wh ich it con for ms . Field-iden t ifica-
t ion pr ocedu r es a r e a pplica ble t o bot h t a r s
a n d a s ph a lt s .
Bit u min ou s ma t er ia ls a r e oft en fou n d s t ock-
piled in u n mar ked or in cor r ect ly mar ked
con t a in er s . Th is lea ds t o con fu s ion a n d
dela y in con s t r u ct ion s in ce t h e va r iou s
t ypes a n d gr a des of bit u min ou s ma t er ia l
a r e ma n u fa ct u r ed for a s pecific pu r pos e.
Field iden t ifica t ion is impor t a n t t o t h e
milit ar y en gin eer becau s e
On ce t h e t ype a n d gr a de of ma t er ia l a r e
kn own , t h e t ype of s u r fa ce t h a t ca n be
con s t r u ct ed ma y be det er min ed. Th e
s afet y pr ocedu r es t o be followed als o
depen d on t h e ma t er ia l iden t ifica t ion .
On ce t h e s u r fa ce t ype is kn own , t h e con -
s t r u ct ion pr ocedu r e ma y be ou t lin ed
an d s ch edu led for a s pecific t ar get dat e.
On ce es t ablis h ed, t h e pr ocedu r e will
det er min e t h e pr oper equ ipmen t for t h e
job.
Road Design 9-41
F
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TYPE ASPHALt CEMENTS CUTBACK ASPHALTS EMULSIFIED ASPHALTS TARS 1
OF
Y18COSITY
GRADED
CONSTRUCTION -ORIGINAL
ASPHAlT-AGGREGATE
MIXTURES CONCRETE AWJ

HOT lAID PlANT MIX
PAVEMENT BASE AWJ SURFACES
HIGHWAYS
AIRPORTS X "
PARKING AREAS
X
DRIVEWAYS
CURBS X
'"
HlUSTAIAL FLOORS
BlOCKS
GROINS
X
DAMFACNJS IX
CANAl AND RESERVOR LINNGS X X
COLD - LAID PLANT MIX
OPEN.QRADEO AOCiREGATE'
WELl..QRADEO AOOREOATE'
PATCHING. USE
PATCHING. STOCKPIlE
MIXED -IN - PLACE (ROAD MIX)
OPEN ORAOED AOGREGATE'
WEll ORAOED AOGREGATE'
SAND
X X
SANDY SOIl
X
PA TCHIiIO, .. MEDIATE USE
PATCHING. STOCKPIlE
ASPHALT-AGGREGATE
APPUCA TlONS(SURFACE TREATMENl)
SNJLE SURFACE TREATMENT
X X
MUL Tf'I.E SlRFACE TREATMENT
AOClRIEBA TE SEAL
SAWJSEAL
SlURRYIEAL
(PENETRATION tAACADAM)
PAVEMENT BAlES
LAAOEV008
8IoIAI.L YODe
I x

(SURFACE TREATMENl)
FOG SEAL
PRIME COAT, OPEN SURFACES
PlUME COAT, TIOHTSURFACES
TACK COAT
OUST LAYING
MUlCH
(MEMBRANE)
CANAL NJ RE8ERYOIA LININGS XI
EMIINIOoIENT ENVELOPES XIX
(CRACK FIWNG)
AIIPHAL T PAVEMENT I
PORTlNJCEMiNTCONCAETEPAVEMENT 4 r I
E ..................................... ,.."NqUiNd
10-..... ... _.-.. -.IoIIod ........ IO-.
VI8COIIITY PENElRATDH IW'D
ORADED ORADED CU'lING
(RC)
IIII!

Ji!iB
X X XI .. 1 X X
IX X
IX X X
X X X X X
X X
X
X
X X
X x
X
l( X
X X W
X
X X lC ix"

X
X X X X X
X X X
X It X X It
X X
I I
XIX
I X ixl T
X X
l(
I X T
I x x TT
I I I
I 4 I'
1 FOR USE IN COLD CLltAATES
4 RUBBER ASPHALT COMPOUNDS
MEDIUM 8t.OW
I
CU'lING CU'lING ANDHIC CATlONIC
( ..... (8C)
j8 i I a
...
!iI Ji! i Ji!i I iiiiiii
!:::: ............ CD

I- Nft .. ..,.,... ___ a:
IX X
l( X
!
X X
-x-:
X X X
......
X X l( IX IX IX X IX )(
X It
X X X X X X X X X X X
X X X x
x X III IX X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X X X X lC It X
X l( X X X
x x X X
XX
,,,-
X X X X X X
x-l[ xy
I
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X X
X
:1 t:
X x 11
X X X X X X X
x
I I I I I I
I I X XIX I I x X
T I X X X XI I I I X XI
2 2 2 2 X X X X
X X X X X
X 2 2 X

I. X X X X X X X X
z

x X
X X X X
I I I I I I
T I I I I I I I I
I I J_ I I
I I I I I I I I
A FOR USE IN BASES IN COLD CUtAATES 2 DIWTED WITH WATER 3 SlURRY MIX
Emullitlad asphaIIs shown ani AASHTO and ASTM grIIdn and may not Include HI grades produced in
aI geographic areas.
Figure 9-41. Use of bituminous materials
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 9-42. Petroleum-asphalt flowchart
Road Design 9-43
OIL WELL
This simplified graphic chart shows the
Int8fl'81atlonshlps of petroleum products,
with gasoline, 011 and asphalt flowing from
the same oil well.
FUEL OIL
ASPHAL T CEMENTS
'2.. __ -""""'1'- KEROSINE
UGHT BURNER 011
DIESEL OIL
LUBRICATING 01'
UQUID
ASPHALTIC
MATERIALS
RC-3000
SLOW-
CURING
ASPHALTS
MEDIUM-
CURING
ASPHALTS
GAS
PETROlEUM
..........
M-l00

200-300
RAPID-
CURING
ASPHALTS
SAND AND WATER
OXIDIZED
ASPHALTS
SS-K
5S-Kh
ANIONIC
EMULSIFIED
ASPHALTS
CATIONIC
EMULSIFIED
ASPHALTS
F
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BITUMINOUS
COAL
STORAGE
OECANTATION
COKE OVEN PLANT
STORAGE
TUBE
STILL
FRACTIONATING
COLUMN
TAR REFINERY
R88IduaI Tar
COKE
{
Metallurgical Coke
Domestic Coke
LIGHT OIL
{
Benz_ Toluene

Coumarone Resins
GAS
{
Illuminating Gas,Fuet Gas
Suller,Cyanogen Compounds
LIQUOR
{
Iq.Ja Ammonia, Anhydrous Ammonia
Ammonium Sulfate
LIGHT OIL
IEDIUIIOIL
HEAVY OIL
and Heavy Solvents
I Counwone-Indens Resins
f
Phenola Pyridine Bases
I PROCESSING
Creosote, Anthracene
I Special Huxing oils
(RTCB5 Cold patching, Seal coal and Road Mix
\. RTCB6 Cold patdling, Seal coat and Road Mix

::> 0
VARIOUS DEGREES 0 i:i
OF DISTILLATION

-
.., !- t
I I [ 11
SATURANTS ROOFING ELECTRODES
PAINTS ELECTRODES CORE COMPOUNDS
COATINGS ENAMElS RUBBERCOMPOUNDS
FUEL
BRIQUETTES
RT 1 Dust Laying
RT 2 Prime Coating
RT 3 Prime Coating IIIId Surface Treatments
RT 4 Prime Coating and Surface Treatments
RT 5 Surface Treatments and Road Mixes
RT 7
ATe)
AT 8 Surface TraMnentI, Seal Coalll and Road Mixes
RT g
RT 10) Seal CoaIII Tar Conc:reee and Hot ...........
RT11 '
RT 12, ,........, MIadIm,r. Conc:reee,and
HotRapars
Figure 9-43. Tar simplified flowchart
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Field t es t s ma y be per for med t o iden t ify t h e
bit u min ou s pa vin g ma t er ia l a s a s ph a lt ce-
men t , a s ph a lt cu t ba ck, a s ph a lt emu ls ion ,
r oa d t a r , or r oa d-t a r cu t ba ck. In a ddit ion ,
it is n eces s ar y t o iden t ify as clos ely as pos -
s ible t h e vis cos it y gr a de of t h e bit u men . In
or der t o dis t in gu is h a mon g t h e s ever a l a s -
ph a lt ic a n d t a r pr odu ct s , it is n eces s a r y t o
kn ow s omet h in g of t h eir or igin , t h eir ph ys i-
ca l pr oper t ies , a n d t h e ma n n er in wh ich
t h ey a r e n or ma lly u s ed. Th e iden t ifica t ion
pr ocedu r e ou t lin ed in Figu r e 9-44, page
9-46, is bas ed u pon t h e ph ys ical pr oper t ies
of t h es e ma t er ia ls .
As ph a lt s a n d Ta r s
Th e fir s t pr ocedu r e in t h e iden t ificat ion of
a n u n kn own bit u min ou s ma t er ia l is t o
det er min e wh et h er it is a n a s ph a lt or a t a r .
As ph a lt s a n d t a r s ma y be differ en t ia t ed by
a s imple volu bilit y t es t . To per for m t h e
t es t , s imply a t t empt t o dis s olve a n u n -
kn own s ample (a few dr ops , if liqu id, or
en ou gh t o cover t h e h ea d of a n a il, if s olid)
in a n y pet r oleu m dis t illa t e. Ker os en e,
gas olin e, dies el oil, or jet fu el is s u it able for
t h is t es t . Sin ce as ph alt is der ived fr om
pet r oleu m, it will dis s olve in t h e pet r oleu m
dis t illa t e. Roa d t a r will n ot dis s olve. If t h e
s a mple is a n a s ph a lt , t h e s a mple dis t illa t e
mix will con s is t of a da r k, u n ifor m liqu id.
If it is a r oa d t a r , t h e s a mple will be a
dar k, s t r in gy, u n dis s olved mas s in t h e dis t il
la t e. A ch eck ca n be ma de by s pot t in g a
piece of pa per or clot h wit h t h e mix. Th e
volu bilit y t es t pr ovides a pos it ive met h od of
iden t ifica t ion .
Gr a de s of As ph a lt Ce me n t
Th e va r iou s gr a des of a s ph a lt cemen t a r e
dis t in gu is h ed pr in cipally by t h eir h ar dn es s ,
a s mea s u r ed by a field pen et r a t ion t es t ex-
plain ed in TM 5-337. Th is in for mat ion may
be s u fficien t for plan n in g or , in s ome cas es ,
a ct u a lly s t a r t in g emer gen cy con s t r u ct ion .
As ph a lt i c Cu t ba c k s
Th e pou r in g or n on pou r in g qu a lit y is on e
wa y t o dis t in gu is h bet ween a n a s ph a lt ce-
men t a n d a cu t ba ck or emu ls ion . As ph a lt
cemen t is cutback wit h a pet r oleu m dis t il-
la t e t o ma ke it mor e flu id. If t h e ma t er ia l
does n ot pour, it is a n a s ph a lt cemen t .
Not e t h a t a t 77 F, even t h e s oft es t a s ph a lt
cemen t will n ot pou r or defor m n ot icea bly if
t h e con t a in er is t ilt ed. If it pou r s , it is a
cu t ba ck or emu ls ion . If it is s olu ble or
dilu t a ble in wa t er , it is a n emu ls ion . In a d-
dit ion , t h e ma n n er in wh ich it pou r s will
fu r n is h a clu e t o it s gr a de.
To det er min e wh et h er a cu t ba ck is a RC a s -
ph a lt ic cu t ba ck or n ot , t h e s mear tes t is
per for med. Th is is don e by makin g a
u n ifor m s mea r of t h e s u bs t a n ce on a piece
of gla zed pa per or ot h er con ven ien t , n on a b -
s or ben t s u r face. Th is will give t h e volat ile
ma t er ia ls , if pr es en t , a ch a n ce t o eva por a t e.
Sin ce RCs a r e cu t ba ck wit h a ver y vola t ile
s u bs t a n ce, mos t of t h e vola t iles will eva p-
or a t e wit h in 10 min u t es . Th e s u r fa ce of
t h e s mea r will t h en become t a cky. Th is is
n ot t r u e of t h e ligh t er gr a des of mediu m-
an d s low-cu r in g as ph alt ic cu t backs (MCs
a n d SCs ), wh ich r ema in flu id a n d s moot h
for s ome t ime. An MC will n ot r es u lt in a
t a cky s u r fa ce for a ma t t er of h ou r s ; for SC
ma t er ia ls , s ever a l da ys ma y be r equ ir ed.
To iden t ify an 800- or 3,000-gr ade MC or
SC cu t ba ck, a prolonged s mea r t es t is u s ed.
Th is pr oces s is n eces s ar y becau s e t h es e
gr a des of MCs a n d SCs con t a in s u ch s ma ll
qu a n t it ies of cu t t er s t ock t h a t t h ey, t oo, ma y
become t acky in t h e 10-min u t e per iod
s pecified above. A t h in s mear of t h e
ma t er ia l is ma de on a n on a bs or ben t s u r fa ce
a n d left t o cu r e for a t lea s t 2 h ou r s . By
t h e en d of t h a t t ime, if t h e ma t er ia l bein g
t es t ed is a n RC, t h e s mea r will h a ve cu r ed
an d will be h ar d or ju s t s ligh t ly s t icky.
However , if t h e ma t er ia l bein g t es t ed is a n
MC or SC, t h e s mea r will n ot be cu r ed a n d
will s t ill be qu it e s t icky. If t h e ma t er ia l is
an RC 3,000, it will cu r e complet ely in 3
h ou r s , wh er ea s a n RC 800 will t a ke a bou t
6 h ou r s . Even a ft er 24 h ou r s , a n MC or
SC will s t ill be s t icky.
Sin ce MCs ar e cu t back wit h ker os en e an d
SCs wit h oil, t h is fa ct ma y be employed t o
differ en t ia t e bet ween t h em. Hea t is u s ed t o
dr ive off t h e ker os en e, if pr es en t , an d make
it s h ow u p in t h e for m of a n odor . It is
bes t t o h ea t t h e u n kn own s a mple in a
Road Design 9-45
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 9-44. Identification of unknown bituminous
materials
9-46 Road Design
40-85
Hard
AC
40
Dissolves
asphalt
Solubility test in petroleum distillate
Beads
emulsion
(Color test) - dark brown
(Water mixing test) - mixes with water
(Flame test) - will not burn
Sand coating test
Pour test
Will not pour
asphalt cement
Penetration test
85-150
Medium
AC
20/30
Will not mix
RS
Will pour
asphaltic cutback
(Determine viscosity 30-3,000)
150-300
Soft
AC
5/10
Tacky
RC
Smear test
Oily
MC or SC
Heat odor test
Kerosene/petroleum smell
MC
Will mix
MS or SS
No odor
SC
1-3
RT
Tacky
RTCB
Strings
tar
Pour test
4-7
Smear test
8-12
RT
Oily
RT
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
clos ed con t a in er in or der t o ca pt u r e t h e es -
capin g vapor s , bein g car efu l n ot t o apply
t oo mu ch h ea t . If t h e s a mple is a n MC, it
will h a ve a s t r on g pet r oleu m or ker os en e
odor . On t h e ot h er h a n d, if t h e s a mple is
a n SC, n o ker os en e or pet r oleu m odor will
be det ect ed. It migh t s mell s omewh a t like
h ot mot or oil. Th e a bilit y t o dis t in gu is h a n
RC fr om a n MC a n d a n SC fr om eit h er , is
per h a ps a s impor t a n t a s a n y ot h er pa r t of
field iden t ificat ion .
As ph a lt Emu ls ion s
An ot h er a s ph a lt ic ma t er ia l u s ed in pa vin g
wor k is a n a s ph a lt emu ls ion , wh ich is a
mixt u r e of a s ph a lt , wa t er , a n d a n emu ls ify-
in g a gen t . It is ea s y t o iden t ify, s in ce it is
u s u ally dis t in gu is h ed by it s dar k br own
color , wh ile t h e ot h er bit u men s a r e bla ck,
If mixed wit h ker os en e or s ome ot h er
pet r oleu m dis t illa t e, t h e emu ls ion ca n be
det ect ed by t h e appear an ce of s mall black
globu les or bea ds wh ich fa ll t o t h e bot t om
of t h e con t a in er . If mixed wit h wa t er , a n
emu ls ion will a ccept t h e ext r a wa t er a n d
s t ill r ema in a u n ifor m liqu id. Th e ot h er
bit u men s will n ot mix wit h wa t er . Sin ce a n
emu ls ion con t a in s wa t er , a s ma ll piece of
clot h s a t u r a t ed wit h it will n ot bu r n if a
flame is applied. Th e ot h er bit u men s will
bu r n or fla me. Aft er it h a s been es t a b-
lis h ed t h a t t h e ma t er ia l is a n emu ls ion , it
is s t ill impor t a n t t o kn ow wh et h er or n ot
t h e emu ls ion is a mixin g gr a de. Th e bes t
wa y t o t ell if t h e emu ls ion is a mixin g gr a de
(s low-s et t in g (SS) or mediu m-s et t in g (MS)) is
t o t r y t o mix a s ma ll a mou n t (6 t o 8 per -
cen t , by weigh t ) wit h da mp s a n d u s in g a
met a l s poon . A r a pid-s et t in g (RS) emu ls ion
ca n n ot be mixed; it br ea ks immedia t ely,
gu mmin g u p t h e s poon wit h t h e r ela t ively
h a r d or igin a l a s ph a lt cemen t . A SS or MS
emu ls ion mixes n icely, coa t in g t h e s a n d.
Be ca r efu l n ot t o a dd t oo mu ch emu ls ion t o
t h e s a n d. Th is will s a t u r a t e t h e s a n d a n d
n ot give con clu s ive r es u lt s . No fu r t h er iden -
t ifica t ion is n eces s a r y, s in ce bot h MS a n d
SS gr a des a r e la r gely u s ed for t h e s a me
jobs .
Roa d Ta r s
If t h e u n kn own bit u min ou s ma t er ia l did n ot
dis s olve in t h e volu bilit y t es t bu t for med a
s t r in gy mas s , as s h own in Figu r e 9-44, t h e
ma t er ia l is a t a r . Th e n ext s t ep is t o det er -
min e it s vis cos it y gr a de by t h e pou r t es t .
By compa r in g t h e flow t o t h a t of common
ma t er ia ls , s u ch a s wa t er or h on ey, t h e vis -
cos it y of t h e t a r ma y be clos ely es t ima t ed.
Th e gr a des va r y fr om r oa d t a r (RT)-1 t o RT-
12. If t h e iden t ified t ar h as a vis cos it y in
t h e r a n ge of RT-4 t o RT-7 ma t er ia l, a
s mea r t es t mu s t be per for med t o det er min e
wh et h er it is a r oa d t a r or a r oa d-t a r cu t -
back. Th e s mear t es t is per for med in t h e
man n er pr eviou s ly des cr ibed for cu t back as -
ph alt . A gr eat in cr eas e in s t ickin es s in
a bou t 10 min u t es iden t ifies a r oa d-t a r cu t -
back. No appar en t ch an ge in con s is t en cy
a ft er 10 min u t es in dica t es a r oa d t a r . It
does n ot ma t t er wh ich gr a de of cu t ba ck is
available, s in ce bot h ar e u s ed u n der ap-
pr oxima t ely t h e s a me con dit ion s .
AGGREGATE IDENTIFICATION
Th e a ggr ega t e mu s t a ls o be t es t ed t o det er -
min e it s s u it a bilit y for bit u min ou s con s t r u c-
t ion . Th e des ir able ch ar act er is t ics of an ag-
gr ega t e u s ed in bit u min ou s con s t r u ct ion in -
clu de
An gu la r a n d r ou gh .
Tou gh , h a r d, a n d du r a ble.
Clean an d dr y.
Hydr oph obic.
Ava ila ble a ggr ega t e ma y n ot a lwa ys h a ve a ll
des ir a ble ch a r a ct er is t ics . An a ggr ega t e
meet in g mos t of t h e r equ ir emen t s is u s u a lly
s elect ed, u n les s r eject ed for r eas on s s u ch
a s a va ila bilit y, len gt h of h a u l, or difficu lt y
in con du ct in g bor r ow-pit or qu a r r y oper a -
t ion s .
An gu la r a n d Rou gh
Th e a ggr ega t e in a pa vemen t mu s t t r a n s mit
t h e t r a ffic loa d t o t h e ba s e, u s u a lly by t h e
in t er lockin g an d s u r face fr ict ion of t h e dif-
fer en t pa r t icles . An gu la r pa r t icles wit h a
r ou gh t ext u r e a r c bes t for t h is pu r pos e
s in ce t h ey do n ot t en d t o s lide pa s t ea ch
ot h er . Mor e bin der may be r equ ir ed s in ce
Road Design 9-47
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
t h e a n gu la r s h a pe h a s a gr ea t er s u r fa ce-
a r ea -per -u n it volu me t h a n a r ou n d pa r t icle.
Tou gh , Ha r d, a n d Du r a ble
Th e a ggr ega t e mu s t wit h s t a n d loa ds wit h ou t
cr ackin g or bein g cr u s h ed. Res is t an ce t o
wea t h er in g is a ls o a fu n ct ion of t h e
du r a bilit y. Th e r es is t a n ce-t o-wea r of a n a g-
gr ega t e ca n be det er min ed by t h e Los An -
geles Abr as ion Tes t , if t h e equ ipmen t is
available. Th e equ ipmen t an d pr ocedu r es
a r e det a iled in t h e Amer ica n As s ocia t ion of
St a t e High wa y a n d Tr a n s por t a t ion Officia ls
(AASHTO) met h od T96. Th e equ ipmen t for
t h e a bove t es t is u s u a lly n ot a va ila ble for
field t es t in g. Th e Mobs h ar dn es s s cale
ma y be u s ed t o det er min e t h e h a r dn es s of
t h e a ggr ega t e. Th e Mobs s ca le r a n ges fr om
1 for t a lc or mica t o 10 for dia mon d. By
t r yin g t o s cr a t ch t h e a ggr ega t e or t h e com-
mon mat er ials an d vice ver s a, it is pos s ible
t o es t a blis h wh ich is h a r der ; fr om t h is
a n a lys is t h e h a r dn es s of t h e a ggr ega t e ca n
be det er min ed. If bot h ma t er ia ls s cr a t ch
ea ch ot h er , t h e h a r dn es s of ea ch is t h e
s a me. Be s u r e t o r u b t h e s cr a t ch ma r k t o
s ee t h a t it is r ea lly a s cr a t ch a n d n ot a pow-
der in g of t h e s oft er ma t er ia l. Some com-
mon ma t er ia ls a n d t h eir h a r dn es s a r e:
fin ger n ail, abou t 2: copper coin , bet ween 3
an d 4; an d kn ife blade, n ail, an d win dow
gla s s , a bou t 5.5. If t h e ma t er ia l ca n be
s cr a t ch ed wit h on e of t h es e common it ems ,
it is con s ider ed t o be s oft . If it ca n n ot be
s cr at ch ed, it is con s ider ed t o be h ar d.
Cle a n a n d Dr y
Th e bit u min ou s bin der mu s t pen et r a t e in t o
t h e por es of t h e a ggr ega t e a n d a dh er e t o
t h e s u r fa ce of t h e pa r t icles . Coa t ed (wit h
cla y or du s t ) or wa t er -filled a ggr ega t e will
pr even t t h e pen et r a t ion or t h e a dh er en ce of
t h e bin der an d r es u lt in s t r ippin g of t h e
bin der . For h ot mixes , t h e a ggr ega t e mu s t
be h ot a s well a s dr y. If t h e a ggr ega t e is
n ot clea n , it s h ou ld be wa s h ed eit h er a s
pa r t of t h e cr u s h in g oper a t ion or by s pr ea d-
in g it on a h a r d s u r fa ce a n d h os in g it wit h
wa t er . Wh en was h in g is impr act ical, dr y
s cr een in g ma y r emove a gr ea t dea l of du s t
an d clay. Han d pickin g may be n eces s ar y
if n o ot h er met h od ca n be u s ed. Th e a g-
gr egat e s h ou ld be made as clean as pos -
s ible wit h t h e equ ipmen t a n d ma n power
available.
Hyd r op h obi c
Affin it y for wa t er ca n ma ke a n a ggr ega t e u n -
des ir able. If t h e a ggr ega t e is por ou s a n d a b-
s or bs wat er eas ily (h ydr oph ilic), t h e bin der
can be for ced ou t of t h e por es . Wh en t h is
h a ppen s , t h e bon d bet ween t h e a ggr ega t e
an d bin der weaken s an d br eaks an d s trip-
ping occu r s . St r ippin g is t h e los s of t h e
bit u min ou s coa t in g fr om t h e a ggr ega t e pa r -
t icles du e t o t h e a ct ion of wa t er , lea vin g ex-
pos ed a ggr ega t e s u r fa ces . On e of t h e follow-
in g t h r ee t es t s ca n be u s ed t o det er min e
t h e det r imen t a l effect of wa t er on a
bit u min ou s mix:
Stripping Tes t. A t es t s ample is pr epar ed
by coa t in g a s pecific a mou n t of a ggr ega t e
wit h bit u min ou s ma t er ia l a t t h e a pplica ble
t emper a t u r e for t h e gr a de of bit u men t o be
u s ed. Th e mixt u r e is s pr ead in a loos e,
t h in la yer a n d a ir -cu r ed for 24 h ou r s . A
r epr es en t at ive s ample is placed in a jar (u p
t o n o mor e t h a n on e-h a lf of it s ca pa cit y)
an d cover ed wit h wat er . Th e jar is clos ed
t igh t ly a n d a llowed t o s t a n d 24 h ou r s . At
t h e en d of 24 h ou r s , t h e ja r wit h t h e
s ample is vigor ou s ly s h aken for 15 min u t es .
A vis u a l exa min a t ion is ma de t o det er min e
t h e per cen t a ge of expos ed a ggr ega t e s u r fa ce
wh ich is r epor t ed as per cen t s t r ippin g.
Sw ell Tes t. As ph a lt ic mixt u r es con t a in in g
fin es of dou bt fu l qu a lit y a r e s omet imes
meas u r ed for s well as a bas is for ju dgin g
t h e pos s ible effect s on a pavemen t . Th is
t es t is mor e fr equ en t ly u s ed wit h den s e-
gr a ded mixt u r es u s in g liqu id a s ph a lt s . A
s a mple of t h e mix is compa ct ed in a met a l
cylin der a n d cooled t o r oom t emper a t u r e.
Th e s pecimen an d mold ar e placed in a pan
of wa t er a n d a dia l ga ge is mou n t ed a bove
t h e s a mple in con t a ct wit h t h e s u r fa ce. An
in it ial r eadin g is t aken . Th e s pecimen is al-
lowed t o s oak for a s pecified per iod (u s u ally
24 h ou r s ) or u n t il t h er e is n o fu r t h er s well-
in g. An ot h er r ea din g of t h e dia l is t a ken .
Th e differ en ce in r eadin g is t h e s well of t h e
mixt u r e. Exper ien ce h a s s h own t h a t
bit u min ou s pa vemen t ma de wit h clea r ,
s ou n d s t on e; s la g; or gr a vel a ggr ega t e a n d
9-48 Road Design
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
min er al filler pr odu ced fr om limes t on e will
Aggr ega t es of dou bt fu l ch a r a ct er s h ou ld be
s h ow t es t va lu es of les s t h a n 1.5 per cen t .
t es t ed for con for ma n ce t o ASTM t es t s .
CONSTRUCTION METHODS
PRIME COAT
A pr ime coa t is u s ed wh en a s u r fa ce t r ea t -
men t or pa vemen t is pla ced on a s oil or a g-
gr ega t e ba s e. Th e pr ime coa t s h ou ld
pen et r a t e t h e ba s e a bou t 1/ 4 in ch , fillin g
t h e voids . Th e pr ime coa t a ct s a s a
wa t er pr oof ba r r ier t o pr even t mois t u r e t h a t
ma y pen et r a t e t h e wea r in g s u r fa ce fr om
r each in g t h e bas e. Als o, t h e bit u men a ct s
as a bon din g agen t , bin din g t h e par t icles of
t h e ba s e t o t h e wea r in g s u r fa ce. Pla n pr im-
in g oper a t ion s s o t h a t t h er e will a lwa ys be
a n a dequ a t e a mou n t of cu r ed, pr imed ba s e
a h ea d of t h e s u r fa cin g oper a t ion s ; bu t n ot
s o fa r a h ea d t h a t t h e ba s e will become dir t y
or complet ely cu r ed (dead). To pr es er ve t h e
bas e, a pr ime coat s h ou ld be applied as
s oon as t h e bas e is r eady; h owever , t h e
pr ime coat will los e it s effect iven es s as a
bon din g a gen t if t h e wea r in g s u r fa ce is n ot
placed s oon aft er cu r in g.
Ba s e Pr e pa r a t i on
Th e bas e s h ou ld be well-gr aded, s h aped t o
t h e des ir ed cr os s s ect ion , compa ct ed t o t h e
s pecified den s it y, well-dr ain ed, fr ee fr om ex-
ces s ive mois t u r e bu t n ot complet ely dr y,
an d s wept clean . Th e s u r face of t h e bas e
s h ou ld be br oomed if it con t ain s an appr eci-
a ble a mou n t of loos e ma t er ia l, eit h er fin e or
coar s e, or if it is exces s ively du s t y. Wh en
br oomin g is omit t ed, a pply a pr ime coa t t o
t h e ba s e a n d ligh t ly r oll it wit h a
pn eu mat ic r oller , or u s e a ligh t s pr in klin g
of wa t er t o s et t le t h e du s t . Spr in klin g is
u s u ally u n des ir able; bu t wh en it is n eces -
s a r y, ligh t ly a pply a s pr a y of wa t er a t t h e
r a t e of a ppr oxima t ely 0.2 ga llon t o 0.3 ga l-
lon per s qu ar e yar d, depen din g on t h e con -
dit ion of t h e ba s e, t h e t emper a t u r e, a n d t h e
h u midit y. Complet ely cover t h e ba s e wit h a
min imu m a mou n t of wa t er a n d a llow it t o
become dr y or almos t dr y befor e applyin g
t h e pr ime coa t s o t h a t it will a bs or b t h e
pr ime ma t er ia l. If t h e ba s e is t oo wet , it
will n ot t a ke t h e pr ime pr oper ly a n d t h e
mois t u r e will t en d t o come ou t , pa r t icu la r ly
in h ot wea t h er , a n d s t r ip t h e pr ime fr om
t h e ba s e du r in g con s t r u ct ion . Ra in s a ls o
t en d t o s t r ip t h e pr ime fr om a ba s e t h a t
wa s t oo wet wh en pr imed. Hea vy r a in s
ma y a ls o s t r ip a pr oper ly pr imed ba s e t o
s ome ext en t , bu t les s t h a n a n impr oper ly
cu r ed bas e. In gen er a l, t h e lowes t a ccept -
a ble mois t u r e con t en t for t h e u pper por t ion
of t h e ba s e cou r s e pr ior t o pr imin g s h ou ld
n ot exceed on e-h a lf of t h e opt imu m mois -
t u r e con t en t . On t h e ot h er h a n d, if t h e
ba s e dr ies ou t complet ely, cr a cks ma y
develop a n d a h ea vy r a in ma y t h en ca u s e
s wellin g an d los s of den s it y. See Ch apt er 5
of t h is ma n u a l for s u bgr a de, s u bba s e, a n d
bas e-cou r s e pr epar at ion .
Ma t e r i a l s
Bit u min ou s ma t er ia ls u s ed for pr ime coa t s
will depen d on t h e con dit ion of t h e s oil bas e
a n d t h e clima t e. In moder a t e a n d wa r m
climat es , RT-2, RT-3, RT-4, MC-30, MC-70,
SS-1, SS-1h , cat ion ic s low-s et t in g emu ls ified
as ph alt (CSS)-1, an d CSS-1h ar e s at is fac-
t or y. In cold clima t es , r a pid-s et t in g a s ph a lt
cu t backs , s u ch as RC-70 an d RC-250, h ave
pr oved mor e s a t is fa ct or y. If t h e clima t e is
ver y cold, t h e pr ime coa t ma y be elimin a t ed
becau s e it is likely t o be ext r emely s low in
cu r in g. RT-2 a n d MC-30 a r e s a t is fa ct or y
for a pr ime coat u s ed on a den s ely gr aded
bas e cou r s e. MC-70 is gen er ally u s ed on
loos ely bon ded, fin e-gr ain ed s oils , s u ch as
well-gr aded s an d. MC-250 is u s u ally s at is -
fact or y for coar s e-gr ain ed s an dy s oils .
Th e for mu la u s ed t o det er min e t h e qu a n t it y
of pr ime coa t ma t er ia l r equ ir ed is
Road Design 9-49
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
wh er e
L = len gt h of u n t r ea t ed s u r fa ce in feet
W = widt h of u n t r ea t ed s u r fa ce in feet
("+2" in t h e for mu la is t o in clu de for over -
s pr ay of s h ou lder s 1 foot on bot h s ide of
t h e r oa d. )
AR = a pplica t ion r a t e of pr ime coa t in ga l-
lon s per s qu a r e ya r d
NOTE: AR for de n s e s oils = 0 . 2 , AR for
s oils wit h a lot of c r a c k s = 0 . 5
LF = h a n din g los s fa ct or for pr ime coa t
(u s u ally 1.05 - 1.10)
= qu a n t it y of pr ime-coa t ma t er ia l in
gallon s
Exa mple:
Compu t e t h e qu a n t it y (in ga llon s ) of pr ime-
coa t ma t er ia l r equ ir ed t o pr ime a n u n -
t r eat ed s u r face wit h den s e s oil. Th e s u r -
face is 1,000 feet lon g an d 12 feet wide.
Us e a los s fact or of 1.05.
Solu t ion :
= 326.67 or 327 gallon s
TACK COAT
A t a ck coa t is a s pr a yed a pplica t ion of a
bit u min ou s ma t er ia l t h a t is a pplied t o a n ex-
is t in g wear in g s u r face of con cr et e, br ick,
bit u min ou s ma t er ia l, or bin der cou r s e
befor e a n ew bit u min ou s pa vemen t is
placed over t h e exis t in g s u r face. Th e pu r -
pos e of t h e t a ck coa t is t o pr ovide a bon d
bet ween t h e exis t in g pa vemen t a n d t h e n ew
s u r fa ce. Th e t a ck coa t s h ou ld become
t a cky wit h in a few h ou r s . A t a ck coa t is
n ot r equ ir ed on a pr imed ba s e u n les s t h e
pr ime coat h as complet ely cu r ed an d be-
come coat ed wit h du s t . Figu r e 9-45 s h ows
t h e s equ en ce of oper a t ion s for t h e a pplica -
t ion of a t a ck coa t . Oper a t ion of a s ph a lt -
s u r fa ce-t r ea t men t equ ipmen t is expla in ed in
FM 5-434.
Th e pr ocedu r e for es t ima t in g t h e bit u men
r equ ir ed for a t a ck coa t is s imila r t o t h a t
des cr ibed for a pr ime coa t except t h a t t h e
t ack coat is gen er ally applied on ly over t h e
pr opos ed widt h of t h e pavemen t . Th e for -
mu la u s ed t o det er min e t h e qu a n t it y of
t a ck coa t r equ ir ed is --
wh er e
L =
W =
AR =
ion s per
LF =
u ally 1.05)
= qu a n t it y of t a ck coa t ma t er ia l in ga llon s
len gt h of t r ea t ed s ect ion in feet
widt h of t r ea t ed s ect ion in feet
r a t e of a pplica t ion of bit u men in ga l-
s qu a r e ya r d
h a n dlin g los s fa ct or for bit u men (u s -
Th e t ack coat is gen er ally applied on ly over
t h e widt h of t h e exis t in g a r ea t h a t is t o be
s u r faced. A t a ch omet er ch a r t ma y be u s ed
t o es t a blis h t h e r a t e of a pplica t ion , Th e
u s u a l r a t e of a pplica t ion va t r ies bet ween
0.05 an d 0.25 gallon per s qu ar e yar d. On
a s moot h , den s e, exis t in g s u r fa ce, t h e min i-
mu m r a t e of 0.05 ga llon per s qu a r e ya r d
s h ou ld pr odu ce a s a t is fa ct or y bon d. If t h e
s u r fa ce is wor n , r ou gh , a n d cr a cked, t h e
ma ximu m r a t e of 0.25 will pr oba bly be r e-
qu ir ed. An ext r emely h ea vy t a ck coa t ma y
be a bs or bed in t o t h e s u r fa ce mixt u r e r es u lt -
in g in a bleedin g an d flu s h in g act ion an d
los s of s t a bilit y. Roll t h e s u r fa ce ligh t ly
wit h a r u bber -t ir ed r oller or t r u ck t ir es for
u n ifor m dis t r ibu t ion of t h e bit u min ou s
ma t er ia l.
Exa mple:
Compu t e t h e qu a n t it y (in ga llon s ) of t a ck-
coa t ma t er ia l r equ ir ed t o cover a wor n ,
r ou gh , an d cr acked s u r face. Th e s u r face is
1,000 feet lon g an d 12 feet wide. Us e a
los s fact or of 1.05.
9-50 Road Design
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 9-45. Tack-coat sequence of operations
Solu t ion :
= 350.0 gallon s (gal)
DUSTPROOFING
Du s t pr oofin g con s is t s of s pr a yin g a n u n -
t r ea t ed s u r fa ce wit h a dilu t ed, s low-s et t in g
a s ph a lt emu ls ion or a low-vis cos it y cu t ba ck
Th e a s ph a lt a n d dilu t en t pen et r a t e t h e fin e
s oil pa r t icles a n d a dh er e t o t h e du s t pa r -
t icles .
An a s ph a lt cu t ba ck is u s u a lly s pr a yed a t a
r a t e of 0.1 t o 0.5 ga llon per s qu a r e ya r d
. Wh en u s in g a n emu ls ion , dilu t e
it wit h u p t o five pa r t s of wa t er by volu me.
Dilu t ed-emu ls ion r u s t pr oofin g t r ea t men t s
u s u a lly r equ ir e s ever a l t r ea t men t s . Th e
du s t s t ir r ed by t r affic bet ween applicat ion s
even t u a lly con glomer a t es a n d n o lon ger
r is es . Th is is an effect ive t r eat men t in ver y
du s t y a r ea s wh er e on e a pplica t ion of cu t -
back as ph alt is in s u fficien t . In all cas es ,
la y a t es t s t r ip t o det er min e wh a t a pplica -
t ion r a t e will be t h e mos t effect ive. Apply
wit h eit h er a n a s ph a lt dis t r ibu t or or s ome-
t h in g a s s imple a s a common wa t er in g ca n .
Ru s t pr oofin g is u s u a lly a s h or t -lived s olu -
t ion an d pr oject plan s s h ou ld in clu de
r egu la r in s pect ion s a n d ma in t en a n ce, a s r e-
qu ir ed.
SPRAYING ASPHALT WITH
COVERED-AGGREGATE AND SINGLE
AND MULTIPLE SURFACE TREATMENTS
A s pr a yed a s ph a lt wit h a cover -a ggr ega t e
s u r fa ce t r ea t men t con s is t s of a n a pplica t ion
of a s ph a lt followed by a n a pplica t ion of a g-
gr egat e. If t h e pr oces s is r epeat ed, t h e
r es u lt in g s u r faces ar c r efer r ed t o as dou ble,
t r iple, qu a dr u ple, a n d s o on , s u r fa ce t r ea t -
men t s , depen din g on t h e n u mber of applica-
t i o n s .
Apply t h es e s u r fa ce t r ea t men t s on a
pr imed, n on a s ph a lt ic ba s e; a n a s ph a lt ba s e
cou r s e; or a n y t ype of exis t in g pa vemen t .
Th is t ype of s u r fa ce t r ea t men t , wit h a good
pr ime coat (s ee pr ecedin g par agr aph ),
pr ovides t h e lowes t -cos t wat er pr oof cover in g
for a r oa d s u r fa ce. Wit h good a ggr ega t e,
t h is t ype of s u r fa ce t r ea t men t will econ omi-
ca lly pr ovide a wea r in g s u r fa ce t o meet t h e
n eeds of mediu m a n d low volu mes of t r a ffic.
Road Design 9-51
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Th is t ype of s u r fa ce t r ea t men t is ver y u s e-
fu l a s a wea r in g s u r fa ce on ba s e cou r s es in
t h e s t a ged con s t r u ct ion of h igh wa ys pen d-
in g pla cemen t of a s ph a lt -con cr et e s u r fa ce
cou r s es .
Limit a t ion s in t h e u s e of s pr a yed a s ph a lt
wit h cover -a ggr ega t e s u r fa ce t r ea t men t s
a r e
Wea t h er con dit ion s mu s t be fa vor a ble.
Th e s u r fa ce on wh ich t h e a s ph a lt is
s pr ayed mu s t be h ar d, clean , an d dr y
for t h e s u r fa ce t r ea t men t t o a dh er e
pr oper ly.
Th e a mou n t a n d vis cos it y of t h e a s ph a lt
mu s t be ca r efu lly ba la n ced wit h t h e s ize
a n d a mou n t of cover -a ggr ega t e t o a s -
s u r e pr oper r et en t ion of t h e a ggr ega t e.
Heavy, h igh -s peed t r affic t en ds t o dis -
lodge t h e a ggr ega t e fr om t h e a s ph a lt .
Becau s e of t h es e limit at ion s , con s ider u s in g
pla n t -mix s u r fa ce t r ea t men t s wh en t h e
a bove con dit ion s a r e a n t icipa t ed.
Si n gle Su r fa c e Tr e a t me n t
A s in gle s u r fa ce t r ea t men t u s u a lly con s is t s
of a s pr a yed a pplica t ion of a bit u men a n d
a n a ggr ega t e cover on e s t on e t h ick. Su r -
fa ce t r ea t men t ma y be r efer r ed t o a s a s ea l
coa t , a r mor coa t , or ca r pet coa t . A s in gle
s u r fa ce t r ea t men t , s h own in Figu r e 9-46, is
u s u ally les s t h an 1 in ch t h ick. Su r face
t r ea t men t s s er ve on ly a s a n a br a s ive a n d
wea t h er -r es is t in g mediu m t h a t wa t er pr oofs
t h e ba s e. Th ey a r e n ot a s du r a ble a s
bit u min ou s con cr et e a n d ma y r equ ir e fr e-
qu en t ma in t en a n ce. Alt h ou gh t h ey a r e n ot
r ecommen ded for a ir fields , t h ey ma y be
u s ed as an expedien t meas u r e. Th ey ar e
pa r t icu la r ly s u it a ble for TO con s t r u ct ion be-
ca u s e t h ey ca n be la id qu ickly wit h a min i -
mu m of ma t er ia ls a n d equ ipmen t , con -
s t r u ct ed in mu lt iple la yer s wit h lit t le in t er -
fer en ce t o t r a ffic, a n d u s ed a s t h e fir s t s t ep
in s t a ge con s t r u ct ion . Su r fa ce t r ea t men t
will n ot wit h s t a n d t h e a ct ion of met a l
wh eels on veh icles , t r acked veh icles , or n on -
s kid ch ain s on veh icle wh eels . Do n ot at -
t empt s u r fa ce t r ea t men t s wh en t h e t emper a -
t u r e is below 50 F.
Th e t h r ee r equ ir emen t s for a s u r fa ce t r ea t -
men t a r c a s follows :
Th e qu a lit y of t h e bit u men mu s t be s u f-
ficien t t o bold t h e s t on e wit h ou t s u b-
mer gin g il.
Su fficien t a ggr ega t e mu s t be u s ed t o
cover t h e bit u men .
Th e bas e cou r s e on wh ich t h e s u r face
t r ea t men t is la id mu s t be s u fficien t ly
s t r on g t o s u ppor t t h e a n t icipa t ed t r a ffic
loa d.
Un ifor mly gr a ded s a n d or cr u s h ed s t on e,
gr a vel, or s la g ma y be u s ed for s u r fa ce
t r ea t men t s . Th e pu r pos e of t h e s u r face
t r ea t men t dict a t es t h e s ize of a ggr ega t e t o
be s elect ed. For example, coar s e s an d may
be u s ed for s ca lin g a s moot h , exis t in g s u r -
fa ce. For a ba dly br oken s u r fa ce, t h e ma xi-
mu m s ize of t h e a ggr ega t e s h ou ld be a bou t
3/ 4 in ch ; t h e min imu m s ize s h ou ld pa s s
t h e No. 4 s ieve. Su r fa ce t r ea t men t s in clu de
t h e followin g: du s t pa llia t ives , pr ime coa t s ,
a n d s pr a yed a s ph a lt wit h a cover a ggr ega t e
(s in gle a n d mu lt iple s u r fa ce t r ea t men t s ).
Ma t e r i a l
RC a n d MC cu t ba cks , r oa d t a r s , r a pid-s et -
t in g emu ls ion s , a n d a s ph a lt cemen t s ma y
be u s ed for s u r fa ce t r ea t men t . RC cu t -
backs ar e mos t widely u s ed becau s e t h ey
eva por a t e r a pidly a n d t h e r oa d ca n be
open ed t o t r a ffic a lmos t immedia t ely a ft er
a pplyin g t h e s u r fa ce t r ea t men t . Vis cos it y
gr a des of t h e bit u men depen d on t h e s ize of
aggr egat e u s ed as cover s t on e. Th e lar ger
pa r t icles of a ggr ega t e r equ ir e a bit u men of
h igh er vis cos it y s o t h a t t h e bit u men will
h old t h e a ggr ega t e. For example, RC-70 or
RC-250 may be u s ed wit h coar s e s an d for a
s u r fa ce t r ea t men t t o s ea l cr a cks in a n ot h er -
wis e s a t is fa ct or y s u r fa ce. For r es u r fa cin g a
badly cr acked or r ou gh s u r face, RC-800 or
RC-3,000 may be u s ed wit h 3/ 4-in ch ag-
gr ega t e.
To a s s u r e u n ifor m dis t r ibu t ion , t h e bit u men
s h ou ld be applied wit h a bit u min ou s
9-52 Road Design
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 9-46. Single surface treatment
dis t r ibu t or . Th e qu a n t it y of t h e bit u men r e-
qu ir ed is bas ed on t h e aver age par t icle s ize
of t h e cover s t on e. Th e bit u men mu s t be
s u fficien t t o h old t h e a ggr ega t e in pla ce
wit h ou t lea vin g a s t icky s u r fa ce. Th e a ggr e-
ga t e mu s t n ot be complet ely s u bmer ged in
t h e bit u men . On e-qu a r t er -in ch a ggr ega t e
s h ou ld be s u bmer ged appr oximat ely 30 per -
cen t : 3/ 8-in ch aggr egat e, 32 per cen t ; 1/ 2-
in ch aggr egat e, 35 per cen t ; an d 3/ 4-in ch ag-
gr egat e, 43 per cen t . Appr oxima t ely 1 ga llon
of bit u men is u s u ally u s ed for 100 pou n ds
of a ggr ega t e. Th e r ecommen ded r a t e of
bit u men applicat ion is given by t h e follow-
in g for mu la :
Exa mple:
Compu t e t h e r ecommen ded r a t e of bit u men
applicat ion , in gallon s per s qu ar e yar d, if
30 pou n ds of aggr egat e a r e r equ ir ed t o
cover a n a r ea of 1.0 s qu a r e ya r d.
Solu t ion :
Re qu i r e me n t s for a Su r fa c e Tr e a t me n t
In bit u min ou s s u r fa ce t r ea t men t s , t h e u n it
qu a n t it ies of bit u men a n d a ggr ega t e ca n be
det er min ed by a t es t s t r ip, by t h e s pecifica-
t ion s of t h e job, or by a ddin g a ppr oxima t ely
1 gallon of bit u men for ever y 100 pou n ds of
a ggr ega t e or 0.1 ga llon of bit u men for ever y
10 pou n ds of a ggr ega t e. Th e weigh t of t h e
a ggr ega t e, on e s t on e deep, r equ ir ed t o cover
1 s qu ar e yar d is det er min ed by s pr eadin g
t h e a ggr ega t e t o be u s ed a dept h of on e
s t on e over a mea s u r ed s u r fa ce, weigh in g it ,
a n d compu t in g t h e a mou n t in pou n ds per
s qu a r e ya r d.
Road Design 9-53
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Th e for mu la u s ed t o det er min e t h e qu a n t it y
of bin der ma t er ia l r equ ir ed for a s u r fa ce
t r ea t men t is
wh er e
L = len gt h of t r ea t ed s u r fa ce in feet
W = widt h of t r ea t ed s u r fa ce in feet
= a pplica t ion of bit u men in ga llon s
per lb of aggr egat e (u s u ally 1 gal per 100 lb
aggr egat e or 0.01 gal per lb)
= applicat ion of aggr egat e in lb per
s qu a r e ya r d
LF = h a n dlin g los s fa ct or for bit u men
= qu a n t it y of bin der ma t er ia l r equ ir ed
in gallon s
9 = s qu a r e feet per s qu a r e ya r d
con ver s ion fa ct or
Exa mple:
Compu t e t h e r equ ir ed qu a n t it y of bin der
ma t er ia l n eeded for a s in gle s u r fa ce t r ea t -
men t . Th e s u r face is 1,000 feet lon g an d
12 feet wide. Us e a bit u men applicat ion
r a t e of 0.01 ga l per lb of a ggr ega t e a n d a
los s fact or of 1.05. Th e aggr egat e is 3/ 8-
in ch cr u s h ed s t on e wit h a u n it weigh t of
100
Solu t ion :
Det er min e t h e a pplica t ion r a t e of t h e a g-
gr ega t e in pou n ds per s qu a r e ya r d.
Now det er min e t h e bin der qu a n t it y.
Mu lt i ple Su r fa c e Tr e a t me n t
Wh en a t ou gh er , mor e r es is t a n t s u r fa ce is
des ir ed t h a n t h a t obt a in ed wit h a s in gle s u r -
fa ce t r ea t men t , a mu lt iple s u r fa ce t r ea t men t
ma y be u s ed. A mu lt iple s u r fa ce t r ea t men t
is t wo or mor e s u cces s ive layer s of a s in gle
s u r fa ce t r ea t men t (a s s h own in Figu r e 9-
47). Sma ller pa r t icles of a ggr ega t e a n d cor -
r es pon din gly les s bit u men ar e u s ed for each
s u cces s ive layer . Alt h ou gh mu lt iple s u r face
t r ea t men t s a r e u s u a lly mor e t h a n 1 in ch
t h ick, t h ey ar e s t ill con s ider ed s u r face t r eat -
men t s becau s e each layer is u s u ally les s
t h a n 1 in ch a n d t h e t ot a l s u r fa ce t r ea t men t
does n ot a dd t o t h e loa d-ca r r yin g ca pa cit y
of t h e ba s e.
Th e fir s t la yer of a mu lt iple s u r fa ce t r ea t -
men t is la id a ccor din g t o in s t r u ct ion s pr e-
viou s ly given for a s in gle s u r fa ce t r ea t men t .
Loos e a ggr ega t e r ema in in g on t h e fir s t la yer
mu s t be s wept fr om t h e s u r fa ce s o t h a t t h e
la yer s ma y be bon ded t oget h er . As s t a t ed
pr eviou s ly, t h e s ize of t h e a ggr ega t e a n d t h e
a mou n t of t h e bit u men will decr ea s e for
each s u cces s ive layer . For t h e s econ d
layer , t h e bit u men will u s u ally be r edu ced
t o on e-t h ir d or on e-h a lf t h e a mou n t of t h e
fir s t a pplica t ion . Th e a ggr ega t e u s ed in t h e
s econ d applicat ion s h ou ld be appr oximat ely
on e-h a lf t h e dia met er of t h a t u s ed in t h e
fir s t a pplica t ion . Th e fin a l a pplica t ion of a g-
gr egat e s h ou ld be s wept clean , if n eces s ar y,
s o t h a t a n even la yer of a ggr ega t e will
r ema in . It s h ou ld a ls o be r olled wit h a
pn eu ma t ic r oller s o t h a t t h e a ggr ega t e will
become embedded in t h e bit u men . Aft er
t h e s u r face is r olled an d cu r ed, it is r eady
for t r a ffic. If t h e mu lt iple s u r fa ce t r ea t men t
h as been laid on an air field, loos e aggr egat e
mu s t be s wept fr om t h e s u r fa ce s o t h a t it
will n ot da ma ge t h e a ir cr a ft . Fin a l s weep-
in g is als o r ecommen ded for r oads .
CONSTRUCTION OF SURFACE
TREATMENTS USING SPRAYED
ASPHALT WITH COVERED AGGREGATE
We a t h e r
Wea t h er con dit ion s a r e a n impor t a n t fa ct or
for s u cces s in t h e con s t r u ct ion of s pr ayed
a s ph a lt wit h cover ed-a ggr ega t e s u r fa ce t r ea t -
9-54 Road Design
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 9-47. Multiple surface treatment
men t s a n d s ea l coa t s . For bes t r es u lt s in
a ggr ega t e r et en t ion , t h e pa vemen t
t emper a t u r e s h ou ld be r ela t ively h igh
du r in g t h e a pplica t ion of t h e s ea l coa t a n d
con s ider ably lower befor e fas t t r affic is al-
lowed t o u s e t h e n ew s ea l coa t . A cer t a in
a mou n t of cu r in g, or s et t in g, is r equ ir ed
even wit h t h e h eavies t liqu id-as ph alt ic
ma t er ia ls . Th is cu r in g t akes place bes t
wh en t h e a ir t emper a t u r e is well a bove 50
F a n d t h e r ela t ive h u midit y is low, A s u r -
vey of s u r fa ce t r ea t men t s r a t ed excellen t
s h ows mor e t h an 85 per cen t wer e placed in
t h e h ot s u mmer mon t h s . Ever y effor t
s h ou ld be ma de t o pla n t h e wor k for pla ce-
men t in s u mmer wea t h er . Aft er complet ion
of t h e s u r fa ce t r ea t men t , t r a ffic s h ou ld be
con t r olled u n t il t h e s u r fa ce h a s cu r ed.
Aggr e ga t e
On ce an aggr egat e h as been s elect ed for
u s e bas ed u pon t h e des ir able ch ar ac-
t er is t ics , it is t h en n eces s a r y t o det er min e
wh a t qu a n t it y of t h e a ggr ega t e will be r e-
qu ir ed for a s pecific job. Wh en placin g a
s u r fa ce t r ea t men t wit h a n a ggr ega t e cover ,
t h e qu a n t it y of a ggr ega t e r equ ir ed ca n be
det er min ed fr om t h e followin g for mu la :
wh er e
L = len gt h of t r ea t ed s u r fa ce in feet
W = widt h of t r ea t ed s u r fa ce in feet
LF = h a n dlin g los s fa ct or for a ggr ega t e (10
per cen t or 1.10).
= a pplica t ion r a t e for a ggr ega t e
= qu a n t it y of a ggr ega t e in t on s
Th e ma t er ia ls for a mu lt iple s u r fa ce t r ea t -
men t a r e det er min ed by t h e s a me met h od
a s a bove except t h a t t h e r es u lt s a r e mu lt i-
plied by t h e n u mber of t r ea t men t pa s s es ,
Th e a ggr ega t e s ize (n ot qu a n t it y) mu s t be
cu t in h a lf for t h e s econ d la yer a n d ea ch
la yer t h er ea ft er .
Road Design 9-55
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
S pread ing Aggregate. Befor e t h e a pplica t ion
of a s ph a lt begin s , a n a dequ a t e a ggr ega t e
s pr eader s h ou ld be available an d pr oper ly
a dju s t ed for t h e a ggr ega t e a ct u a lly t o be
u s ed. Th e s pr ay-bar widt h of t h e
bit u min ou s dis t r ibu t or s h ou ld be equ a l t o
t h e widt h of t h e a ggr ega t e bein g s pr ea d in
on e pa s s . Nor ma lly, t h is is t h e widt h of
on e t r a ffic la n e. An a dequ a t e s u pply of a g-
gr ega t e s h ou ld be on h a n d t o cover t h e a s -
ph a lt t h a t h a s been s pr ea d, wit h ou t in t er -
r u pt ion , in t h e s h or t es t pr a ct ica l t ime a ft er
t h e a s ph a lt h it s t h e s u r fa ce. In a ddit ion ,
t h e aggr egat e s pr eader s h ou ld be filled, in
place, an d r eady t o s pr ead aggr egat e befor e
commen cin g t h e a s ph a lt s pr a y. A common
fa u lt is t o oper a t e t h e dis t r ibu t or t oo fa r
a h ea d of t h e a ggr ega t e s pr ea der .
Aggr ega t e s pr ea der s va r y fr om a s imple, con -
t r olla ble ga t e box a t t a ch ed t o t h e du mp
t r u ck, t o ver y efficien t , s elf-pr opelled u n it s
wh ich a pply t h e la r ger -s ize a ggr ega t e on t h e
bot t om a n d t h e fin er on t op. Th e mor e effi-
cien t , s elf-pr opelled u n it s ar e mos t
des ir able.
Standard, Hopper-Ty pe Aggregate Spreaders .
Th e s t a n da r d a ggr ega t e s pr ea der s h own in
Figu r e 9-48 can h an dle aggr egat e wh ich r an -
ges fr om s an d t o 1 1/ 2-in ch gr avel. Th e
r at e an d dept h of applicat ion depen d u pon
t h e ga t e open in g. Th e widt h of s pr ea d ma y
be var ied fr om 4 t o 8 feet in 1-foot in cr e-
men t s . Depen din g u pon t h e ma n u fa ct u r er ,
t h e s pr ea der h a s eit h er t wo or fou r wh eels .
It h ooks on t h e r ea r of a 5-t on du mp t r u ck
an d t h e t r u ck backs u p. Th is allows t h e ag-
gr ega t e t o be s pr ea d on t h e bit u men a h ea d
of t h e t r u ck t ir es , t h u s pr even t in g picku p of
t h e bit u men . As a s a fet y pr eca u t ion , men
s h ou ld n ot be a llowed t o s t a n d on t h e a g-
gr ega t e, eit h er in t h e t r u ck or in t h e
s pr ea der , a t a n y t ime.
Rolling. Pn eu mat ic-t ir e r oller s s h ou ld be
u s ed for s u r fa ce-t r ea t men t con s t r u ct ion .
St eel-wh eeled r oller s ar e n ot r ecommen ded
for r ollin g, bu t if t h ey a r e a ll t h a t is a va il-
Figure 9-48. Typical hopper-type aggregate spreader
9-56 Road Design
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
able, r oller s s h ou ld n ot be s o h eavy as t o
cr u s h t h e a ggr ega t e pa r t icles . Pn eu ma t ic-
t ir e r oller s a r e es s en t ia l t o fir mly embed t h e
a ggr ega t e in t o low a r ea s or gr a ded defor m-
it ies t h a t wou ld n or ma lly be br idged over
by u s e of s t eel-wh eel r oller s an d t o pr odu ce
con for mit y a cr os s t h e widt h of t h e r oa dwa y,
pa r t icu la r ly over t h e ou t er qu a r t er s of t h e
s u r fa ce wh er e t h er e is t h e lea s t t r a ffic. Th e
r oller s s h ou ld be h eavy en ou gh t o pr oper ly
imbed t h e a ggr ega t e, bu t r ollin g s h ou ld be
s t opped as s oon as cr u s h in g becomes evi-
den t . Wh en dou ble or t r iple s u r fa ce t r ea t -
men t s ar e u s ed, each cou r s e s h ou ld be
r olled befor e s u bs equ en t applicat ion s of as -
ph a lt . Wh en a n a s ph a lt fog s ea l is u s ed, it
s h ou ld be applied aft er t h e r ollin g is com-
plet ed.
Traffic Control. It is ext r emely impor t a n t
t h a t t r a ffic be con t r olled t o pr even t los s of
a ggr ega t e. On e met h od of con t r ollin g t r a ffic
is t o for m a s in gle lin e of t r a ffic beh in d a
pilot veh icle wit h a r ed flag bet ween s t ops
a t ea ch en d of t h e wor k a r ea .
Th e As ph a lt Di s t r i bu t or
Th e as ph alt dis t r ibu t or is t h e key piece of
equ ipmen t in t h e con s t r u ct ion of s u r fa ce
t r ea t men t s . It con s is t s of a t r u ck (or a
t r a iler ) equ ipped wit h a mou n t ed, in s u la t ed
t a n k wit h a h ea t in g s ys t em, u s u a lly oil-
bu r n in g, wit h dir ect h ea t fr om t h e flu e pa s s -
in g t h r ou gh t h e t a n k. It is fu r t h er s u pplied
wit h a power -dr iven pu mp, s u it a ble t o h a n d-
le pr odu ct s r an gin g fr om ligh t , cold-applica-
t ion liqu id a s ph a lt t o h ea vy a s ph a lt ce-
men t s h ea t ed t o s pr a yin g vis cos it y. At -
t a ch ed t o t h e ba ck en d of t h e t a n k is a s ys -
t em of s pr a y ba r s a n d n ozzles t h r ou gh
wh ich t h e as ph alt is for ced u n der pr es s u r e
on t o t h e con s t r u ct ion s u r fa ce. Th e con -
s t r u ct ion of t h e s pr a y ba r s s h ou ld be s u ch
t h a t t h er e will be fu ll cir cu la t ion of t h e a s -
ph a lt t h r ou gh t h e ba r wh en n ot s pr a yin g.
Th es e s pr a y ba r s s h ou ld h a ve a min imu m
a pplica t ion widt h of 8 feet . On la r ger equ ip-
men t , t h e s pr a y ba r s will cover a s mu ch a s
a 24-foot widt h in on e pas s wh en equ ipped
wit h a s u it a ble ca pa cit y pu mp. Th e h eigh t
of t h e s pr a y ba r det er min es t h e t ype of
cover a ge: s in gle
la p, a s s h own in
lap, dou ble lap, or t r iple
Figu r e 9-49. A s u it able
Figure 9-49. Spray bar coverage
t h er momet er s h ou ld be in s t a lled in t h e
t a n k t o r ea dily a s cer t a in t h e t emper a t u r e of
t h e con t en t s . A con n ect ion s h ou ld be a va il-
a ble t o a t t a ch a h os e for a s in gle- or dou ble-
n ozzle ou t let t o cover a r ea s n ot r ea ch ed by
t h e s pr a y ba r s or a s a mea n s of for cin g a
s t r ea m of a s ph a lt t o a des ir ed poin t a s in
s u bs ealin g r igid, s lab pavemen t s . Dis -
t r ibu t or s a r e ma de in s izes r a n gin g fr om
800- t o 4,000-gallon capacit y. Some main -
t en a n ce dis t r ibu t or s a s s ma ll a s 400 ga l-
lon s ar e available.
It is es s en t ia l t h a t t h e dis t r ibu t or be
ca pa ble of dis t r ibu t in g t h e a s ph a lt u n ifor m-
ly over t h e s u r fa ce t o be t r ea t ed. For bes t
r es u lt s in s u r fa ce t r ea t men t s , obs er ve t h e
followin g poin t s :
Ma in t a in u n ifor m pr es s u r e a n d t emper a -
t u r e on a ll s pr a y n ozzles . Th e fa n of t h e
s pr a y fr om ea ch n ozzle mu s t be u n ifor m
a n d s et a t t h e pr oper a n gle wit h t h e
s pr a y ba r (a ccor din g t o t h e
ma n u fa ct u r er s in s t r u ct ion s ) s o t h a t t h e
s pr a y fa n s do n ot in t er fer e wit h ea ch
ot h er .
Ma in t a in t h e s pr a y ba r a t t h e pr oper
h eigh t a bove t h e r oa d s u r fa ce (a ccor d-
in g t o t h e ma n u fa ct u r er s in s t r u ct ion s )
10 pr ovide complet e an d u n ifor m over lap
of t h e s pr a y fa n s .
En s u r e t h a t t h e dis t r ibu t or r oa d s peed
is u n ifor m.
Befor e begin n in g wor k, ch eck t h e
s pr ea d of t h e dis t r ibu t or s pr a y ba r .
Road Design 9-57
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Va lve a ct ion s h ou ld be in s t a n t a n eou s ,
bot h in open in g an d clos in g. Th e s pr ay-
in g oper at ion s h ou ld be in s pect ed fr e-
qu en t ly t o en s u r e t h a t t h e n ozzles a r e
t h e pr oper h eigh t fr om t h e r oa d s u r fa ce
a n d wor kin g fu lly. An ot h er wis e good
job may be s poiled if on e or mor e s pr ay
n ozzles ar e clogged.
MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR
BITUMINOUS SURFACES
In s p e c t i on
OF
Ma in t en a n ce pa t r ols fr equ en t ly in s pect
bit u min ou s pa vemen t s for ea r ly det ect ion of
failu r es . Small defect s qu ickly develop in t o
la r ger on es u n der t h e effect s of wea t h er a n d
t r a ffic a n d ma y r es u lt in pa vemen t fa ilu r e
u n les s pr ompt ly cor r ect ed. Min or r epair s
a r e qu ickly ma de wit h s ma ll cr ews a n d
h a n d-t ools , wit h a min imu m in t er r u pt ion of
t r a ffic. La r ger bit u min ou s r epa ir s r equ ir e
mor e t ime, per s on n el, a n d equ ipmen t , a n d
ma y r es u lt in in t er fer en ce wit h t r a ffic or , in
ext r eme ca s es , r equ ir e con s t r u ct ion of
det ou r s t o a void complet e s t oppa ge.
Pa t c h e s
All pa t ch es s h ou ld be t r immed s qu a r e or
oblon g wit h s t r a igh t , ver t ica l s ides r u n n in g
par allel an d per pen dicu lar t o t h e cen t er lin e
of t h e t r a ffic a r ea .
Te mpor a r y Re pa ir s
An y s t a ble ma t er ia l ma y be u s ed for t em-
por a r y r epa ir s in comba t a r ea s or wh er e
s u it a ble ma t er ia l is n ot a va ila ble a n d t h e
t r a ffic a r ea mu s t be pa t ch ed t o keep t r a ffic
movin g. Good-qu a lit y s oil a n d ma s on r y or
con cr et e r u bble ar e s u it able for t h is pu r -
pos e. All s u ch pa t ch es mu s t be t h or ou gh ly
compa ct ed a n d con s t a n t ly ma in t a in ed wit h
r epla cemen t ma t er ia l. Mor e per ma n en t
pat ch in g s h ou ld be accomplis h ed as s oon
as pos s ible.
Ma i n t e n a n c e of Sh ou lde r s
Sh ou lder s a r e bla ded t o fa cilit a t e dr a in a ge
of r a in wa t er fr om t h e s u r fa ce. Ru t s a n d
wa s h ou t s a r e filled. Sh ou lder ma t er ia l is
kept gr aded flu s h again s t pavemen t edges
t o r es t r ict s eepa ge of wa t er t o t h e s u bgr a de
a n d t o pr even t br ea kin g of t h e pa vemen t
edge by t r affic dr ivin g off t h e pavemen t
on t o t h e s h ou lder . Ma t er ia l dis pla ced fr om
s h ou lder s is r eplaced wit h n ew mat er ial as
r equ ir ed.
GENERAL ROAD STRUCTURAL DESIGN
TO r oads will n or mally be des ign ed as u n -
s urfaced, aggregate, or flexible-pavement s ys -
t ems . Th e des ign pr ocedu r e for each t ype
fir s t in volves as s ign in g a clas s (A - G) des ig-
n a t ion t o t h e r oa d ba s ed u pon t h e n u mber
of veh icle pas s es per day. A d es ign cate-
gory (I - VII) is t h en a s s ign ed t o t h e t r a ffic
ba s ed u pon t h e compos it ion of t h e t r a ffic.
A d es ign ind ex (1 - 10) is det er min ed fr om
t h e des ign cat egor y an d r oad clas s . Th is de-
s ign in dex is u s ed t o det er min e eit h er t h e
CBR s t r en gt h r equ ir emen t s of t h e u n s u r -
fa ced r oa ds or t h e t h ickn es s of t h e a ggr e-
ga t e s u r fa ce or flexible-pa vemen t s ys t em r e-
qu ir ed a bove a s oil wit h a given CBR
s t r en gt h .
NOTE: As mi s s i on r e qu i r e me n t s c h a n ge
(a for wa r d-a r e a r oa d be c ome s a r e a r -a r e a
r oa d), t h e r oa d c la s s a n d de s ign in de x
wi ll c h a n ge . Th e de s i gn pr oc e du r e s ou t -
lin e d in t h is s e c t ion a llow for t h e e a s y
u pgr a din g of r oa ds a s t h e mis s ion c h a n -
ge s . Th is e n s u r e s t h e a bilit y t o e a s ily
c on ve r t a n u n s u r fa c e d r oa d t o a n a g-
gr e ga t e -s u r fa c e d r oa d t o a fle xi ble -pa ve -
me n t r oa d wi t h ou t ma jor c h a n ge s i n t h e
de s ign pr oc e du r e .
CLASSES OF ROADS
Th e cla s s es of r oa ds va r y fr om A t o G.
Select ion of t h e pr oper clas s depen ds u pon
t h e t r a ffic in t en s it y a n d is det er min ed fr om
Ta b le 9 - 8 .
9-58 Road Design
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table 9-8. Road-class selection criteria
DESIGN INDEX
Th e des ign of r oads will be bas ed on a
des ign in dex r epr es en t in g all t r affic ex-
pect ed t o u s e t h e r oad du r in g it s life. Th e
des ign in dex is bas ed on t ypical magn it u des
a n d compos it ion s of t r a ffic r edu ced t o
equ iva len t s in t er ms of r epet it ion s of a n
18,000-pou n d, s in gle-axle, du al-wh eel load.
For des ign s in volvin g pn eu mat ic-t ir ed
veh icles , t r affic is clas s ified in t o t h r ee
gr ou ps , as follows :
Gr ou p 1. Pas s en ger car s an d pan el an d
picku p t r u cks .
Gr ou p 2. Two-axle t r u cks (exclu din g
p i c k u p t r u c k s ).
Gr ou p 3. Th r ee-, fou r -, an d five-axle
t r u cks .
Tr affic compos it ion will t h en be gr ou ped
in t o t h e followin g ca t egor ies (s u mma r ized
for eas y r efer en ce in Table 9-9):
Ca t egor y I. Tr a ffic compos ed pr ima r ily
of pas s en ger car s an d pan el an d picku p
t r u cks (Gr ou p 1 veh icles ) bu t con t ain -
in g n ot mor e t h a n 1 per cen t t wo-a xle
t r u cks (Gr ou p 2 veh icles ).
Ca t egor y II. Tr a ffic compos ed pr ima r ily
of pas s en ger car s an d pan el an d picku p
t r u cks (Gr ou p 1 veh icles ), an d con t ain -
in g a s mu ch a s 10 per cen t t wo-a xle
t r u cks (Gr ou p 2 veh icles ). No t r u cks
Table 9-9. Pneumatic-tired traffic categories
based on traffic composition
h a vin g t h r ee or mor e a xles (Gr ou p 3
veh icles ) ar e per mit t ed in t h is cat egor y.
Ca t egor y III. Tr a ffic con t a in in g a s
mu ch a s 15 per cen t Gr ou p 2 bu t wit h
n ot mor e t h a n 1 per cen t of t h e t ot a l t r a f-
fic compos ed of t r u cks h a vin g t h r ee or
mor e axles (Gr ou p 3 veh icles ).
Ca t egor y IV. Tr a ffic con t a in in g a s
mu ch a s 25 per cen t Gr ou p 2 bu t wit h
n ot mor e t h a n 10 per cen t of t h e t ot a l
t r a ffic compos ed of t r u cks h a vin g t h r ee
or mor e axles (Gr ou p 3 veh icles ).
Ca t egor y IVA. Tr a ffic con t a in in g mor e
t h a n 25 per cen t Gr ou p 2 or mor e t h a n
10 per cen t t r u cks h a vin g t h r ee or mor e
axles (Gr ou p 3 veh icles ).
des ign in dex t o be u s ed, if des ign in g a Th e
r oa d for t h e u s u a l pn eu ma t ic-t ir ed veh icles ,
will be s elect ed fr om Table 9-10 bas ed on
Table 9-10. Design index for pneumatic-tired
vehicles
Road Design 9-59
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
t h e r oa d cla s s (A t o G) a n d ca t egor y (I t o
IVA) .
Wh er e t r acked veh icles or for klift t r u cks ar e
in volved in t h e t r a ffic compos it ion , t h e fol-
lowin g t h r ee con s ider at ion s apply:
Tr acked veh icles n ot exceedin g 15,000
lb an d for klift t r u cks n ot exceedin g
6,000 lb a r e t r ea t ed a s t wo-a xle t r u cks
(Gr ou p 2 veh icles ) in det er min in g t h e
des ign in dex.
Tr acked veh icles exceedin g 15,000
pou n ds bu t n ot 40,000 pou n ds an d
for klift t r u cks exceedin g 6,000 pou n ds
bu t n ot 10,000 pou n ds a r e t r ea t ed a s
t h r ee-axle t r u cks (Gr ou p 3 veh icles ) in
det er min in g t h e des ign in dex.
Tr affic compos ed of t r acked veh icles ex-
ceedin g 40,000 pou n ds an d for klift
t r u cks exceedin g 10,000 pou n ds h as
been divided in t o t h e t h r ee cat egor ies
Table 9-11. Tracked-vehicle and forklift traffic
categories
Roa ds s u s t a in in g t r a ffic of t r a cked veh icles
weigh in g les s t h an 40,000 pou n ds an d
for klift t r u cks weigh in g les s t h an 10,000
pou n ds will be des ign ed accor din g t o t h e
per t in en t cla s s a n d ca t egor y fr om Ta ble 9-
10, page 9-59. Roa ds s u s t a in in g t r a ffic of
t r acked veh icles h eavier t h an 40,000
pou n ds an d for klift s h eavier t h an 10,000
pou n ds will be des ign ed accor din g t o t h e
t r a ffic in t en s it y a n d ca t egor y fr om Ta ble 9-
12.
NOT E : DO NOT i n c l u d e a n y wh e e l e d
ve h i c l e s i n t h e t ot a l n u m be r of t r a c k e d
ve h i c le s a n d for k li ft s wh e n u s i n g Ta ble
9 -1 2 .
De s i gn Li fe
Th e life as s u med for des ign is les s t h an or
equ a l t o 5 yea r s . For a des ign life of mor e
t h an 5 year s , t h e des ign in dexes in Tables
9-10 an d 9-12 mu s t be in cr eas ed by on e.
Des ign in dexes below 3 n eed n ot be in -
cr eas ed.
En t r a n c e s , Exi t s , a n d Se gme n t s
Regar dles s of t h e des ign clas s s elect ed for
h ar ds t an ds , s pecial con s ider at ion s h ou ld be
given t o t h e des ign of a ppr oa ch r oa ds , exit
r oa ds , a n d ot h er h ea vy-t r a ffic a r ea s .
Fa ilu r e or poor per for ma n ce in t h es e ch a n -
n elized t r a ffic a r ea s oft en h a s gr ea t er im-
pa ct t h a n loca lized fa ilu r e on t h e h a r ds t a n d
it s elf.
Sin ce t h es e a r ea s will a lmos t cer t a in ly be
s u bject ed t o mor e fr equ en t a n d h ea vier
loa ds t h a n t h e h a r ds t a n d, t h e des ign in dex
u s ed for t h e pr imar y r oad s h ou ld be u s ed
for en t r a n ces a n d exit s t o t h e h a r d s t a n d.
Table 9-12. Design index for tracked vehicles and forklifts
9-60 Road Design
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
In t h e ca s e of la r ge h a r ds t a n ds h a vin g mu l-
t iple u s es a n d mu lt iple en t r a n ces a n d exit s ,
con s ider a t ion s h ou ld be given t o pa r t it ion -
in g an d u s in g differ en t clas s es of des ign .
Th e immedia t e ben efit s t h a t wou ld a ccr u e
in clu de econ omy t h r ou gh elimin a t ion of ex-
ces s ive des ign in s ome ar eas an d bet t er or -
ga n iza t ion of veh icles a n d equ ipmen t .
UNSURFACED ROADS
An u n s u r faced r oad is on e in wh ich t h e in -
place n at u r al s oil or bor r ow s oil is u s ed as
t h e r oa d s u r fa ce. Typica lly, t h e con s t r u c-
t ion effor t r equ ir ed in clu des on ly clear in g
an d gr u bbin g followed by s car ifyin g gr ad-
in g, a n d compa ct in g.
Des ign in g u n s u r faced r oads con s is t s of t h e
followin g s t eps :
1. Es t ima t e t h e n u mber of pa s s es of ea ch
t ype of veh icle expect ed t o u s e a r oad on a
daily bas is .
2. Select t h e pr oper r oad clas s bas ed u pon
t h e t r a ffic in t en s it y fr om Ta ble 9-8, pa ge
9-59.
3. Det er min e t h e t r a ffic ca t egor y ba s ed
u pon t h e t r a ffic compos it ion cr it er ia s h own
in Table 9-9, page 9-59.
4. Det er min e t h e des ign in dex fr om Table
9-10, page 9-59, or Table 9-12.
5. Rea d t h e s oil-s u r fa ce s t r en gt h r equ ir ed
t o s u ppor t t h e des ign in dex fr om Figu r e
9-50.
6, Ch eck wh et h er t h e des ign (compact ed)
CBR valu e of in -place s oil exceeds t h e CBR
valu e r equ ir ed. If t h e in -place des ign CBR
va lu e is les s t h a n t h e CBR r equ ir ed, t h e
en gin eer mu s t decide wh et h er 10 decr eas e
t h e des ign life or impr ove t h e in -place s oil
t o meet t h e CBR r equ ir ed by on e of t h e
followin g met h ods : s oil s t a biliza t ion , s oil
t r ea t men t , or pla cin g a ggr ega t e.
7. Det er min e t h e r equ ir ed u n s u r faced-s oil
t h ickn es s . Given t h e r equ ir ed CBR fr om
s t ep 6 an d t h e des ign in dex fr om s t ep 4,
t h e r equ ir ed u n s u r faced-s oil t h ickn es s or
dept h of compa ct ion ca n be obt a in ed fr om
Figu r e 9-51, page 9-62.
Exa mple (Un s u r fa ced-Roa d Des ign ):
To illu s t r a t e t h e pr ocedu r e for det er min in g
s oil-s u r fa ce s t r en gt h r equ ir emen t s , a s s u me
t h a t a n u n s u r fa ced r oa d is t o be u s ed on e
year . Th e r oad will be s u bject ed t o t h e fol -
lowin g a ver a ge da ily t r a ffic:
Figure 9-50. Unsurfaced-soil strength requirements
Road Design 9-61
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 9-51. Unsurfaced-soil thickness requirements
qu ir ed. If n ot , con s ider u s in g eit h er s oil
Solu t ion :
1. Det er min e t h e a ver a ge da ily t r a ffic
(given ).
2. Select r oad clas s E fr om Table 9-8, page
9-59, bas ed u pon 230 veh icles per day.
3. Select t r a ffic ca t egor y IVA, ba s ed u pon
t h e per cen t a ge of Gr ou p 3 veh icles .
4. Th e des ign in dex is 3 fr om Table 9-10,
p a g e 9 - 5 9 .
5. Th e s oil-s u r fa ce s t r en gt h r eequ ir emen t
for a des ign in dex of 3 is 10.8 CBR.
6. Ch eck t o en s u r e t h e des ign CBR va lu e
of t h e in -place s oil exceeds t h e 10.8 CBR r e-
s t a biliza t ion or a n a ggr ega t e r oa d.
7. Det er min e t h e r equ ir ed u n s u r faced-s oil
t h ickn es s fr om Figu r e 9-51. Given a des ign
in dex of 3 an d a r equ ir ed CBR of 10.8, t h e
r equ ir ed t h ickn es s fr om Figu r e 9-51 is 6 in -
ch es .
AGGREGATE- SURFACED ROADS
Th e des ign of aggr egat e-s u r faced r oads is
s imila r t o t h e des ign of u n s u r fa ced r oa ds .
However , in a ggr ega t e-s u r fa ced r oa ds .
La yer s of h igh -qu a lit y ma t er ia l a r e pla ced
on t h e n a t u r a l s u bgr a de t o impr ove it s
s t r en gt h .
Ma t e r i a l s
Ma t er ia ls u s ed in a ggr ega t e r oa ds mu s t
meet t h e r equ ir emen t s a s s t a t ed in Ch a pt er
5 of t h is ma n u a l a n d in t h e followin g
pa r a gr a ph s . Th e ma t er ia ls s h ou ld h a ve
gr ea t er s t r en gt h t h a n t h e s u bgr a de a n d
s h ou ld be pla ced s o t h a t t h e h igh er -qu a lit y
ma t er ia l is pla ced on t op of t h e lower -
qu a lit y ma t er ia l.
9-62 Road Design
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table 9-13. Compaction criteria and CBR
requirements for an aggregate road structure
NOTES:
1 . All lift s in a r oa d de s ign mu s t be a t le a s t 4
i n c h e s .
2 . A c oh e s ive s oil is on e wit h a PI a bove 5 .
3 . A c oh e s ion le s s s oil is on e wit h a PI of 5 or le s s .
4 . Pe r c e n t c ompa c t ion Is c ompa r e d t o t h e
CE 5 5 c u r ve a c c or din g t o ASTM D1 5 5 7 .
Se le c t a n d Su bba s e Ma t e r i a ls
Select an d s u bbas e mat er ials u s ed in ag-
gr ega t e a n d flexible-pa vemen t r oa ds mu s t
meet t h e r equ ir emen t s of Ta ble 9-13.
Ba s e Cou r s e
On ly good-qu a lit y ma t er ia ls s h ou ld be u s ed
in ba s e cou r s es of h ea vy-du t y a ggr ega t e
r oa ds . Specificat ion s for gr aded, cr u s h ed
a ggr ega t e; lime r ock; a n d s t a bilized a g-
gr ega t e ma y be u s ed wit h ou t qu a lifica t ion
for des ign of r oads , s t r eet s , an d par kin g
a r ea s .
Specificat ion s for dr y an d wat er -bou n d
ma ca da m ba s e cou r s es ma y be u s ed for
des ign of h eavy-du t y r oads on ly wh en t h e
followin g t wo con dit ion s a r c s a t is fied:
Th e cos t of t h e dr y or wa t er -bou n d
ma ca da m ba s e does n ot exceed t h e cos t
of a s t a bilized, a ggr ega t e ba s e cou r s e.
Th e con s t r u ct ion u n it h a s t h e equ ip-
men t a n d exper t is e t o pla ce a ma ca da m
s u r fa ce (wet or dr y) t o a ccept a ble s t a n d-
a r ds of s moot h n es s a n d gr a de.
Des ign CBR of Bas e Cours e. Wh er e s u b-
bas e mat er ial is u s ed for bas e-cou r s e con -
s t r u ct ion , t h e ba s e cou r s e CBR mu s t be a t
lea s t 50 a n d t h e ma t er ia l mu s t con for m t o
t h e gr a da t ion a n d At t er ber g limit r equ ir e-
men t for a 50-CBR s u bba s e a s s h own in
Table 9-14. Ot h er wis e, t h e des ign CBR of
t h e ba s e cou r s e mu s t meet t h e r equ ir e-
men t s of Table 9-15, page 9-64.
Gradation Requirements . Gr a da t ion r equ ir e-
men t s for a ggr ega t e-s u r fa ced r oa ds a n d for
ma ca da m ba s e cou r s es a r e given in Ch a pt er
5.
Table 9-14. Maximum permissible values for subbases and select materials
Road Design 9-63
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table 9-15. Assigned CBR ratings for base-
course materials - aggregate-surfaced road
Thick nes s Requirements . Th ickn es s r equ ir e-
men t s for a ggr ega t e-s u r fa ced r oa ds a r e
det er min ed fr om Figu r e 9-52, page 9-65, for
a given s oil s t r en gt h an d des ign in dex. Th e
min imu m t h ickn es s r equ ir emen t will be 4
in ch es .
Figu r e 9-52 pr ovides t h e t h ickn es s of ag-
gr egat e bas ed on CBR an d des ign in dex.
Th e t h ickn es s det er min ed fr om t h e figu r e
ma y be con s t r u ct ed of compa ct ed gr a n u la r
fill for t h e t ot a l dept h over t h e compa ct ed
s u bgr a de or in a la yer ed s ys t em of gr a n u la r
fill wit h s u bba s es for t h e s a me t ot a l dept h .
Th e layer ed s ect ion mu s t be ch ecked t o en -
s u r e t h a t a n a dequ a t e t h ickn es s of ma t er ia l
is u s ed t o pr ot ect t h e u n der lyin g la yer
ba s ed on t h e CBR of t h e u n der lyin g la yer .
Th e gr an u lar fill may con s is t of bas e, s u b-
bas e, an d s elect mat er ial, pr ovided t h e t op
4 in ch es meet t h e gr a da t ion r equ ir emen t t s
Compa c t ion Re qu ir e me n t s
Cor n pa ct ion r equ ir emen t s for t h e s u bgr a de
an d gr an u lar layer s ar e expr es s ed as a per -
cen t of ma ximu m CE 55 den s it y a s det er -
min ed by u s in g MIL-STD-621 Tes t Met h od
100.
Normal Subgrades . Compa ct t h e s u bgr a de
t o 90-per cen t CE 55 den s it y for coh es ive
s oils (PI>5; LL>25) an d 95-per cen t for
coh es ion les s s oils
NOTE: It ma y be pos s ible t o c ompa c t t h e
s u bgr a de ma t e r ia l t o t h e r e qu ir e d de n s it y
i n i t s n a t u r a l s t a t e . Howe ve r , i n c a s e s wh e r e
t h e moi s t u r e c on t e n t i s ou t of t h e s pe c i fi c a -
t i on r a n ge , i t ma y be n e c e s s a r y t o s c a r i fy
t h e s oil (t h e r e by a e r a t in g t h e s oil t o a dju s t
t h e mois t u r e c on t e n t ) a n d t h e n c ompa c t .
Th is pr oc e s s is c a lle d s c a r ify a n d c ompa c t
in pla c e (SCIP).
S pecial S ubgrad es . Th e pr ocedu r es for com-
pa ct in g s u bgr a des of cla ys t h a t los e
s t r en gt h wh en r emolded, s ilt s t h a t become
qu ick wh en r emolded, an d s oils wit h expan -
s ive ch ar act er is t ics ar e des cr ibed in Ch ap-
t er 5 of t h is ma n u a l.
Su bgr ade in cu t s an d fills mu s t h ave den -
s it ies equ a l t o or gr ea t er t h a n t h e va lu es
s h own in Table 9-13, page 9-63, except
t h at fills will be placed at n o les s t h an 95
per cen t den s it y for coh es ion les s s oils or 90
per cen t for coh es ive s oils .
Wh er e t h is is n ot t h e ca s e for cu t s , t h e s u b-
gr a de mu s t (1) be compa ct ed fr om t h e s u r -
face t o meet t h e den s it ies s h own ; (2) be
r emoved an d r eplaced, in wh ich cas e t h e r e-
qu ir emen t s given above for fills apply; or (3)
be cover ed wit h s u fficien t s elect mat er ial,
s u bba s e, a n d ba s e s o t h a t t h e u n compa ct ed
s u bgr ade is at a dept h wh er e t h e in -place
den s it ies a r e s a t is fa ct or y.
Depth of Compaction. Compa ct t h e s u b-
gr ade t o t h e dept h s pecified in Table 9-16,
page 9-66, for coh es ive s oils (PI > 5) an d
Table 9-17, page 9-66, for coh es ion les s
s oils (PI 5).
NOTE: Wh e n de pt h of c ompa c t i on fr om
Ta ble 9 -1 6 or 9 -1 7 i s n ot fe a s i ble or a t -
t a i n a ble i n c u t s e c t i on s , pe r for m a 6 -i n c h
SCIP a n d c on t in u e de s ign ba s e d on t h e
u n c ompa c t e d s u bgr a de CBR.
Select Materials . Th e pr ocedu r e is t h e s ame
a s for t h e s u bgr a de.
Subbas e. Compa ct t h e s u bba s e t o n ot les s
t h an 100-per cen t CE 55 den s it y.
Bas e Cours e. Compa ct t h e ba s e cou r s e t o
t h e ma ximu m degr ee pr a ct ica ble bu t n ot
les s t h an 100-per cen t CE 55 den s it y.
9-64 Road Design
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 9-52. Design curves for aggregate-surfaced roads.
Road Design 9-65

a:
B

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Thickness, inches
15 20
40 50
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM
Table 9-16. Required
32-8013, Vol 1
depth of subgrade compaction for roads, cohesionless soils
Table 9-17. Required depth of subgrade compaction for roads, cohesive soils (PI>5)
De s i gn St e ps for Aggr e ga t e -Su r fa c e d
Roa d s
1. Es t ima t e t h e n u mber of pa s s es of ea ch
t ype of veh icle expect ed t o u s e t h e r oad on
a daily bas is .
t h e t r a ffic in t en s it y fr om Ta ble 9-8, pa ge
9-59.
u pon t h e t r a ffic-compos it ion cr it er ia given
in Table 9-9, page 9-59.
9-10, page 9-59, or Table 9-12, page 9-60.
5. Ch eck s oils an d con s t r u ct ion aggr egat es
u s in g s t an dar d cr it er ia in Tables 5-4, page
5-12; 9-14, page 9-63; an d 9-15, page 9-64.
6. Det er min e t h e dept h of compa ct ion for
t h e s u bgr ade s oil fr om Table 9-16 or 9-17,
7. Det er min e t h e t ot a l r oa d-s t r u ct u r e t h ick-
n es s an d cover r equ ir emen t s .
a. En t er Figu r e 9-52, page 9-65, for each
la yer of s oil or a ggr ega t e wit h t h e followin g
in for ma t ion :
Des ign in dex.
Des ign CBR valu es for s u bgr ade, s e-
lect , a n d s u bba s e ma t er ia ls .
b. Det er min e t h e min imu m cover t h ick-
n es s , in in ch es , for each layer of t h e aggr e-
ga t e r oa d s t r u ct u r e.
8. Det er min e t h e r equ ir ed per cen t compa c-
t ion in t er ms of CE 55 for ea ch la yer fr om
Table 9-13, page 9-63.
9-66 Road Design
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
9. Dr a w t h e s ect ion of t h e a ggr ega t e r oa d
s t r u ct u r e, a s s h own followin g.
Exa mple (Aggr ega t e-Roa d Des ign ):
An a ggr ega t e-s u r fa ced r oa d is t o be u s ed for
t wo year s . Th e r oad will be s u bject ed t o
Average
Vehicle Daily Traffic
M998 HMMWV 10
M929 5-ton 25
dump truck
(dual axle)
M729 combat 35
engineer vehicle
(CEV) (60-ton
tracked vehicle)
Available material CBR:
Natural subgrade = 5 (clay, PI = 15)
Design (compacted) subgrade = 8
Clean sand subbase = 30
Lime rock = 80; meets gradation requirement
for maximum size aggregate of 1".
Solu t ion :
1. Nu mber of daily pas s es = 70 (given ).
2. Select r oad clas s F fr om Table 9-8, page
9-59, bas ed u pon aver age daily t r affic of 70.
3. Select t r a ffic ca t egor y VII fr om in for ma t ion
pr eviou s ly given , bas ed u pon t h e pr es en ce of
t h e 60-t on t r acked veh icle.
4. Select des ign in dex of 9 fr om Table
9-12, page 9-60. NOTE: You mu s t r ou n d t h e
a ve r a ge da i ly t r a c k e d-t r a ffi c va lu e of 3 5 t o
t h e n e xt h i gh e r va lu e (4 0 ) i n Ta ble 9 -1 2 .
5. Clean s an d CBR 30. (Su it able for s u bbas e
CBR 30. ) Cr u s h ed r ock CBR 80. (Su it a ble
for bas e cou r s e.)
6. Dept h of compa ct ion ba s ed on CBR 5 for
compact ed s u bgr ade is 15 in ch es . (See Table
9-17.
7. Det er min e t h e r oa d-s t r u ct u r e t h ickn es s r e-
qu ir ed t o s u ppor t a des ign in dex of 9.
a . Fir s t , look a t t h e r equ ir ed r oa d t h ickn es s
if t h e s u bgr a de wa s n ot compa ct ed t o t h e
des ign CBR. In t h is ca s e, t h e n a t u r a l s u bgr a de
CBR 5 is u s ed in Figu r e 9-52. Th is r es u lt s in
a r equ ir ed t ot a l t h ickn es s of 16 in ch es , a s
s h own .
b. Now, look at t h e r equ ir ed t h ickn es s
wh en t h e s u bgr a de is compa ct ed, In t h is
cas e, t h e des ign s u bgr ade CBR = 8 is u s ed
in Figu r e 9-52, r es u lt in g in a r equ ir ed t ot al
t h ickn es s of 12 in ch es , as s h own .
Road Design 9-67
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Not ice h ow compa ct in g t h e s u bgr a de gr ea t ly
r edu ces t h e r equ ir ed t h ickn es s of t h e cover
mat er ial. Th is is wh y t h e s u bgr ade is a l -
wa ys compa ct ed.
c. Fin a lly, look a t t h e t ot a l t h ickn es s a n d
r equ ir ed cover for each layer wh en t h e s u b-
gr ade is compact ed an d a clean s an d s u bbas e
wit h CBR 30 is u s ed. Fir s t , t h e des ign s u b-
gr ade CBR 8 is u s ed in Figu r e 9-52, page 9-65,
t o det er min e t h e 12-in ch t ot a l t h ickn es s r e-
qu ir ed a bove t h e compa ct ed s u bgr a de. Next ,
t h e clean s an d CBR 30 is u s ed in Figu r e 9-52
t o det er min e t h e r equ ir ed cover of 4 in ch es
above t h e s u bbas e. Th is r es u lt s in t h e s ect ion ,
a s s h own .
Not ice h ow t h e a ddit ion of t h e clea n s a n d
s u bbas e r edu ces t h e r equ ir ed t h ickn es s of
t h e mom expen s ive lime r ock.
9-68 Road Design
8. Th e r equ ir ed per cen t compact ion of each
layer is det er min ed fr om Table 9-13, page
9-63, as follows :
Crushed rock base course: 100-105 percent
Clean sand subbase course: 100-105 percent
Compacted subgrade-since the PI = 15, it is a
cohesive soil: 90-95 percent
9. Dr a w t h e s ect ion of t h e a ggr ega t e r oa d
s t r u ct u r e. Sin ce t wo s ect ion s wer e
des ign ed, on e wit h a s u bbas e an d on e
wit h ou t , bot h s h ou ld be dr a wn .
a . Fir s t , des ign t h e s ect ion wit h ou t t h e s u b-
bas e layer .
b. Now, t h e des ign t h e s ect ion wit h t h e
s u bba s e la yer .
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Given t h a t t h e ba s e-cou r s e ma t er ia l is mor e
expen s ive t h an t h e clean s an d s u bbas e, s ec-
t ion b wou ld be t h e mos t econ omica l des ign .
Not e, h owever , t h at all pos s ible des ign s ec-
t ion s for t h e a va ila ble ma t er ia ls mu s t be
eva lu a t ed econ omica lly. Th er e ma y be r a r e
in s t a n ces wh er e t h e s u bba s e ma t er ia l ma y
be mor e expen s ive t h an t h e bas e cou r s e.
In t h a t ca s e, on ly t h e ba s e cou r s e wou ld
u s ed.
BI TUMI NOUS PAVEMENTS
be
Bit u min ou s -, or flexible-, pavemen t des ign s
per mit t h e ma ximu m u s e of r ea dily a va il-
a ble loca l con s t r u ct ion ma t er ia ls . Th ey a r e
ea s ier t o con s t r u ct a n d u pgr a de t h a n r igid
pavemen t des ign s . Th u s , t h ey per mit
gr eat er flexibilit y in r es pon din g t o ch an ges
in t h e t a ct ica l s it u a t ion .
Flexible-pavemen t des ign pr ocedu r es ar e dif-
fer en t fr om air field des ign pr ocedu r es . Th is
ch apt er is limit ed t o flexible-pavemen t de-
s ign s for r oads . Ch apt er 12 of FM 5-430-
00-2/ AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 2 cover s air field
flexible-pavemen t des ign s . TM 5-822-6 cov-
er s r igid-pavemen t des ign s .
Pa ve me n t Type s a n d Us e s
Th e des cr ipt ion s , u s es , advan t ages , an d dis -
a dva n t a ges of bit u min ou s pa vemen t s a n d
s u r facin g pr es en t ed in TM 5-337 ar e applica-
ble t o TO con s t r u ct ion except a s modified in
t h e followin g pa r a gr a ph s . However , wh en
s u r facin g for s t eel t r eads is n eces s ar y, u s e
a n a s ph a lt cemen t wit h a pen et r a t ion gr a de
of 50-60 or 60-70, depen din g on t h e climat e
or s ea s on .
Specia l con s ider a t ion mu s t a ls o be given t o
t h e des ign a n d con s t r u ct ion of bit u min ou s
pa vemen t s t h a t will be s u bject ed t o t r a ffic
of t an ks an d s olid, r u bber -t ir ed veh icles .
Mos t oft en t h e n u mber of pa s s es of t a n ks
an d s olid, r u bber -t ir ed veh icles gover n s t h e
bit u min ou s -pa vemen t des ign .
Hot-Mix, Bituminous -Concrete Pavements .
Den s e-gr a ded, h ot -mix. bit u min ou s -con cr et e
mixt u r es ar e well-s u it ed for pavin g h eavy-
du t y t r a ffic r oa ds wit h volu mes of 3,000
veh icles or mor e per day. Wh er e con dit ion s
wa r r a n t , u s e t h es e mixt u r es t o pa ve r oa ds
h avin g t r affic volu mes of les s t h an 3,000 ve-
h icles per day. Select exa ct per cen t a ges of
bit u min ou s ma t er ia ls on t h e ba s is of des ign
t es t s des cr ibed in TM 5-337.
Cold-Laid, Bituminous -Concrete Plant Mix.
Wh er e h ot -mix, bit u min ou s -con cr et e mix-
t u r es a r e n ot a va ila ble, u s e cold-pla n t , bit u -
min ou s con cr et e t o pa ve a r ea s s u bject t o
pn eu ma t ic-t ir ed t r a ffic on ly.
Sheet As phalt, Stone-Filled Sheet As phalt,
Sand As phalt, or Sand-Tar Mixes . Fin e- a g-
gr egat e mixes may be u s ed for bin der an d
s u r fa ce cou r s es of r oa ds wit h t r a ffic vol-
u mes of 2,000 or fewer veh icles per day
wh en s a n d or ot h er s u it a ble fin e a ggr ega t es
a r e t h e on ly a ggr ega t es a va ila ble. Th es e
mixes s h ou ld n ot be u s ed a s s u r fa ce or
bin der cou r s es for r oads or in du s t r ial-u s e
pavemen t s des ign ed for s olid, r u bber -t ir ed
or s t eel wh eels . In a ll ca s es , mixt u r es
ma de wit h t h es e a ggr ega t es s h ou ld con for m
t o t h e cr it er ia for low-pr es s u r e t ir es (100
ps i or les s ), bas ed on labor at or y t es t s .
Penetration Macad ams . Do n ot u s e pen et r a -
t ion ma ca da m for pa vin g a n y a r ea s s u bject
t o t r a ffic fr om t r a cked veh icles .
Bituminous Road Mix. Us e r oa d mix a s a
wea r in g cou r s e for TO r oa ds or a s t h e fir s t
s t ep in s t a ge con s t r u ct ion for mor e per ma -
n en t r oa ds . Wh en t h e exis t in g s u bgr ade
s oil is s u it a ble or s a t is fa ct or y a ggr ega t es a r e
n ea r by, r oa d mixin g s a ves t ime in h a n dlin g
a n d t r a n s por t in g a ggr ega t es a s compa r ed
wit h plan t mixin g. Wh en pr oper ly des ign ed
a n d con s t r u ct ed, t h e qu a lit y of r oa d mix a p-
pr oa ch es t h a t of cold-la id pla n t mix. Roa d
mix is u s ed for bin der an d s u r face cou r s es .
It is gen er ally con s ider ed in fer ior t o plan t -
mix pa vemen t s ma n u fa ct u r ed in s t a n da r d
pla n t s beca u s e of t h e les s a ccu r a t e con t r ol.
Fle xi ble -Pa ve me n t St r u c t u r e
A t ypica l flexible-pa vemen t s t r u ct u r e is s h own
in Figu r e 9-53, page 9-70, an d illu s t r at es t h e
t er ms u s ed t o r efer t o t h e va r iou s la yer s .
Road Design 9-69
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
NOTE: Not all layers and coats are present In every
flexible-pavement structure. Intermediate courses may be
placed In one or more lifts. Tack coats maybe required on
the surface of each intermediate course.
Figure 9-53. Flexible-pavement design
A bit u min ou s pa vemen t ma y con s is t of on e
or mor e cou r s es depen din g on s t age con -
s t r u ct ion fea t u r es , job con dit ion s , a n d t h e
econ omica l u s e of ma t er ia ls . Th e pa vemen t
s h ou ld con s is t of a s u r fa ce cou r s e, a n in t er -
mediat e (bin der ) cou r s e, an d a levelin g
cou r s e, wh en n eeded. Th es e s h ou ld be
t h ick en ou gh t o pr even t dis pla cemen t of
t h e bas e cou r s e becau s e of s h ear defor ma-
t ion , t o pr ovide lon g life by r es is t in g t h e ef-
fect s of wea r a n d t r a ffic a br a s ion , t o be wa -
t er pr oof, a n d t o min imize differ en t ia l s et t le-
men t s .
Sou r c e s of Su pply
If t ime a n d con dit ion s per mit , in ves t iga t e
s u bgr a de con dit ion s : bor r ow a r ea s ; a n d a ll
s ou r ces of s elect mat er ials , s u bbas e, bas e,
an d pavin g aggr egat es befor e des ign in g t h e
pavemen t . In det er min in g s u bgr ade con di-
t ion s in cu t s ect ion s of r oa ds , con du ct t es t
bor in gs deeper t h a n t h e fr os t pen et r a t ion
dept h . Th e min imu m bor in g s h ou ld n ever
be les s t h an 4 feet below t h e fin al gr ade.
Ma t e r i a l s
Ma t er ia ls u s ed in flexible pa vemen t s mu s t
meet t h e r equ ir emen t s a s s t a t ed in Ch a pt er
5 a n d in t h e followin g pa r a gr a ph s :
Se le c t Ma t e r i a ls a n d Su bba s e
Select mat er ials an d s u bbas es u s ed in bit u -
min ou s pa vemen t s mu s t meet t h e s a me r e-
qu ir emen t s a s for a ggr ega t e-s u r fa ced r oa ds
as in dicat ed in Table 9-14, page 9-63.
Ba s e Cou r s e
Th e bas e cou r s e u s ed in bit u min ou s pave-
men t s mu s t meet t h e s a me r equ ir emen t s a s
for a ggr ega t e-s u r fa ced r oa ds a s in dica t ed
pr eviou s ly. except as n ot ed below.
Des ign CBR of Bas e Cours e. Wh er e s u b-
ba s e ma t er ia l is u s ed for ba s e con s t r u ct ion ,
t h e ba s e cou r s e CBR mu s t be a t lea s t 50
a n d t h e ma t er ia l mu s t con for m t o t h e At t er -
ber g limit r equ ir emen t for a 50-CBR s u b-
bas e as s h own in Table 9-14. Ot h er wis e,
t h e des ign CBR of t h e ba s e cou r s e mu s t
meet t h e r equ ir emen t s of Ta ble 9-18.
Bas e Cours e Grad ation Requirements . Th e
gr a da t ion r equ ir emen t s of t h e ba s e cou r s e
a r e a s in dica t ed in Ch a pt er 5 of t h is ma n u a l.
Th e ba s e cou r s e for a flexible pa vemen t mu s t
meet t h e s a me gr a da t ion r equ ir emen t s of
Table 5-4, page 5-12, s in ce t h e flexible pave-
men t will t r a n s fer mos t of t h e s h ea r s t r es s
cau s ed by t h e load dir ect ly t o t h e bas e cou r s e.
Table 9-18. Assigned CBR ratings for base
course materials - bituminous-surfaced road
9-70 Road Design
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Minimum Bas e-Cours e Thick nes s . Th e min i-
mu m a llowa ble t h ickn es s of t h e ba s e
cou r s e will be as s h own in Table 9-19; ex-
cept t h a t in n o ca s e will t h e t ot a l t h ickn es s
of pavemen t plu s bas e for clas s es A
t h r ou gh D r oa ds be les s t h a n 6 in ch es .
Bituminous -Pavement Mix. Bit u min ou s - p a ve-
men t -mix des ign con s is t s of s elect in g t h e bi-
t u men a n d a ggr ega t e gr a da t ion , blen din g a g-
gr ega t es t o con for m t o t h e s elect ed gr a da -
t ion , det er min in g t h e opt imu m bit u men (a s -
ph a lt cemen t ) con t en t , a n d ca lcu la t in g t h e
job mix for mu la . Bit u min ou s -mix des ign is
beyon d t h e s cope of t h is man u al an d is de-
u n der lyin g la yer ba s ed on t h e CBR of t h e
u n der lyin g layer .
Compa c t ion Re qu ir e me n t s
Compa ct ion of t h e s u bgr a de, s u bba s e, a n d
ba s e cou r s e mu s t meet t h e s a me r equ ir e-
men t s a s for a ggr ega t e-s u r fa ced r oa ds . In
addit ion , an as ph alt bas e cou r s e an d pave-
men t mu s t be compa ct ed t o CE-55 den s it y
of 98-100 per cen t . Th e compa ct ion cr it er ia
a n d CBR r equ ir emen t s for a bit u min ou s
pa vemen t a r e s u mma r ized in Ta ble 9-20,
page 9-73.
Bi t u mi n ou s -Pa ve me n t De s i gn
Des ign Requirements . Flexible-pa vemen t de-
Bit u min in ou s -Pa v e me n t Th ick n e s s Re qu ire -
s c r i b e d i n d e t a i l i n Ch a p t e r 4 o f TM
5-337.
ment. Th ick n es s d es ign r equ ir emen t s a r e
given in Figu r e 9-54, pa ge 9-72, in t er ms
of CBR a n d t h e des ign in dex det er min ed.
Mi n i m u m t h i c k n e s s r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e
s h own in Ta b le 9 - 1 9 .
Not e t h a t ea ch la yer ed s ect ion mu s t b e
ch ecked t o en s u r e t h a t a n a dequ a t e t h ick-
n e s s of ma t e r i a l i s u s e d t o p r ot e c t t h e
s ign mu s t pr ovide t h e followin g:
Su fficien t compa ct ion a n d t es t in g of t h e

s u bgr ade an d each layer du r in g con -
s t r u ct ion t o pr even t object ion a ble s et t le-
men t u n der t r a ffic.
Adequ a t e dr a in a ge of t h e ba s e cou r s e,
wh en fr os t con dit ion s a r e a fa ct or , t o
pr ovide for dr ain age of t h e bas e cou r s e
du r in g s pr in g t h a w.
Table 9-19 Minimum thickness, in inches, of pavement and base for conventional pavements
Road Design 9-71
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure 9-54. Thickness design requirements for flexible pavements
9-72 Road Design
Table 9-20. Compaction criteria and CBR
requirements for a flexiblew-pavement structure
Adequ a t e t h ickn es s a bove t h e s u bgr a de

a n d a bove ea ch la yer t oget h er wit h a de-
qu a t e qu a lit y of t h e s elect ma t er ia l, s u b-
bas e, an d bas e cou r s es t o pr even t det r i-
men t a l s h ea r defor ma t ion u n der t r a ffic
a n d, wh en fr os t con dit ion s a r e a fa ct or ,
t o con t r ol or r edu ce t h e effect s of fr os t
h ea ve or per ma fr os t degr a da t ion .
A s t a ble, wea t h er -r es is t a n t , wea r -r es is -
t a n t , wa t er pr oof, n on s lipper y pa vemen t .
Des ign St eps .
1. Es t ima t e t h e n u mber of pa s s es of ea ch t ype
of veh icle expect ed t o u s e t h e r oad on a daily
bas is .
t h e t r affic in t en s it y fr om Table 9-8, page 9-59.
u pon t h e t r a ffic-compos it ion cr it er ia given
pr eviou s ly.
9-10, page 9-59, or 9-12, page 9-60.
5. Ch eck s oils an d con s t r u ct ion aggr egat es
u s in g s t an dar d cr it er ia in Tables 5-9, page
5-12; 9-14, page 9-63; an d 9-18, page 9-70.
6. Us e Table 9-16 or 9-17, page 9-66, t o
det er min e compa ct ion dept h of t h e
s u bgr ade.
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
7. Det er min e t h e t ot a l r oa d-s t r u ct u r e t h ick-
n es s an d cover r equ ir emen t s .
a . En t er Figu r e 9-54 for ea ch la yer of
s oil or a ggr ega t e wit h t h e followin g in for ma -
t ion :
Des ign in dex.
Des ign CBR valu es for s u bgr ade, s elect ,
a n d s u bba s e ma t er ia ls .
b. Det er min e t h e min imu m cover t h ick-
n es s , in in ch es , for each layer of t h e r oad
s t r u ct u r e t h r ou gh Figu r e 9-54 a n d Ta ble
9-19, page 9-71.
8. Det er min e t h e r equ ir ed per cen t
compa ct ion in t er ms of CE 55 for ea ch
layer fr om Table 9-20.
9. Dr a w t h e s ect ion of t h e bit u min ou s -
pa vemen t r oa d s t r u ct u r e. (See below.)
Road Design 9-73
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Exa mple (Bit u min ou s -Pa vemen t Des ign ):
Des ign t h e mos t econ omica l bit u min ou s
pavemen t for a 3-year des ign life capable of
s u s t a in in g t h e followin g t r a ffic:
Vehicle Average Daily Traffic
5. Ch eck s oils a n d con s t r u ct ion a ggr ega t e.
a . Wh er e ca n t h e CBR 30 ma t er ia l be
u s ed? Table 9-14, page 9-63, in dicat es t h is
ma t er ia l ca n be u s ed on ly a s a s elect
mat er ial (CBR 20) becau s e t h e PI exceeds 5.
M998 HMMWV 1,000
M35A2 2 1/2-ton truck 500
( dual axl e)
M113A3 (13 tons) 40
M1A1 20
Th e s oils da t a a r e
Subgr ade:
CL material, PI = 12, W = 14 percent
Natural CBR = 5
Compaction at 90- to 95-percent CE 55,
CBR = 7
B o r r o w :
CBR 30 at 90- to 95-percent CE 55
W = 8 percent, LL = 15, PI = 5
40 percent passing No. 10 sieve, 12
percent passing No. 20 sieve
CBR 35 at 100- to 105-percent CE 55
W = 8 PERCENT, LL - 15, PI = 5
40 percent passing No. 10 sieve, 10
percent passing No. 20 sieve
Base: GP material at CBR 50 (meets grada-
tion)
S o l u t i o n :
1. Tot al aver age daily t r affic = 1,560 (given ).
2. Select r oad clas s E fr om Table 9-8, page
9-59, bas ed u pon aver age daily t r affic of
1 , 5 6 0 .
3. Select t r a ffic ca t egor y VII ba s ed u pon
t h e pr es en ce of t h e M1A1 t a n k.
4. Select des ign in dex 9 fr om Table 9-12,
pa ge 9-60. Not ice t h a t t h e n u mber of
veh icles per da y (20) in t h is t a ble r efer s t o
t h e M1A1 on ly, s in ce t h e M113A3 is con -
s ider ed a s a Gr ou p 3 veh icle beca u s e of it s
weigh t .
b. Wh er e ca n t h e CBR 35 ma t er ia l be
u s ed? Table 9-14 in dicat es t h at t h is
ma t er ia l ca n be u s ed a s a s u bba s e wit h a
CBR 30 des ign becau s e of t h e per cen t pas s -
in g t h e No. 10 s ieve.
6. Th e r equ ir ed dept h of s u bgr ade compac-
t ion = 15 in ch es .
7. Det er min e t h e t ot a l t h ickn es s a n d cover
r equ ir emen t s .
a. Fr om Figu r e 9-54, page 9-72, t h e r e-
qu ir ed cover for each layer is det er min ed
for des ign in dex of 9.
Layer
Compacted
subgrade, CBR 7
Required After
Cover Rounding
18" 18"
b. Fr om Table 9-19, page 9-71, t h e r e-
qu ir ed min imu m t h ickn es s for t h e ba s e
cou r s e an d s u r face as ph alt is det er min ed
for des ign in dex of 9.
8. Fr om Table 9-20, page 9-73, t h e r e-
qu ir ed compa ct ion is det er min ed for ea ch
la yer .
9-74 Road Design
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
9. Dr a w t h e s ect ion of t h e bit u min ou s -
pa vemen t r oa d s t r u ct u r e.
Shoulders and Similar Areas . Th es e a r ea s
ar e pr ovided on ly for t h e pu r pos e of min i-
mizin g da ma ge t o veh icles u s in g t h em a c-
ciden t ally or in emer gen cies ; t h er efor e, t h ey
a r e n ot con s ider ed n or ma l, veh icu la r t r a ffic
a r ea s . Nor ma lly on ly s h ou lder s for cla s s A
r oads will be paved. Ot h er s will be s u r -
faced wit h s oils s elect ed for t h eir s t abilit y
in wet wea t h er a n d will be compa ct ed a s r e-
qu ir ed. Du s t a n d er os ion con t r ol will be
pr ovided by mean s of veget at ive cover ,
a n ch or ed mu lch , coa r s e-gr a ded a ggr ega t e,
or liqu id pa llia t ive. Sh ou lder s will n ot
block bas e-cou r s e dr ain age, par t icu lar ly
wh er e fr os t con dit ion s a r e a fa ct or . Wh er e
pavin g of s h ou lder s is deemed n eces s ar y,
t h e s h ou lder s will be des ign ed as a clas s F
r oa d or s t r eet .
Special Cons iderations for Open Storage
Areas . In t h e des ign of open s t or a ge a r ea s ,
con s ider at ion will be given t o an y s pecial
r equ ir emen t s n eces s a r y beca u s e of t h e u s e
of a pa r t icu la r a r ea . In r epair yar ds , for in -
s t a n ce, t h e fin a l-s u r fa ce t ext u r e will be on e
t h a t will pr omot e qu ick dr yin g a n d will n ot
con t r ibu t e t o t h e ea s y los s of n u t s , bolt s ,
a n d t in y pa r t s . Mixt u r es in s u ch a r ea s will
con t a in a ppr oxima t ely 50 per cen t coa r s e a g-
gr ega t e. Ar ea s s u bject t o a n a ppr ecia ble
a mou n t of foot t r a ffic will be des ign ed t o
a void t h e occu r r en ce of fr ee bit u min ou s
ma t er ia l on t h e s u r fa ce.
SPECI AL DESI GN CONSI DERATI ONS
Special des ign con s ider at ion s in clu de fr os t
des ign , s t abilized-bas e des ign , an d geot ex-
t ile des ign .
Fr os t De s ign
Nor ma lly, fr os t effect s a r e n ot con s ider ed a s
pa r t of t h e des ign in TO r oa d con s t r u ct ion .
However , in t h e even t t h a t ext r emely s ever e
h os t con dit ion s exis t or t h a t fr os t des ign is
dir ect ed, an ou t lin e of t h e fr os t -des ign pr o-
cedu r e is in clu ded in Appen dix G of t h is
ma n u a l.
St a bi li ze d-Soi l De s i gn
Th e u s e of s t abilized-s oil layer s (as
des cr ibed in Ch apt er 5 of t h is man u al an d
in FM 5-410) wit h in a r oa d s t r u ct u r e
pr ovides t h e oppor t u n it y t o r edu ce t h e over -
all t h ickn es s r equ ir ed t o s u ppor t a given
loa d. To des ign a r oa d con t a in in g s t a bi-
lized-s oil layer s r equ ir es t h e applicat ion of
equ iva len cy fa ct or s t o a la yer or la yer s of a
con ven t ion ally des ign ed pavemen t .
To qu a lify for a pplica t ion of equ iva len cy fa c-
t or s , t h e s t a bilized la yer mu s t meet a p-
pr opr ia t e s t r en gt h a n d du r a bilit y r equ ir e-
men t s . An equ iva len cy fa ct or r epr es en t s
t h e n u mber of in ch es of a con ven t ion a l
bas e or s u bbas e wh ich can be r eplaced by
1 in ch of s t a bilized ma t er ia l. Equ iva len cy
fa ct or s a r e det er min ed a s s h own on Ta ble
9-21, page 9-76, for bit u min ou s -s t abilized
mat er ials an d fr om Figu r es 9-55 an d 9-56,
pa ge 9-76, for ma t er ia ls s t a bilized wit h
Road Design 9-75
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table 9-21. Thickness criteria
Equivalency Factors
Material
Base Subbase
All-bituminous concrete 1.15 2.30
GW, GP, GM, GC 1.00 2.00
SW, SP, SM, SC
- -
1.50
cemen t , lime, or a combin a t ion of fly a s h
mixed wit h cemen t or lime. Th e s elect ion
of a n equ iva len cy fa ct or fr om t h e t a bu la t ion
is depen den t u pon t h e clas s ificat ion of t h e
s oil t o be s t abilized. Th e s elect ion of an
equ ivalen cy fact or fr om Figu r es 9-55 an d 9-
56 r equ ir es t h a t t h e u n con fin ed compr es -
s ive s t r en gt h (a s det er min ed a ccor din g t o
t h e Amer ica n Societ y of Tes t in g a n d
Ma t er ia ls St a n da t d (ASTM) D1633) be
Figure 9-55. Equivalency factor for subbase
soils stabilized with cement, lime, or cement
and lime mixed with fly ash
kn own . Th e equ iva len cy fa ct or s fr om Fig-
u r e 9-55 ar e for s u bbas e mat er ials , an d
t h os e fr om Figu r e 9-56 ar e for bas e
ma t er ia ls .
Minimum Thick nes s . Th e min imu m t h ick-
n es s r equ ir emen t for a s t a bilized ba s e or
s u bbas e is 4.0 in ch es . Th e min imu m t h ick-
n es s r equ ir emen t s for a n a s ph a lt pa vemen t
a r e t h e s a me a s s h own for con ven t ion pa ve-
men t s in Table 9-19, page 9-71.
Application of Equivalency Factors . Th e u s e
of equ iva len cy fa ct or s r equ ir es t h a t a r oa d
be des ign ed t o s u ppor t t h e des ign -load con -
dit ion s . If u s in g a s t abilized bas e or s u b-
bas e cou r s e, t h e t h ickn es s of a con ven t ion -
al bas e or s u bbas e is divided by t h e
equ ivalen cy fact or for t h e applicable s t abi-
lized s oil. Th e followin g ar e examples for
t h e a pplica t ion of t h e equ iva len cy fa ct or s :
Figure 9-56. Equivalency factors for base
soils stabilized with cement, lime, or cement
and lime mixed with fly ash
9-76 Road Design
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Exa mple 1:
As s u me a n a ggr ega t e-s u r fa ced r oa d h a s
been des ign ed wh ich r equ ir es a t ot al t h ick-
n es s of 14 in ch es above t h e CBR 6 s u b-
gr ade. Th e min imu m t h ickn es s of t h e 80
CBR bas e is 7 in ch es an d t h e 15 CBR
s u bbas e is 7 in ch es . It is des ir ed t o r e-
place t h e bas e an d s u bbas e wit h a lime-s t a-
bilized gr avelly s oil h avin g an u n con fin ed
compr es s ion s t r en gt h of 950 ps i.
Solu t ion :
Fr om Figu r e 9-55 t h e equ iva len cy fa ct or for
t h e s u bbas e is 2.20. Fr om Figu r e 9-56, t h e
equ ivalen cy fact or for t h e bas e is 1.10.
Th er efor e, t h e t h ickn es s of t h e s t abilized
s u bbas e is 7.0 in ch es / 2.20 = 3.18 in ch es ,
an d t h e t h ickn es s of t h e s t abilized bas e is
7.0 in ch es / 1.10 = 6.36 in ch es . However ,
s in ce t h e min imu m lift t h ickn es s is 4
in ch es , t h e s t abilized s u bbas e mu s t be 4.0
in ch es in s t ead of 3.18 in ch es . In addit ion ,
t h e s t a bilized ba s e lift mu s t be r ou n ded u p
t o t h e n ear es t fu ll in ch , s o 6.36 in ch es is
r ou n ded u p t o 7 in ch es . Th er efor e, t h e fi-
n al t h ickn es s is 7.0 in ch es of bas e + 4.0
in ch es of s u bbas e = 11.0 in ch es of lime-s t a-
bilized gr avel.
Exa mple 2:
As s u me a con ven t ion a l flexible pa vemen t
h as been des ign ed wh ich r equ ir es a t ot al
t h ickn es s of 16 in ch es above t h e s u bgr ade.
Th e min imu m t h ickn es s es of t h e a s ph a lt
con cr et e an d t h e bas e ar e 2 an d 4 in ch es ,
r es pect ively, an d t h e t h ickn es s of t h e s u b-
bas e is 10 in ch es . It is des ir ed t o r eplace
t h e ba s e a n d s u bba s e wit h a cemen t -s t a bi-
lized, gr avelly s oil h avin g an u n con fin ed
compr es s ive s t r en gt h of 890 ps i.
Solu t ion :
Fr om Figu r e 9-55, t h e equ iva len cy fa ct or for
a s u bbas e h avin g an u n con fin ed compr es -
s ive s t r en gt h of 890 is 2.0: an d fr om Figu r e
9-56, t h e equ ivalen cy fact or for t h e bas e is
1.0. Th er efor e, t h e t h ickn es s of t h e s t abi-
lized s u bbas e is 10 in ch es / 2.0 = 5.0 in ch es ,
an d t h e t h ickn es s of t h e s t abilized bas e
cou r s e is 4 in ch es / 1.0 = 4.0 in ch es . Th e fi-
n al s ect ion wou ld be 2 in ch es of as ph alt
con cr et e an d 9 in ch es of cemen t -s t abilized,
gr avelly s oil. Th e bas e-cou r s e t h ickn es s of
4.0 in ch es wou ld als o h ave been r equ ir ed
du e t o t h e min imu m t h ickn es s of t h e s t a bi-
lized bas e. Th e s u bgr ade s t ill h as an
equ ivalen t cover of 16 in ch es wit h in t h e
n ewly des ign ed 2 in ch es of as ph alt con cr et e
an d 9 in ch es of cemen t -s t abilized, gr avelly
s oil.
Exa mple 3:
As s u me a con ven t ion a l flexible pa vemen t
h as been des ign ed wh ich r equ ir es 2 in ch es
of as ph alt -con cr et e s u r face, 4 in ch es of
cr u s h ed s t on e bas e, an d 6 in ch es of s u b-
ba s e. It is des ir ed t o con s t r u ct a n a ll-bit u -
min ou s pa vemen t .
Solu t ion :
Th e equ iva len cy fa ct or fr om da t a in Ta ble
9-21, for a bas e cou r s e is 1.15 an d for a
s u bbas e is 2.30. Th e t h ickn es s of as ph alt
con cr et e r equ ir ed t o r eplace t h e bas e is 4
in ch es / 1.15 = 3.5 in ch es an d t h e t h ickn es s
of a s ph a lt con cr et e r equ ir ed t o r epla ce t h e
s u bbas e is 6 in ch es / 2.30 = 2.6 in ch es .
Th er efor e, t h e t ot a l t h ickn es s of t h e a ll-bit u -
min ou s pavemen t is 2 + 3.5 + 2.6 or 8.1
in ch es , wh ich wou ld be r edu ced t o 8.0
in ch es .
Ge ot e xt i le s
Th e t er m geot ext ile r efer s t o a n y per mea ble
t ext ile u s ed wit h fou n da t ion , s oil. r ock,
ea r t h , or a n y ot h er geot ech n ica l, en gin eer -
in g-r ela t ed ma t er ia l a s a n in t egr a l pa r t of a
h u ma n -ma de pr oject , s t r u ct u r e, or s ys t em.
Geot ext iles a r e common ly r efer r ed t o a s geo-
fabr ics , en gin eer in g fabr ics , or ju s t fabr ics .
Th ey s er ve fou r pr lma r y fu n ct ion s :
Rein for cemen t .
Sepa r a t ion .
Dr a in a ge.
Filt r a t ion .
Road Design 9-77
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
In ma n y s it u a t ion s , t h e u s e of t h es e fa br ics
ca n r epla ce s oil, s a vin g t ime, ma t er ia ls , a n d
equ ipmen t cos t s . In TO con s t r u ct ion , t h e
pr ima r y con cer n is wit h s epa r a t in g a n d r ein -
for cin g low load-bear in g s oils t o r edu ce con -
s t r u ct ion t ime.
Geot ext ile des ign is a n emer gin g t ech n ology.
As s u ch , ea ch geot ext ile ma n u fa ct u r er u s es
it s own des ign pr ocedu r e, an d a gen er al
des ign pr ocedu r e u s in g t h e des ign cr it er ia
es t ablis h ed in pr eviou s s ect ion s h as yet t o
be es t ablis h ed. Non et h eles s , Appen dix H of
t h is ma n u a l ou t lin es a t ypica l geot ext ile
des ign pr ocedu r e. Not e t h a t Appen dix H
des cr ibes on ly on e des ign pr ocedu r e, an d
t h e pa r t icu la r geot ext ile u s ed in con s t r u c-
t ion ma y r equ ir e a lt er a t ion s t o t h is pr oce-
du r e. Addit ion a l det a ils on geot ext iles a n d
t h eir u s e ar e in Ch apt er 11 of FM 5-410.
9-78 Road Design
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
APPENDI X A - METRI C CONVERSI ONS
MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN BY TO OBTAIN
MULTIPLY
acre feet
acres
acres
acres
acres
acres
atmospheres
atmospheres
atmospheres
atmospheres
43,560
43,560
4,047
1.562 x 10
5,645.38
4,840
76.0
29.92
33.90
14.70
cubic feet
square feet
square meters
square miles
square varas
square yards
cm of mercury
inches of mercury
feet of water
pounds per sq in
cubic yards
cubic yards
cubic yards per min
cubic yards per min
0.7646
202.0
0.45
3.367
cubic meters
gallons
cubic feet per sec
gallons per sec
decigrams
deciliters
decimeters
degrees (angle)
degrees (angle)
degrees (angle)
dekagrams
dekaliters
dekameters
drams
drams
0.1
0.1
0.1
60
0.01745
3,600
10
10
10
1.772
0.0625
grams
liters
meters
minutes
radians
seconds
grams
liters
meters
grams
ounces
barrels
board feet
BTU
BTU
BTU
BTU per min
BTU per min
BTU per min
bushels
31.5
144 sq in x 1 in
0.2520
778.2
2.928 x 10
0.02356
0.01757
17.57
1.244
gallons
cubic inches
kilogram calories
foot pounds
kilowatt hours
horsepower
kilowatts
watts
cubic feet
9.486 x 10 BTU ergs
1
fathoms
feet
feet
feet
feet of water
feet per min
feet per min
feet per min
feet per sec
feet per sec
feet per sec
feet per sec
feet per 100 feet
foot pounds
foot pounds
foot pounds
foot pounds
foot pounds
foot pounds per min
foot pounds per min
foot pounds per min
foot pounds per min
furlongs
6
03048
0.36
0333
04335
0.5080
0.01667
0.01136
1.097
0.5921
18.29
0.6818
1
1.286 x 10
1.356 x 10
5.050 x 10
3.241 x 10
3.766 x 10
1.286 x 10
3.030 x 10
3.241 x 10
2.260 x 10
40
feet
meters
varas
yards
lb per sq in
cm per sq in
feet per sec
miles per hour
km per hour
knots per hour
meters per min
miles per hour
percent grade
BTU
ergs
horsepower hours
kilogram calories
kilowatt hours
BTU per min
horsepower
kg calories per min
kilowatts
rods
centares
centigrams
centiliters
centimeters
centimeters
centimeters
centimeters
centimeter grams
centimeter grams
cm of mercury
cm of mercury
cm of mercury
cm of mercury
cm of mercury
cm per second
circular mils
cord feet
cords
cubic cm
cubic cm
cubic cm
cubic cm
cubic feet
cubic feet
cubic feet
cubic feet
cubic feet
cubic feet
cubic feet per min
cubic feet per min
cubic feet per min
cubic feet per min
cubic inches
cubic inches
cubic inches
cubic meters
cubic meters
cubic meters
cubic meters
cubic yards
square meters
grams
liters
inches
meters
mils
millimeters
meter kilograms
pound feet
atmospheres
feet of water
kg of sq meters
pounds per sq ft
pounds per sq in
meters per mm
square mils
cubic feet
cubic feet
cubic inches
cubic meters
gallons
liters
cubic cm
cubic inches
cubic meters
cubic yards
gallons
liters
cubic cm per sec
gallons per sec
liters per sec
lb of water per min
cubic cm
cubic feet
quarts (liquid)
cubic cm
cubic feet
cubic yards
gallons
cubic feet
0.01
0.01
0.3937
0.01
393.7
10
1 x 10
7.233 x 10
0.01316
0.4461
136.0
27.85
0.1934
0.6
0.7854
4 ft x 4 ft x 1 ft
8 ft x 4 ft x 4 ft
6.102 x 10
1 x 10
2.642 x 10
2.832 x 10
1,728
0.02832
0.03704
7.481
28.32
472.0
0.1247
0.4720
62.4
16.39
5.787 x 10
0.01732
1 x 10
35.31
1.308
264.2
27
10
gallons
gallons
gallons
gallons
gallons
gallons per min
gills
grains (troy)
grains (troy)
grains (troy)
grams
grams
grams
grams
grams
grams
grams
gram calories
3,785
0.1337
231
3.785 x 10
4,951 x 10
2.228 x 10
0.1183
cubic cm
cubic feet
cubic inches
cubic meters
cubic yards
cubic feet per sec
liters
grains (av)
grams
penny weights (troy)
dynes
grains (troy)
kilograms
milligrams
ounces
ounces (troy)
pounds
BTU
1
15.43
10
0.06480
0.04167
980.7
10
0.03527
0.03215
2.205 x 10
3.968 x 10
Metric Conversions A-1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
METRIC CONVERSIONS (continued)
TO OBTAIN
MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN MULTIPLY
BY
10
2.344 x 10
5.600 x 10
62.43
kilometers per hour
kilowatts
kilowatts
kilowatts
kilowatt hours
kilowatt hours
knots
knots
gram centimeters
gram centimeters
grams per cm
grams per cu cm
kilogram calories
kilogram meters
pounds per inch
pounds per cu ft
0.5396
56.92
4.425 x 10
1.341
3,415
2.655 x 10
1.853
1.152
knots per hour
BTU per min
ft pounds per min
horsepower
BTU
foot pounds
kilometers per hour
miles per hour
hectares
hectares
hectograms
hectoliters
hectometers
hectowatts
horsepwer
horsepower
horsepower
horsepower
horsepower
horsepower
horsepower
2.471
1.076 X 10
100
100
100
100
42.44
33,000
550
1.014
10.70
0.7457
745.7
acres
square feet
grams
liters
meters
watts
BTU per min
ft pounds per min
ft pounds per sec
horsepower (metric)
kg calories per min
kilowatts
watts
links (engineers)
links (surveyors)
liters
liters
liters
liters per minute
liters per minute
12
7.92
10
0.2642
1.057
5.885 x 10
4.403 x 10
inches
inches
cubic centimeters
gallons
quarts (liquid)
cubic feet per sec
gallons per sec
meters
meters
meters
meters
meters
meters
microns
miles
miles
miles
miles per hour
miles per hour
miles per hour
milliers
milligrams
milliliters
millimeters
millimeters
millimeters
mils
mils
minutes (angle)
minutes (angle)
myriagrams
myriameters
myriawatts
100
3.2808
39.37
10
10
1.0936
10
5,280
1.6093
1,760
1.467
1.6093
0.8684
0.1
0.03937
39.37
0.002540
10
2.909 x 10
60
10
10
10
centimeters
feet
inches
kilometers
millimeters
yards
meters
feet
kilometers
yards
feet per second
kilometers per hour
knots per hour
kilograms
grams
liters
centimeters
inches
mils
centimeters
inches
radians
seconds (angle)
kilograms
kilometers
kilowatts
inches
inches
inches
inches
inches of mercury
inches of mercury
inches of water
inches of water
inches of water
inches of water
inches of water
2.540
10
0.03
0.03342
1.133
70.73
0.002458
0.07355
centimeters
mils
varas
atmospheres
feet of water
pounds per sq ft
atmospheres
inches of mercury
ounces per sq in
pounds per sq ft
pounds per sq in
0.5781
5.204
0.03613
9.486 x 10
10
0.7376
joules
joules
joules
joules
joules
joules
BTU
ergs
foot pounds
kilogram calories
kilogram meters
watt hours
2.390 x 10
0.1020
2.778 x 10
980,665
1 x 10
2.2046
1.102 x 10
3.968
3,088
1.588 x 10
1.162 x 10
0.06972
9.302 x 10
9.807 x 10
1 x 10
0.06243
9.678 x 10
3.281 x 10
2.886 x 10
0.2048
1.422 x 10
10
10
3,281
10
0.6214
kilograms
kilograms
kilograms
kilograms
kilogram calories
kilogram calories
kilogram calories
kilogram calories
kilogram calories per min
kilogram meters
kilogram meters
kilograms per cubic meter
kilograms per cubic meter
kilograms per sq meter
kiloliters
kilometers
kilometers
kilometers
kilometers
dynes
grams
pounds
tons (short)
BTU
foot pounds
horsepower hours
kilowatt hours
kilowatts
BTU
ergs
grams per cu cm
pounds per cu ft
atmospheres
feet of water
inches of mercury
pounds per sq ft
pounds per sq in
liters
centimeters
feet
meters
miles
nautical miles
nautical miles
1.152
2.027
miles
yards
ounces
ounces
ounces
ounces
ounces (fluid)
ounces (troy)
ounces (troy)
ounces (troy)
ounces (troy)
8
437.5
28.35
0.0625
1.805
480
31.10
20
0.08333
drams
grains
grams
pounds
cubic inches
grams (troy)
grams
pennyweights (troy)
pounds (troy)
perches (masonry)
pints (dry)
pints (liquid)
pounds
24.75
33.60
28.87
444,823
cubic feet
cubic inches
cubic inches
dynes
A-2 Metric Conversions
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN
MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN
1.196
640
27.88 x 10
2.590
3,613,040.45
3.098 x 10
2.066 x 10
9
0.8361
3.228 x 10
1.1664
0.1592
10
pounds
pounds
pounds
pound feet
pound feet
pounds feet
pounds of water
pounds of water
pounds of water
pounds per cubic foot
pounds per cubic inch
pounds per foot
pounds per square foot
pounds per square foot
pounds per square inch
453.6
16
32.17
1.356 x 10
grams
ounces
poundals
centimeter dynes
centimeter grams
meter kilograms
cubic feet
cubic inches
gallons
kg per cubic meter
grams per cu cm
kilograms per meter
feet of water
atmospheres
feet of water
inches of mercury
kg per square meter
pounds per sq ft
square meters
square miles
square miles
square miles
square miles
square miles
square yards
square yards
square yards
square yards
square yards
steradians
steres
square yards
acres
square feet
square kilometers
square varas
square yards
acres
square feet
square meters
square miles
square varas
hemispheres
liters
13,825
0.1383
0.01602
27.68
0.1198
16.02
27.68
1.488
0.01602
4.882
0.06804
2.307
2.038
703.1
144
90
5,400
1.571
67.20
57.75
57.30
3,438
0.0637
500
360
4
6,283
6
0.1047
0.01667
1.745 x 10
0.01667
2.778 x 10
360
6.283
16.5
temperture (deg C) + 273
temperature (deg C) + 17.8
temperature (deg F) + 460
temperature (deg F) - 32
tons (long)
tons (long)
tons (metric)
tons (metric)
term (short)
tons (short)
tons (short) per sq ft
tons (short) per sq in
1
1 0
absolute temp (deg C
temperature (deg F)
absolute temp (deg F)
temperature (deg C)
kilograms
pounds
kilograms
pounds
kilograms
pounds
kg per sq meter
pounds per sq in
kg per sq meter
pounds per sq in
1.8
1
0.555
1,016
2,240
2,205
907.2
2,000
9,765
13.89
1.406 x 10
2,000
quadrants (angle)
quadrants (angle)
quadrants (angle)
quarts (dry)
quarts (liquid)
degrees
minutes
radians
cubic inches
cubic inches
radians
radians
radians
reams
revolutions
revolutions
revolutions
revolutions per minute
revolutions per min per min
revolutions per second
revolutions per second
rods
degrees
minutes
quadrants
sheets
degrees
quadrants
radians
degrees per second
radians per sec
rev per second
radians per sec per sec
rev per min per sec
rev per sec per sec
degrees per second
radians per second
feet
2.7777 feet varas
watts
watts
watts
watts
watts
watt hours
weeks
0.05692
10
44.26
1.341 x 10
10
3.415
168
BTU per min
ergs per second
foot pounds per min
horsepower
kilowatts
BTU
hours
91.44
3
36
0.9144
centimeters
feet
inches
meters
yards
yards
yards
yards
4.848 x 10
0.1550
100
2.296 x 10
0.09290
3.587 x 10
0.1296
0.111
6.452
6,944 x 10
247.1
10.76 x 10
1 x 10
0.3861
1.196 x 10
2.47 x 10
10.764
3.861 x 10
seconds (angle)
square centimeters
square centimeters
square feet
square feel
square feet
square feet
square feet
square inches
square inches
square kilometers
square kilometers
square kilometers
square kilometers
square kilometers
square meters
square meters
square meters
radians
square inches
square millimeters
acres
square meters
square miles
square varas
square yards
square centimeters
square feet
acres
square feet
square meters
square miles
square yards
acres
square feet
square miles
Metric Conversions A-3
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
A-4 Metric Conversions
One unit (below)
i equals

mm cm m km
I
Millimeters (mm) 1
0':1
0.001 0.000001
Centimeters (cm) 10 1 0.01 0.00001
Meters (m) 1,000 100 1 0.001
Kllometers (km) 1,000,000 100,000 1000 1
One unit (below)
equals

g kg Metric ton
--
Grams (a) 1 0.001 0.000001
KIlograms (kg)
1000 1 0.001
Metric tons 1000000 1000 1
Units of centimeters
Fractions of an Inch
Inch 1/16 1/8 3/16 1/4 5/16 3/8 7/16 1/2
Cm 0.16 0.32 0.48 0.64 0.79 0.95 1.11 1.27
Inch 9/16 5/8 11/16 3/4 13/16 7/8 15/16 1
Cm 1.43 1.59 1.75 i 1.91 2.06 2.22 2.38 2.54
Length
Inches --------------------------. cm
cm
----------------------. Inches
m
m
---------------0. Feet
Yards m
__ Yards
Miles -- km
1
I j
j
km .... Miles
Otv i
1
2
.3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
20
130
140
;50
160
.70
80
.90
100
0.62 1.61 1.09 0.91 3.28 0.30
1.24 3.22 2.19 1.83 6.56 0.61
1.86 4.83 3.28 2.74 9.84 0.91
i 2.49 6.44 4.37 3.66 13.12 1.22
1 3.11 8.05 5.47 4.57 16.40 1.52
3.73 9.66 6.56 5.49 19.68
1
, 1.83
i 4.35 11.27 7.66 6.40 2297. 2.13
! 4.97 12.87 8.75 7.32 2625 i 2.44
: 5,59 14.48 9.84 8.23 29.531 2.74
6.21 16.09 10.94 9.14 32.81 3.05
! 1243 32. 19
i
1
2187 18.29 65.62 6.10
18.64 48.28 32.8127.43 98.42 9.14
2485 64.37 4374 36.58 12.19
3107 80.47 54.68 45.72 15.24
3728 96.56 65.62 54.86 196.85 18.29
4350 112.6 76.55 64.00 229.66 21.34
4971 128 7 87.49 73.15 262.47 24.38
55.92 144.84
1
98.42 82.30 295.28 27.43
62.14 160.941109.36 91.44328.08 30.48
!
0.39 2.54
0.79 5.08
1.18 7.62
1.57 10.16
1.97 12.70
2.36 15.24
2.76 17.78
3.15 20.32
3.54 22.86
3.93 25.40
7.87 50.80
11.81 76.20
15.75 1
19.68 127.V\
23.62
27.56 177.0\
31.50
35.43 228.6\
39.37 254.0(
Weight
Ounces g
la Ounces
Pounds kg
ka Pounds
Short

Metric
j
ton ton
Metric -+ Short
1
ton ton
IOtv

1 1.10 0.91 2.20 0.45 0.04 28.4
2 2.20 1.81 4.41 0.91 0.07 56.7
3 3.31 2.72 6.61 1.36 0.11 85.0
4 4.41 3.63 8.82 1.81 0.14 113.4
5 5.51 4.54 11.02 2.67 0.18 141.8
6 6.61 5.44 13.23 2.72 0.21 170.1
7 7.72 6.35 15.43 3.18 0.25 198.4
8 8.82 7.26 17.64 3.63 0.28 226.8
9 9.92 8.16 19.84 4.08 0.32 255.2
10 11.02 9.07 22.05 4.54 0.35 283.5
20 22.05 18.14 44.09 9.07 0.71 567.0
30 33.07 27.22 66.14 13.61 1.06 850.5
40 44.09 36.29 88.18 18.14 1.41 1,134.0
50 55.12 45.36 110.23 22.68 1.76 1,417.5
60 66.14 54.43 132.28 27.22 2.12 1,701.0
70 77.16 63.50 154.32 31.75 2.47 1,984.5
80 88.18 72.57 176.37 36.29 2.82 2,268.0
90 99.21 81.65 198.42 40.82 3.17 2,551.5
100 110.20 90.72 220.46 45.36 3.53 2835.0
Volume
Cu
.
cu ft cu yd
meters
cu yd

cu ft cu
j
meters
cu ft
_ cu yd
cu
1 1
meters
atv !

1 0.037 0.028 27.0 0.76 35.3 1.31
2 0.074 0.057 54.0 1.53 70.6 2.62
3 0.111 0.085 81.0 2.29 105.9 3.92
4 0.148 0.113 108.0 3.06 141.3 5.23
5 0.185 0.142 135.0 3.82 176.6 6.54
6 0.212 0.170 162.0 4.59 211.9 7.85
7 0.259 0.198 189.0 5.35 247.2 9.16
'1
8 0.296 0.227 216.0 6.12 282.5 10.46
19 0.333 0.255 243.0 6.88 317.8 11.77
1
110
0.370 0.283 270.0 7.65 353.1 13.07
20 0.741 0.566 540.0 15.29 706.3 26.16
30 1.111 0.850 810.0 22.94 1,059.4 39.24
40 1.481 1.133 1,080.0 30.58 1,412.6 52.32
50 1.852 1.416 1,350.0 38.23 1,765.7 65.40
60 2.222 1.700 1,620.0 45.87 2,118.9 78.48
70 2.592 1.982 1,890.0 53.52 2,472.0 91.56
80 2.962 2.265 2,160.0 61.16 2,825.2 104.63
90 3.333 2.548 2,430.0 68.81 3,178.3 117.71
100 3.703 2.832 2,700.0 76.46 3531.4 130.76
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
APPENDIX B - GEOMETRIC FORMULAS
(6) Regular polygons. The area of any regular polygon (all sides equal, all angles equal) is equal to the product of
the square of the lengths of one side and the factors. Example problem: Area of a regular octagon having 6-inch
sides is 6 x 6 x 4.828, or 173.81 square inches. See factors in table.
Geometric formulas B-1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
GEOMETRIC FORMULAS (continued)
B-2 Geometric formulas
a
Given A B
a,b
tanA.!
b
tan B.-
b a
a,e
slnA.! cosB.!
c c
A,a 90 A
A.b 90 A
A,e 90 A
Oblique triangle
Given To find
A B
a,b,c

COS_. AA
COS
2
- uC
l
I:IV
a,A,e
I
I
a,b,A
i B beinA
I
sn _--
a
a,b,c
tanA. asln C
I
I
b-acoo C
I
i.rf-tf
tf.rf-El
rf-rf+tf
Right triangle
To find
C a
90
90
90
90 b tan A
90 c sin A
s b c
Sin A - Sin B .. Sin C
S s+b+c
os 2
C

all
180 (MB)
c
b
CosA.-
c
a
TsnA -b
b
asin B
sin A
b e area
VEl+tl
ab
2
Vrf-El
!vcll
2
a cot A a
El cot A
sin A
2
_b_
tl tan A
coo A
2
c cos A
rf sin 2A
2
if- b
2
+ - 2bcCosA
if .. if + - 2ac Cos B
cl .. if + if - 2ab Cos C
c area
.; s(s-a)(s-b)(s-c)
asin C
; sin Bsin C
sin A
2sinA
beinC
sinB
v; + tl- 2ab cos C
absin C
2
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Geometric formulas B-3
Degree Degree
of Angle Sine COMcant Tangent Cotangent Secant Cosine of Angle
0 0.000 0.000 1.000 1.000 90
1 0.017 57.30 0.017 57.29 1.000 1.000 89
2 0.035 28.65 0.035 2S.64 1.001 0.999 88
3 0.052 19.11 0.052 19.08 1.001 0.999 87
4 0.070 14.34 0.070 14.30 1.002 0.998 86
5 0.087 11.47 0.087 11.43 1.004 0.996 85
6 0.105 9.567 0.105 9.514 1.006 0.995 84
7 0.122 8.206 0.123 8.144 1.00S 0.993 83
8 0.139 7.185 0.141 7.115 1.010 I 0.990 82
9 0.156 6.392 0.158 6.314 1.012 0.988 81
10 0.174 5.759 0.176 5.671 , .015 0.985 80
11 0.191 5.241 0.194 5.145 1.019 0982 79
12 0.208 4.810 0.213 4.705 1.022 0.978 78
I
13 0.225 4.445 0.231 4.331 1.026 0.974 77
14 0.242 4.134 0.249 4.011 1.031 0.970 76
15 0.259 3.864 0.268 3.732 1.035 0.966 75
16 0.276 3.628 0.287 3487 1.040 0.961 74
17 0.292 3.420 0.306 3.271 1.046 0.956 I 73
18 0.309 3.236 0.325 3.078 1.051 0.951 72
19 0.326 3.072 0.344 2.904 1.058 0.946 71
20 0.342 2.924 0.364 2747 1.064 0.940 70
21 0.358 2.790 0.384 2.605 1.071 0.934 69
22 0.375 2.669 0.404 2.475 1.079 0.927 68
23 0.391 2.559 0.424 2.356 1.086 0.921 67
24 0.407 2.459 0.445 2.246 1.095 0.914 66
25 0.423 2.366
I
0466
I
2.145 1.103 0.906 65
;
26
I
0438 2.281 0.488 2.050 1.113 0.899 64
27 0454 2.203 0.510 1.963 1.122 0.901 63
28 0.469 2.130 0.532 1881 1.133 0.883 62
29 0.485 2.063 0.554 1804 1.143 0.875 61
30 0.500 2.000 0.577 1.732 1.155 0.866 60
Degree
D ~ ~ ; ' 11 of Angle Cosine Secant Cotangent Tangent COMC8nt Sine of A
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
B-4 Geometric formulas
Degree
! I Cotangent I
Degree
of Angle Sine Cosecant Tangent Secant Cosine of Angle
31
i
0.515 1 942 0.601 1.664 , .167
I
0.857 59 !
I I
32 0.530 I 1.887 0625 1.600 1.179 0.848 58
33 0.545 1.836 0649 1.540 1.192 0.839 57
:
34 0.559 1.788 0.675 1.483 1.206 0.829 56
35 0.574 1.743 0.700 1.428 1.221 0.829 55
36 0.588 1.701 0.727 1.376 1.236 0.809 54
37 0.602 1.662 0.754 1.327 1.252 0.799 53
38 0.616 1.624 0.781 1.280 1.269 0.788 52
39 0.629 1.589 0.810 I 1.235 1.287 0.777 51
40 0.643 1.556 0.839 1.192 1.305 0.766 50
41 0.656 1.542 0869 1.150 1.325 0.755 49
42 0.669 1.494 0900 1.111 1.346 0.743 48
43 0.682 1.466 0.933 1.072 1.367 0.731 47
i
44 i
0.695 1.440 0.966 1.036 1.390 0.719 46
45 0707 1.414 1.000 1.100 1.414 0.707 45
Degree I
!
Degree
!
ot Angle Cosine Secant Cotangent
!
Tangent Cosecant Sine of Angle
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
APPENDIX C
HYDROLOGIC AND HYDRAULIC TABLES AND CURVES
PRECIPITATION TABLES
Ta ble C-1, pa ge C-2, pr ovides loca l da t a for
u s e in des ign in g dr ain age s ys t ems as dis -
cu s s ed in Ch a pt er 6.
HYDROLOGIC SUPPLY CURVES FOR
OVERLAND FLOW
Figu r es C-1 t h r ou gh C-7, pages C-7
t h r ou gh C-13, r epr es en t t h e pea k r u n off
r a t es fr om in dividu a l s t or m even t s of
va r iou s du r a t ion s , a ll of wh ich h a ve t h e
s ame aver age fr equ en cy of occu r r en ce.
Th es e cu r ves ar e compu t ed fr om Hor t on s
equ a t ion given in Ch a pt er 6, u s in g a r et a r -
da n ce coefficien t in n = 0.04 a n d h ydr a u lic
gr a dien t S = 1 per cen t .
HYDRAULIC CHARACTERISTICS OF
SELECTED DRAINAGE CHANNELS
Tables C-2 t h r ou gh C-10, pages C-14
t h r ou gh C-22, pr es en t common ly u s ed dit ch
s ect ion s , wit h cr os s -s ect ion ar eas an d
h ydr a u lic r a diu s , t o fa cilit a t e s elect ion of
dit ch s ize a n d s h a pe.
Hydrologic and Hydraulic Tables and Curves C-1
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Table C-1. Mean monthly, maximum monthly, and maximum 24-hour precipitation for selected stations
throughout the world
-- --
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Oec Annual
f-------.
ALASKA
Barrow
Mean 15 0.13 0.12 0.14 026 0.89 0.73 0.49 0.56 0.20 0.36 4.23
24hour maxImum 0.70 0.23 0.28 020 0.30 0.36 0.84 0.43 1.00 0.41 0.26 026 1.00
Mean snowfall 2.60 2.70 2.00 2.70 1.80 0.40 1.00 070 0.30 7.90 4.30 3.90 33.00
Ketchlkan:
Mean 13.62 11.16 1213 10.88 8.39 6.60 807 11.61 12.22 20.18 19.96 15.86 150.68
24 hour maxImum 5.87 5.36 5.70 4.44 5.87 425 334 807 606 7.04 7.14 5.33 807
Mean snowfall 10.00 7.10 4.70 0.60 0.40 0 0 0 0 0.20 0.90 7.40 32.30
Teller (65" 16' N. 166
20 W)
Mean 1.13 0.53 0.34 0.69 0.51 0.62 188 148 1.74 0.71 0.79 0.52 10.94
24hour maximum 2.10 0.58 0.35 0.70 0.80 0.50 1.00 1.10 2.20 0.50 0.72 0.55 2.20
Mean snowfall 12.00 710 6.70 6.50 2.40 0 0 0 0.20 2.20 7.50 8.20 52.90
Dutch Harbor
Mean 6.32 6.12 4.92 4.19 4.33 2.82 189 2.45 5.45 7.39 5.81 6.92 58 61
24 maxImum 3.73 3.75 2.47 3.46 2.74 300 1.60 208 2.53 3.08 3.22 2.31 3.75
Mean snowfall 15.60 1970 10.50 6.70 0.10 T 0 0 T 0.50 5.80 10.80 69.70
-
CANADA
Edmonton. Alberta:
Mean 0.76 0.67 067 0.80 1.86 3.26 3.57 2.47 1.40 0.74 0.73 0.75 17.67
maxImum 0.70 0.80 0.60 0.83 2.80 2.20 2.16 2.68 1.37 1.03 0.80 0.70 2.80
St Johns. Newfoundland:
Mean 5.39 5.08 4.53 4.25 3.54 3.54 374 3.58 3.78 5.39 6.06 4.92 53.80
Maxlmum 11.38 12.84 8.84 8.79 7.11 7.83 7.72 9.76 11.42 13.11 12.27 14.05 69.05
24hour maximum 2.44 3.31 1.81 2.99 3.62 2.01 2.28 1.54 2.36 2.80 3.35 3.15 3.62
CENTRAL AND
SOUTH AMERICA
Puerto Barrios. Guatemala
(15" 35' N. 88
C
35 W)
Mean 11.46 886 3.82 3.70 7.99 10.63 18.62 9.06 7.20 15.47 11.46 124.77
Maxlmum 25.94 26.97 12.43 14.65 18.15 18.15 25.08 29.58 18.54 23.95 32.69 19.93 158.10
24hour maximum 6.75 6.55 5.30 4.69 3.61 4.25 494 5.20 6.59 5.55 7.80 11.18 11.18
Fortaleza. Brazil (3 42' S.
38' 30 W)
Mean 3.35 6.93 11.77 13.46 9.61 4.72 213 1.10 0.67 0.51 0.55 1.54 56.34
MaxImum 18.27 25.12 26.61 32.40 26.14 15.90 10.43 6.61 2.99 3.58 3.78 8.98 109.41
24 hour maxImum 7.40 701 9.61 9.45 5.75 350 2.80 276 1.57 2.17 1.81 5.20 9.61
'-
Years
Recorded
26
1819
2123
3032
2930
-----
813
610
59
1923
1923
1923
15
52
57
73
7
19
13
:::?
72
72
59
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throughout the world (in inches) (continued)
- .. -,_ .. - ..
Years
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sap Oct Nov Dec Annual Recorded
EUROPE AND ICELAND
london. England
Mean 1.88 1.57 1.56 1.60 1.75 2.03 2.24 2.23 1.95 2.61 2.28 2.29 23.99 62
Maximum 4.88 4.13 3.94 3.98 409 7.20 4.88 6.SO 5.71 5.91 3.98 6.38 38.19 68
24hour maximum 1.60 1.10 090 1.20 180 2.40 2.30 HID 1.60 140 1.30 1.SO 2.40 65
Berlin, Germany'
Mean 1.69 1.38 1.57 1.54 189 2.36 3.07 2.32 1.69 1.77 1.69 1.89 22.86 80
MaXImum 3.94 4.88 5.28 4.17 5.71 5.59 9.06 657 4.25 5.28 4.65 4.49 31.61 80
24hour maximum 0.97 0.85 O.SO 155 1.27 1.73 2.59 2.66 1.77 099 1.28 0.62 2.66 15
Prague. Czechoslavakia'
Mean 0.87 0.83 1.10 1.54 2.36 2.76 2.56 2.24 1.65 1.22 1.18 094 19.25 70
MaJOmum 2.36 2.01 2.40 4.33 6SO 618 567 4.80 5.35 4.17 3.70 3.27 2752 70
24hour maximum 0.53 0.56 0.73 1.30 1.28 1.98 2.17 1.57 1.60 1.22 1.13 0.80 2.17 15
Budapest. Hungary:
Mean 1.46 1.22 1.77 2.28 2.91 2.91 2.09 1.97 201 2.60 2.09 1.89 25.20 35
MaJOmum 394 3.11 4.33 3.82 5.51 8.31 7.05 5.04 4.88 5.16 5.79 4.29 37.05 31
24 -hour maximum 1.34 1.38 1.26 1.69 1.69 2.20 252 331 2.44 1.61 1.57 1.SO 3.31 30
Helslnki, Finland:
Mean 1.77 1.46 1.38 1.42 1.77 181 2.24 2.91 2.52 2.60 2.48 2.01 2437 71
Maximum 4.61 3.62 4.45 3.94 4.16 4.61 7.56 6SO 591 5.79 5.94 4.76 33.90 87
24hour maximum 0.73 0.83 0.96 1.46 1.48 1.87 1.82 164 2.12 212 1.13 1.56 2.12 36
Trondheim. Norway
Mean 3.43 2.87 2.24 181 1.SO 1.73 2.24 2.95 3.27 3.39 3.11 2.56 3110 SO
Maximum 11.45 8.80 8.31 6.37 4.07 4.54 4.64 640 6.62 8.78 9.95 8.64 56.67 44
24hour maximum 1.68 1.91 1.96 0.99 130 1.00 1.66 2.23 1.42 2.24 1.85 2.58 258 31
Corfu. Gree<:e
Mean 7.72 6.11 4.18 3.70 245 1.05 0.28 0.56 2.62 502 7.05 9.54 SO.48 38
Maximum 17.13 11.26 922 13.35 4.09 4.75 1.14 4.29 6.65 21.SO 15.39 13.95 66.75 26
24hoUf maxll1lum 5.47 3.23 2.17 2.83 1.85 1.61 102 3.35 3.23 5.91 5.08 3.90 5.91 26
Stockholm. Sweden
Mean 0.98 0.91 1.08 107 1.44 1.63 2.37 259 175 1.98 1.53 1,31 18.64 51
Maximum 3.35 3.90 3.03 3.54 3.31 5.08 7.28 484 5.67 6.85 3.15 3.07 28.27 51
24hour maximum 0.53 0.84 0.81 1.46 162 1.26 262 269 1.66 1.29 159 1.14 2.69 38
ReykjaVIk. Iceland
Mean 3.86 3.31 2.72 2.44 1.89 1.93 1.89 201 3.54 3.43 3.74 3.SO 34.20 SO
Maximum 6.21 9.54 7.21 5.90 2.95 3.64 4.63 649 5.99 7.12 6.87 7.35 SO 83 19
24hoUf maximum 1.30 1.36 2.23 0.87 0.78 1.16 1.07 1.18 1.07 1.30 1.73 2.'7 2.23 19
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Table C-1. Mean monthly. maximum monthly. and maximum 24-hour precipitation for selected stations
throughout the world (continued)
Years
Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Ocl Nov Oec Annual Recorded
ASIA
Sapporo, HokkaKlo
(Japan):
Mean 3.50 2.50 2.40 2.20 270 280 3.30 3.70 5.00 4.60 4.40 400 4009 30
Maximum 8.20 4.60 5.50 500 4.90 730 820 1120 1100 1180 8.30 7.80 53.50 22
24hour maximum 2.80 190 180 420 2.80 470 490 430 4.60 4.00 1.70 290 490 44
Urakawa, Hokkaido
(Japan)
Mean 1.60 0.90 2.10 3.10 380 3.40 510 630 460 440 4.20 2.10 41.80 6
Maximum 2.60 160 2.60 550 5.30 140 1580 9.10 6.10 5.70 7.00 2.70 55.20 6
24.nour maximum 1.00 0.60 1.10 1.40 1.80 2.00 580 3.50 2.40 2.60 2.00 1.10 5.80 6
Kobe, Honshu (Japan)
Mean 1.90 2.20 3.60 ~ . O O 490 8.20 6.00 4.60 7.70 4.80 2.60 1.80 5330
Maximum 3.40 5.90 6.50 856 980 1480 11 80 9.60 6.60 10.80 6.00 3.90 65.60
24hour maximum 160 2.30 2.50 2.50 340 5.90 4.60 4.60 7.80 3.90 2.70 1.80 7.80
Hamada, Honshu (Japan)
Mean 4.50 3.90 4.60 500 4.90 170 750 4.60 8.20 5.10 4.20 4.60 64.80 . * ~ .
Maximum 6.90 7.30 7.10 8.60 9.60 2230 18.60 12.00 20.00 10.90 750 9.10 92.50
24hour maximum 2.00 2.60 2.00 2SO 390 430 800 8.90 5.40 3.30 1.90 2.20 8.90
... ,
Gensan. Korea
Mean 1.20 1.47 1.78 2.76 341 474 1046 1209 7.02 3.33 2.SO 1.39 52.15 21
Maximum 326 5.11 5.33 708 590 12.26 16.33 21.33 16.43 17.94 5.65 7.07 79.89 21
24-hour maJ<lmum 2.90 2.90 3.80 4.60 500 480 6.90 7.70 9.60 8.80 3.40 330 9.60 29
Yunnan, China (25' 01' N.
102
0
54' El:
Mean 0.35 0.55 0.67 0.75 421 622 874 858 4.96 2.91 181 043 40.18 32
Maximum 2.17 2.32 2.91 280 1268 2256 18.11 15.67 11.61 7.56 6.85 1.81 61.02 32
24hour ma)omum 1.22 1.06 1.26 1.14 260 961 429 4.49 4.53 280 2.87 1.30 9.61 32
Hongkong. China
Mean 1.27 175 2.93 5.44 1150 1552 1501 14.22 10.11 4.55 1.70 115 85.16 53
Maximum 843 7.94 11.48 1716 48.84 34.38 30.08 34.31 30.60 23.98 882 4.90 11972 47
24-hour maximum 3.92 2.18 3.78 6.22 2050 12.63 21.02 11.14 7.96 11.50 5.88 3.58 21.02 53
Tientsin. China
Mean 0.16 0.09 0.37 0.63 1.13 2.46 7.00 5.SO 1.76 0.59 0.39 0.15 20.23 44
Maximum 0.91 0.62 1.73 1.89 2.28 696 1446 11,39 5.26 1.64 1.89 046 28.70 20
24hour maximum 0.64 O.SO 1.37 122 1.90 309 477 4.89 2.31 1.26 1,13 028 4.89 22
Urga, Mongolia (4r 55' N,
106< SO' El
Mean 0.04 0.03 0.06 0.22 0,34 0.96 2.91 1.91 0.76 0.20 0.15 010 768 15
Maximum 0.16 0.13 0.37 079 135 340 6.47 4.33 2.09 0.66 1.38 089 1369 15
24hour maximum 0,09 0.06 0.17 031 067 107 2,86 2,38 1.61 0.33 0.69 069 2.86 10
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ASIA (continued)
Singapore. China:
Mean
Maximum
24-hourmaximum
Dairen. Manchuria:
Mean
Maximum
24-hour maximum
Manchouli:
Mean
Maximum
24-hour maximum
Aden. Arabia:
Mean
Maximum
24-hour maximum
Cherrapun ji. India:
Mean
Maximum
24-hour maximum
Karachi. Pakistan:
Mean
Maximum
24-hour maximum
T richinopoly. India
Mean
Maximum
24-hour maximum
AFRICA
Casablanca. Morocco
Mean
Maximum
24hour maximum
Huambo. Angola:
Mean
Maximum
24hour mW(lmum
Cairo. Egypt:
Mean
Maximum
24-hour maximum
Table C-1. Mean monthly, maximum monthly. and maximum 24-hour precipitation for selected stations
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Qct Nov Oec
9.88 6.62 7.40 7.64 6.65 6.85 6.77 7.95 6-17 8.07 9.92 10.55
14.13 24.98 19.74 14.92 10.79 14.08 13.56 1081 17.26 12.06 15.15 16.91
6.93 4.30 4.88 2.97 4.92 3.46 3.91 417 5.20 6.02 4.02 4.35
OSO 0.30 0.70 1.00 1.70 1.80 6.40 5.10 4.00 1.10 1.00 O.SO
190 1.10 3.SO 2.60 4.30 3.30 16.00 15.30 1270 2.30 270 0.90
1.40 1.10 1.80 1.90 2.20 2.70 7.SO 6.40 4.10 1.50 1.80 0.60
010 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.60 1.70 2.90 2.40 130 0.30 0.20 0.10
0.40 0.20 O.SO 0.70 2.30 4.30 6.10 5.60 3.30 1.50 0.60 0.40
0.10 0.10 0.30 0.40 1.30 1.90 1.10 2.30 1.40 1.00 O.SO 0.20
0.30 0.20 0.40 0.20 0.10 0.10 0.03 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10
3.31 1.58 6.57 3.87 1.40 1.34 0.62 1.97 1.36 2.23 1.28 1.55
2.20 1.40 3.00 2.60 1.40 1.00 0.60 140 1.30 2.20 0.80 1.10
0.45 2.72 9.38 28.19 46.28 95.92 98.51 7984 37.98 21.26 3.23 0.31
8.07 5.39 19.65 52.05 128.27 169.92 147.44 97.83 99.41 51.73 14.02 9.61
1.12 1.32 2.80 10.20 16.90 36.40 21.08 22.61 24.66 21.62 3.23 0.15
0.48 0.36 0.21 0.11 0.06 0.57 3.10 1.69 0.65 0.02 0.13 0.20
3.38 2.94 3.83 4.75 1.85 10.59 18.63 14.15 15.35 1.56 4.66 2.58
0.39 1.15 0.21 0.70 0.15 2.04 7.86 5.41 8.11 0.52 0.86 1.83
0.96 0.48 0.40 1.79 3.18 1.48 1.47 388 4.65 7.08 5.54 2.77
8.02 3.06 1.26 7.88 10.76 3.66 3.30 9.61 10.80 27.43 13.68 12.98
4.32 1.86 0.67 3.74 7.21 1.87 2.12 3.81 3.26 12.56 6.21 5.34
203 1.98 2.37 124 0.78 0.22 0 001 042 1.21 2.76 2.59
4.71 4.92 7.02 3.96 2.62 0.89 0.01 0.16 2.19 4.68 7.26 7.69
1.14 1.13 0.76 1.24 3.01 0.26 0.11 0.04 1.80 1.27 2.54 2.58
8.71 8.87 8.42 606 1.OB 0 0 009 0.82 5.14 8.94 9.48
17.40 19.87 12.02 10.93 6.93 0 0 036 2.48 10.53 12.38 14.93
131 104 1.SO 1.20 0.28 ---- 0.49 3.04 2.43 2.63
0.24 0.16 0.20 008 0.08 0.04 0 0 0 0.08 O.OB 0.20
1.14 0.63 1.02 047 0.51 OOB 0 0 0 0.55 0.59 1.06
1.70 0.61 0.85 0.81 1.11 0.52 0 0 0 0.57 038 1.15
Annual
95.07
14.03
6.93
24.10
44.30
7.50
9.90
14.40
2.30
1.80
8.57
3.00
424.07
560.27
36.40
7.58
28.00
8.11
33.68
51.11
12.56
15.61
21.28
3.01
57.61
87.00
----
1.16
2.48
1.70
Years
Recorded
52
21
21
25
19
25
20
20
7
....
'.--
-_.-
20
20
5
83
83
18
61
18
18
22
28
10
6
6
2
26
21
26
.:'
}:
i t ~
.. :."
::::;.
I.l!
:;:.:.
::::::
~ r
~ : ~ : ~
t ~ ~
I
:.;:.:.
! ~ ~ ~ ~
I
F
M

5
-
4
3
0
-
0
0
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1
/
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F
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A
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3
2
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1
3
,

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-_.- _ ..
--
"" ... .,." -
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Ccl Nov Dec Annual
FORMER SOVlfT UNION

Mean 0.60 0.80 130 540 480 110 27BO
Maximum 150 760 16.70 4.70 no 1.90
24-hour maximum 090 1.30 170 2 BO 10 440 1.20
Gizhiga (62 02 N. 160
40' E)
Mean 0.40 070 1 70 180 120 1.00 040 10
Maximum 1.60 100 1 1.20 1 390 340 300 1 1 1
...
24-hour maximum 0.40 090 o BO 1 10 050 0.60 1
Irkutsk
Meak 1 217 346 11 169 075 063
Maximum 094 0.87 0.71 1.38 6.10 8.90 13 I.B5 1.50 2.68 2268
24-hour maximum 0.34 0.22 0.31 0.54 1.71 1.94 2.68 1 051 0.31 2.68
Odessa.
Mean 1.00 1.00 0.95 0.94 1.05 1 096 1 12 085 1.11 13.37
Maximum 3.98 3.74 2.52 4.02 4.80 6.57 5.95 4.21 3.58 3.74 24.88
24hour maximum 1.20 1.36 085 1 1.28 194 222 2.98
Kola:
Mean 0.50 0.49 1.25 1 2.27 194 1 '73 1.26 1.31 0.90
Maximum 1 2.41 1.11 2.14 2.35 3.13 352 1.92 2.37 248 2033
24-hour maximum 041 0.77 0.28 0.58 0.75 0.78 107 112 73 0.63 0.65 1.12
Saturn:
Mean 10.07 7.33 5.90 5.84 3.41 6.75 1194 947 12.88 10.43 99.56
24-hour maximum 266 2.14 2.89 3.87 5.82 5.79 3.01 5.82
Stavropol:
Mean 126 1.14 1.34 2.24 4.06 3.23 1 1 213 1.73 25.51
Maximum 4.21 2.49 3.66 5.08 6.73 7.80 6.38 17 465 2.91 4.45 5.63 32.99
maximum 143 0.58 1.30 1.50 1 3.75 3.11 235 2.31 1.19 1.17 1.04 3.75
Tiflis
Mean 0.59 0.87 1.06 232 3.15 2.91
77 146 205 1.57 1.38 0.87 20.00
24-hour maximum 0.54 0.61 0.75 118 211 2.65 1.30 1.43 191 1.24 1.14 1.80 2.65
--
Years
Recorded
38
10
16
16
14
,-<-
35
30
18
35
18
18
18
18
10
26
26
18
18
18
F
M

5
-
4
3
0
-
0
0
-
1
/
A
F
P
A
M

3
2
-
8
0
1
3
,

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C
-
7
Table C1. Mean monthly, mmdmum monthly, and maximum 24-hour precipitation for selected stations
throughout the world (in Inches) (continued)
Jan Feb Mar AJ". May Jun Jul Aug Sep Cct Nov Dec Annual
NEW ZEALAND.
AUSTRALIA. AND
NEW GUINEA
Finschafen. New Guinea
(6- 03' S, 147" 52' E):
Mean 3.13 4.02 3.94 8.56 13.60 17.44 17.62 19.82 13.43 14.70 9.36 4.61 130.23
Maximum 7.56 10.59 8.31 17.86 29.64 29.09 29.61 35.43 31.58 41.61 12.36 181.22
24-hour maximum 2.11 4.17 2.64 8.82 6.88 5.83 9.57 6.73 7.44 19.65 7.83 4.49 19.65
Darwin, Australia:
Mean 15.83 12.87 9.88 4.17 0.67 0.16 0.08 0.12 0.51 2.17 4.88 10.39 61.73
Maximum 27.86 Z2.65 21.88 23.74 10.27 1.53 2.56 3.00 2.31 6.28 '14.57 22.38 87.22
24-hour maximum 11.65 5.12 7.17 4.:25 1.18 1.34 1.69 106 1.97 3.58 2.76 7.87 11.65
Da/y Waters. Australia;
Mean 6.21 6.45 4.79 1.IIlO 0.16 0.32 0.06 0.14 0.27 0.83 2.06 4.08 26.37
Maximum 23.16 13.22 14.50 4.:39 0.28 0.46 0.56 0 0.93 1.42 '10.42 15.76 43.25
24-hour maximum 1.74 3.25 2.80 2.78 0 0.11 0.28 0 0.79 0.30 1.34 3.60 3.60
Brisbane, Australia:
Mean 6.50 5.40 5.70 3.!90 2.80 2.70 2.20 2.00 2.00 250 3.80 4.90 45.40
Ma>dmum 27.72 40.39 34.04 15.:;?8 13.85 14.03 8.46 14.67 543 9.99 112.40 13.99 88.26
24-hour maximum 18.30 10.60 11.20 5.l50 5.60 6.00 3.50 4.90 2.50 3.70 4.50 6.60 18.30
Wellington. New Zealand;
Mean 3.30 3.19 3.29 3J!O 4.76 4.87 5.55 4.43 3.99 4.19 3.44 3.30 48.11
Maximum 10.13 8.89 9.94 12.15 11,80 9.53 12.17 9.88 11.05 12.94 9.99 12.46 67.68
24-hour maximum 4.50 6.30 5.70 4.!;K) 5.70 3.00 3.10 3.70 380 3.50 2.70 3.50 6.30
ARCTIC
(not included previously)
Jan Mayen (7059' N, 8
0
2O'W):
Mean 1.54 1.69 1.10 O.!M 0.51 0.59 0.79 1.06 2.52 2.20 1.42 0.98 15.34
Maximum 3.41 4.09 3.03 3.1)7 1.41 1.82 4.05 4.05 4.75 4.80 3.66 4.14
Coopermine. Canada:
Mean
0,44 0.56 0.73 0.152 0.52 0.86 1.34 1.76 1.19 1.01 0.80 0.53 10,46
Maximum 074 2.10 1.95 3.jl5 0.89 2.34 1.84 3.20 1.95 2.23 2.20 0.90 ----
Mean snowfall 3.50 5.60 7.30 3.90 2.90 0.10 0.40 470 9.10 8.60 5.30 58.20
Uelen. Siberia;
Mean 0.63 056 039 0.43 0.50 161 1.79 2.09 1.85 0.54 0.96 11.84
Maximum 2.28 1.85 0.67 0.08 1.08 0.94 2.11 2.64 4.70 6.18 0.88 2.38
- ..
AWf8.ge thickness of 12.80 17.60 20.30 21.!iO 17.70 1.80 0.10 1.70 4.60 8.50
.........
snow cover at Anadyr
ANTARCTIC
Little America:
1929 snowfall (unmelted 7.30 12.70 24.20 5.00 7.60 16.20 8,90 11.30 2.40 2.00 2.90 2.30 103.50
depth in inches)
Vears
Recorded
15
15
..-..
52
58
28
43
12
3
83
I
91
63
69
69
63
7
16
5
7
8
8
--
1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure C-1. Rates of overland flow corresponding to standard supply curves,
0.4 and 0.6; n = 0.40, S = 1 percent
supply curve number
C-8 Hydrologic and Hydraulic Tables and Curves

o
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a.
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15
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5UPPL Y CURVE NO .. 0.4

1.0 ...-......,I-...:.:f----"-..ck-----t----t----t----+-----+-----I
0.0
o 10
IIOf)
30 40
Duration of supply in minutes
Note: L:... effective length of overland or channel flow, in feet.
tc = critical duration of supply, In minutes, assuming surface
storage as negligible.
o = rate of supply, in inches per hour.
eo
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure C-2. Rates of overland flow corresponding to standard supply curves, supply curve
numbers 0.8 and 1.0; n = 0.40, S = 1 percent
SUPPLY CURVE NO. 0.8
10 20 30 60 70 10
i)uration of supply in minutes
...

en
Q)
.r::
u
.!:

c
2
'0
Q)

E
:J
E

:::2

2
IZOO
10 20 30 40
Note: L = effective length of overland or channel flow, in feet.
tc = critical duration of supply, in minutes, assuming surface
a = rate of supply, in inches per hour.
eo 70 10
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
...
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Q)

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10 20 30 40
o = rate of supply, in inches per hour.
eo 70 eo
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1


2
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10 20 30 40 50 eo 70
0
Duration of supply in minutes .J::.
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SUPPLY CURVE NO. 2.0'

____ L-____ L-__ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____
o 10 20 30 40 110 70

SUPPLY CURVE 'NO. 2.2
10 20 30 40 60 70 ee
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure C-6. Rates of overland flo w corresponding to standard supply curves, supply curve

SUPPLY CURVE NO.2.4
.......... -+++.
.I
(I)
...
0
tG
....
Z

ti
0
...
::l
0
.J::.
....
10 20 30

40 :!IO 60 70 ac
Vl Duration of supply in minutes
(I)
.J::.
a 0
c
c
:g
.,
c
2 SUPPLY CURVE NO. 2.6
.....
0
(I)

E
s ::l
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3
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____ ____ __
o 10 20 30 40 !l0 60 70
a = rate of supply, in Inches per hour.
eo
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
= rate of supply, in inches per hour.
Figure C-7, Rates of overland flow corresponding to standard supply curves, supply curve
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table C-2. Hydraulic radius (R) and area (A) of symmetrical triangular channels
----WP

R= A/WP
[Depth,
Slope ratio
d
1:1 It:l 2:1 2i:l 3:1 11:1
(feet)
"
JI A JI A R A It A R A It
0., 0.25 0.18 0.38 0.21 050 0.22 0.63 023 on
0.2Il 1.00 o.a
0.6 0.36 0.21 0.5' 025 072, 0.21 090 0.26 1'.08 0.26
I."

0.7 0.49 0.25 ' 0.29 0.98 0.31 1.23 0.32 1.41
033 1.96
, ,-
0.8 0.61. 0.26 0.96 033
1.26 0.36 1.60
037 192 038 2.56 0.39
0.9 0.81 0.32 1.21
037
1.62 o.lto 2.03 0.112 2.113 0.113 0.1t4
1.0 1.00
0.35 1.;0 0.112 2.00 0 ,
2. SO o.,w;
3.00 0.47 11.00 0.119
1.1 1.21
039 1.82 0.116 2.112
0119 3.03 0.51 3.63 0.)2 11.811 0.53
1.2 1." 0.42 2.16 0.;0 2.88 0.511 3.60 0.56 0.57 5.76 0.58
13 1.69 0.116
254 0.54 338 0.58 4.23 0.60
501
0.62 6.76 0.63
1.4 1.96 0.;0 2.94 0.58 392 0.63 4.90 0.65
588
0.66 7.811 0.68
1.5 2.25 0.53 3.38 0.62 1150 0.67 5.63 .0.70 6.n 0.71 9.00 0.73
1.6 2.56 0.57 3.a- 0.61
512 072 6.40 0.7\ 7.68 0.76 10.2Il 0.78
1.7 2.89 0.60 0.71 5.78 0.76 7.23 0.79 8.67 o.eo
1156 0.83
1.8 0.61. 4./36
075
6.48 0.80 8.10 0.811 9.72 0.85 1296 0.87
19 3.61 0.67 5.1!.2 0.79 722 0.85 9.03 o.ea 10.8,3
090 111.411 0.92
2.0 11.00 0.71 6.00 Q.83 8.00 0.90 10.00 0.93 12.00
095
16.00
097
2.'
6.25 0.88 9.38 1.011 1250
1.12 15.63 1.16
18n
1.19 25.00 1.21
30 9.00 1.<:6 13.;0 1.25 lB. 00 22. SO 139 rtr.oo 1.42 3600 1.116
).S 12.2S 1.211 18.)1)
1.IlS ill. SO 1.% )0.62 1.62 )6.7S
1.66 1.9.00 1.70
16.00 1.U 211.00 1.66 ,)2.00 1.78 1.0.00 1.8S 118.00
1.90 6U.00 1.9b
5:1 6:1 7:1 8:1 9:1 10:1
It. R A R A R It. It A R A R
0.5 1.25 0.25 1.50 0.25
ln
0.25 2.00 0.25

025 2. SO 0.25
0.6 1.eo 0.29 2.16 030 2.52 0.30 2.88 0.30
3 030 3.60 030
07 2.115 2.94 035 3.113 0.35 )92 0.35 4.111
035 .90
0.8 3.3)
039 3.811 039
4.118 0.40 ,.12 0.40 5.76 O.lto 6.a.o 0.40
0.9 4.05 0."

0." 5.61. 0.115 6.118 0.45 7.29 0.45 8.10 0.45
1.0 5.00 6.00 0.119 7.00 0.119 8.00
oSO 9.00 oSO
10.00 O.SO
1.1 6.05 0.5' 0.54 8.il7 ).68 0.55 0.55 12.10
055
1.2
120 0.59 8.64 0.59 10.06 0.59 ,u.52 0.60 12.96 0.60 14.40 0.60
1.3 8.115 0.64 10.14 0.64 11.83
1352
0.611 15.21 0.65 1.6.90 0.65
1.4 9.80 0.69 1l.76 0.69 1372 0.69 15.68 0.69 0.70 19.60 0.70
1l.25 0.7\ 13.50 0.711 15.75 0.7\ lB. 00 0.7\ 3)25 on 22.50
on
1.6 12.80 0.18 15.36 079 17.92 0.79 20.118
079 23.011 0.80 25.60 tr.eo
1.1 14.45 0.83 17.)4 0.811 20.23 0.811 23.12 0.811 2i.Ol 0.811 26.90 0.85
1.8 1.6.20 0.88
19." 0.89 22.68 0.89
2592 0.89 29.16 089 )2.110 0.90
1.9 18.05 0.93 21.66 0.911
25rtr
0.911 26.88 0.911 32.119 0.911 36.10 095
2.0 20.00 0.98 099 26.00 099 )2.00
099 36.00 099 lto.OO 1.00
25 )1.25
123 37.50 123
It). 75 SO. 00 l.a 56.2'5 l .211- 62.50 l.a
30 11500 1.117 54.00 1. ....
'3.00
l.1I8 72.00 81..00 90.00 l.49
).S 61.2S l.n 7).50 1.72 8S.7S 1.7) 98.00 1.11. 1l0.2$ 1:.71.. 122. SO 1.71.
1..0 8O.(YJ l.96 96.00 1.97 112.00
1.98 128.00 1.98 w..00 1.98 160.00 1.99
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table C-3. Hydraulic radius (R) and area (A) of nonsymmetrical triangular channels
----wp

,-

R= AiWP
[
i
Slope ratio
1:1 - 3:1 It:l - 3:1 2:1 - 3:1 2t:l- 3:1 4:1 - 3:1 5:1 - 3:1
(fe et)
A R A R A R A R A R A R
05 0.50 0.22 0.56 0.23 0.63 023 0.69 0.23 0.88 0.24 1.00 0.24
0.6 0.12 0.81 o.zr 0.90 0.26
099
0.28 1.26 0.29 1.44
029
0.7 0.98 0.31 1.10 0.32 1.23 0.32 1.35 0.33 1.72 0.34 1.96 034
0.8 1.28 0.35 1.44 0.36 1.60 0.37 1.76 0.38 2.P4 0.38 2.56
039
09 1.62 0.39 i.82 0.41 2.03 0.42
223 0.42 2.84 0.43 324 0.4.4
1.0 2.00 0.44 225 0.45 2.50 0.46 2.75 0.47 3.50 0.48 4.00 0.48
1.1 2.42 0.48 2.12 0.50 303 0.51
333 052 4.24 0.53 4.84
053
1.2 2.88 0.52 3.24 0.54 3.60 0.56 3.96 0.56 5.04 0.58 5.76
13 338 0.51 3.80 0.59 4.23 0.60 4.65 0.61
592 0.63 6.76 0.63
1.4 3.92 0.61 4.41 0.63 4.90 0.65
539
0.66' 6.86 0.67 7.84 0.68

4.50 0.66 5.06 0.68 5.63 0.69 6.19
!
0.70 7.88 0.72 900 0.73
- -- - --
-" A _4 L 1.ft
l.b
5.18
6.48
1.22
1
u. (U 1
0.14
0.79
0.83
'" ..,. .. .y "t. . n .,c:
A06
" '7'T
,,,
".'7'T
--
.. v.
1 ;:231 1 1 1 1 1 1
0.82 8.10 0.83 8.91 0.85 11.34 0.86 12.96 0.87
0.86 9.03 0.88 9.93 0.89 12.64 0.91 14.44 0.92
8.00
8.82
9.68
10.58
1l.52
12.50
13.52
14.58
15.68
0.87.
092
0.96
1.01
1.05.
1.09
1.14
1.18
1.22
16.82 1.27
18.00 1.31
I
9.00
9.92
10.89
1l.90
12.96
J.J..c6
1521
16./jO
11.64
0.91 10.00
0.95 1l.03
1.00 12.10
13.23
1.09 14.40
1.13 15.63
1.J.8 16.90
1.22
1.zr 19.60
1.31 21.03
1.36 22.50
I
093
11.00
0.97 12.13
1.02
1331
107 14.55
1.11 15.84
1.16 1719
1.20 18.59
1.25 2005
1.30 21.56
1.}4 23.13
1.39 2475
I I
0.94
0.99
1.03
1.08
1.13
1.17
1.22
1.27
1.32
14.00
15.44
16.94
0.96, 16.00
1.00 17.64.
1.06 19.36
18.52 1.10
20.16 1.15
21.87 1.20
23.66 1.25
25.52 1.30
27.44 1.35
1.36 29.4.4
1.41 31.50
I
097
1.02
1.07
1.11
1.16
1.21
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table C-4. Hydraulic radius (R) and area (A) of symmetrical trapezoidal channels
(2-foot bottom width)
----wp
(:::1"' .... _ .,..t:",
Depth,
UE
d
1 :1
li'l
2: 1 2t'l .3:1 4:1
(feet) A R A R A R A R A R 1\ R
0.5 0.37 1.38 0.36 1.50 !0.35 1.63 0.35 1.75 0 .34 2.00 0.33
0.6 1.56 0.42 1.74 0.42
1.92 10.41
2.10 0.40 2.2a 0 .39
2.(,4 0.3n
0.7 1.89 0.47 2.14 0.47 2.20 0.44 2.63 0.46 2.87 0.45 3.36 CI.43
0.8 2.24 0.53 2.56 0.52
... Of') ,..,. ...
" .. I
.... n .. n ,. 1'- n I.!'
I
;/..00 V,;)" ) V,;tl ).;14- ..,.;'\1 ..".\1
v._
0.9 2.61 0.51 3.01 0.57 3.42 0.57 3.B3 0.56 4.23 0.55 5.04 o.SJt
1.0 3.00 0.62 3.50 0.62 4.00 0.02 4.50 0.61 5.00 0.60 G.oo 0.59
1 .1 3.41 0.67 4.02 0.67 4.63 0.67 5.23 0.66 5.84 0.65 7.05 0.64
1.2 3.84 0.71 4.56 0.72 5.28 0.72 6.00 0.71 6.72 0.70 8.16 0.69
1.3 4.29 0.76 5.14 0.77 5.98 0.77 6.83 0.76 7.67 0.75 9.36 0.74
I
1.4 4.76 0.80 5.74 0.81 6.n. 0.81 7.70 0.81 8.68 0.80 10.64 0.79
1.5 5.25 0.84 6.38 0.86 7.50 0.86 8.63 0.86 9.75 0.85 12.00 0.84
! .6 5.76 0.88 ].04 0.9! 8.32 0.91 9.60 0.90 10.88 0.90 13.
1
/4 0.88
1.7 6.29 0.92 7.74 0.95 9.18 0.96 10.63 0.95 12.07 0.95 14.96 0.93
1.8 6.84 0.96 8.46 1.00 10.08 1.00 11.70 1.00 13.32 1.00 16.56 0.98
1.9 7.41 1.00 9.22 i,04 i i.02 LOS
ii,8) i.OS i4.G3 i .04 i8.24 LO)
2.0 8.00 1.04 10.00 1.09 12.00 1.10 14.00 1.10 16.00 1.09 20.00 1.08
2.5 11.25 1.24 14.38 1.30 17.50 I. 33 20.63 1.33 23.75 1.33 30.00 1. 33
3.0 15.00 1.43 19.50 1.52 4.00 1.56 28.30 1.57 33.00 1.57 42.00 1.57
5 :1 6:1 7 :1 8:1 9:1 10:1
A R A R A R fI R A R A R
2.25 0.32
0.3\
2Z5
0.30 3.00 0.30
tU

0.6 3.00 0.37 3.36 0.36 3.72 0.35 4.08 0.35 0.34 0.34
0.7 3.85 0.42 4.34 0.41 4.83 0.41 5.32 0.40 5.81 0.39 6.30 0.39
1\ D I. On. ft J., r 1.1. 1\ I.. t:. nD 1\ I,L t:. .. ., ,.. I.I!' .. ..c.
" ',r
n nn " 1.1 ..
v." ... gU u ... ,
:;I._
v ..... U.Ug v ...... u./I> u ... ;) ,.;,u u.";J
u ..,,, v._
0.9 5.85 0.52 6.66 0.51 7.47 0.51 8.28 0.50 9.09 0.50 9.90 0.49
1.0 7.00 0.51 8.00 0.56 9.00 0.56 10.00 0.55 11.00 0.55 12.00 0.54
1.1 8.25 0.62 9.47 0.62 10.6B 0.61 t/ .89
0.60 1/3.10
0.60 14.31 0.59
I
1.2 9.60 0.67 ! 1.04 0.67 12.48 0.66 13.92 0.65 15.36 0.65 16.80 0.64
1.3 11.05 0.72 i2.74 0.72 14.43 0.71 16.12 0.70 17.81 0.70 19.50 0.69
1.4 12.60 0.77 14.50 0.77 16.52 0.76 18.48 0.75 20.44 0.75 22.40 0.74
1.5 14.25 0.B2 16.50 0.81 lB.75 0.81 21.00 0.80 23.25 0.80 25.50 0.79
1.6 16.00 0.87 18.56 0.86 21.12 0.86 23.68 {) .85 26.24 0.85 28.80 0.84
1.7 17.B5 0.92 20.74 0.91 23.63 0.91 26.52 0.90 29.41 0.90 32.30 0.89
1.8 19.80 0.97 23.0
1
1 0.9(, 26.28 0.96 29.52 0.95 32.76 0.95 36.00 0.94
1.9 21.85 1.02 25.46 1.01
?CI r.,.,
1.0! 32.08 J .00
.. 0
! .00
on
n ''''
I
. .",."'" .;IV.6-;;} \,I.;};]
2.0 24.00 1.07 28.00 1.06 32.00 1.06 36.00 1.05 40.00 1.05 44.00 1.04
2.5 36.25 1.32 1;2.50 1. 31 43.75 I. 30 1.30 61.25 1. 30 67.50 1.29
3.0 Si .00 bO.OO 1.5:) CS.oo 78.00 1.55 87.00 1.54 96.00 1.54
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
C-18
Hydrologic and Hydraulic Tables and Curves
----wp
Depth,
1 :I It-I
A R A R
2.25 0.'+1 2.)8 0.41
0.6 2.16 0.48 2.94 0.48
0.1 3.29 0.55 3.54 0.54
0.8 3.84 0.61 4.16 0.60
0.9 4.41 0.67 4.82 0.66
1.0 5.00 0.73 5.50 0.72
1.1 5.61 0.79 6.22 0.78
1.2 6.24 0.84 6.96 0.84
1.l 6.89 0.90 7.74 0.89
1.4 7.56 0.95 B.5ft 0.94
1.5 8.25 1.00 9.38 1.00
1.6 8.96 LOS 10.24 1.05
1.7 9.69 1.10 11.14 1.10
1.8 10.44 LIS 12.06 1.15
1.9 11.21 l.20 13.02 1.2"0
2.0 12.00 1.24 14.00 1.25
2.5 16.25 1.47 19.38 1.48
3.0 21.00 1.68 25.50 1.72
5 : I b:1
A R A R
0.5 !.25 0.3& 3.50 0.35
0.6 4.20 0.42 4.56 0.40
0.7 5.25 0.47 5.74 0.46
0,8 6.40 0.53 7.04 0.51
0.9 7.65 0.58 8.46 0.56
1.0 9.00 0,64 10.00 0.62
1.1 10.45 0.69 11.66 0.67
1.2 12.00 0.74 13.44 0.72
1.3 13.65 0.79 15.34 0.77
1.4 15.40 0.84 17.36 0.8)
1.5 17.25 0.89 19.50 0.88
1.6 19.20 0.94 21.76 0.91
1.7 21.25 1.00 2it.14 0.98
1.8 23.40 1.05 26.64 l.o)
1.9 2S .65 1.10 1.08
2.0 28.00 l.IS 32,00 1.14
2.5 41.25 1.40 47.50 I. )0
3.0 57.00 1.65 66.00 1.(,4
A=lld
2
.4d
+4
R= A/WP
SlOna I atio
l.: I 2 '1
A R A R
2.50 0.40 2.6) 0.39
3.12 0.47 3.30 0.46
3.78 0.53 4.03 0.52
4.48 0.59 4.80 0.58
5.22 0.6S 5.63 0.64
6.00 0.71 6.50 0.69
6.82 0.76 7.43 0.75
7.68 0.82
8.40 .
0.80
8.58 0.87 9.43 0.86
9.52 0.9) 10.50 0.91
0.98 11.63 0.96
1.52 1.0) 12.80 1.01
2.58 1.08 14.03 1.07
13.68 1.14 15.30 1.12
4.82 1.19 16.63 1.17
\6.00
1.2"
18.00 1.22-
22.50 1.48 25.63 1.47
30.00 1.72 34.50 1.71
7 :1 6:
A a A R
;.75 0.34 4.00 0.33
4.92 0.39 5.28 0.38
6.23 0.45 6.72 0.'+4
7.68 0.50 8.32 0.49
9.27 0.55 10.08 0.55
11.00 0.61 12.00 0,60
12.87 0.66 14.08 .0.65
14,88 0.71 16.32 0.70
\7.03 0.76 18.72 0.75
19.32 0.81 21.28 0.80
0.86 24.00 0.85
0.91 26.88 0.90
27.0, 0.96 29.92 0.95
29.80 1.01 33.12 1.00
32.87 I.OG 36.48 1.05
36.00 1.12 40.00 1.10
53.75 1.37 Gcc.oo
1.35
75.00 1.6) 31).1i0 1.62
3:1 4:1
A R A R
2.75 0.39 3.00 0.)7
3.48 O .ItS 3.SIt 0.43
4.27 0.50 4.76 0.49
5.12 0.57 5.76 0.54
6.03 0.62 6.SIt 0.60
1.00 0.68 8.00 0.65
8.0) 0.73 9.24 0.71
9.12 0.79 10.56 0.76
10.27 0.8lt 11.96 o.BI
1148 0.89 I) .'+4 0.86
12.75 0.94 15.00 0.92
14.08 1.00 16.64 0.97
15.47 1.05 18.36 1.02
16.92 1.10 20.16 1.02
18.43 1.15 22.04 1.12
20.00 1.20 24.00 1.17
28.75 I . .ItS 35.00 1.42
39.00 1.70 48.00 1.67
9 :1 \0 :1
A R A R
4.25 0.;2 4.50 0.32
5.64 0.38 6.00 0.37
7.21 0.43 7.70 0.43
8.96 0.49 9.60
10.89 0.54 11 .70 0.53
13.00 0.59
'''.00
0.58
15.29 0.64 16.50 0.63
17.76 0.69 19.20 0.68
20.41 0.74 22.10 0.73
23.24 0.79 25.20 0.78
26.25 0.84 28.50 0.S3
29.44 0.89 32.00 0.89
32.81 0.94 35.70 0.!!4
36.36 0.99 39.60 0.99
1.04 43.70 1.04
44.00 1.09 11S.00 1.09
66.25 1.3
1
1 72.50 I .3'.
93.00 I.G2 102.00 I.i"
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
----wp
lDepth.
SIOIUl ro tlO
d J : I 1'1 '1 2 :1 2.i'l 3! 1 4 :1
(feen A R A R A R A R A R A R
0.5 3.25 0.44 3.38 0.43 3.50 0.42 ).63 0 .... 2 3.50 0.41 4.00 0,40
0.6 ].96 0.51 4.14 0.51 4.32 0.50 4.50 0.49 4.68 0.i+B 5.04 0.46
0.7 4.69 0.59 4.94 0.58 5.18 0.57 5.43 0.56 5.67 0.54 6.16 0.52
0.8 5.44 0.66 5.76 0.65 6.08 0.63 6.40 0.62 6.72 0.61 7.).6 0.58
0.9 6.21 0.73 6.62 0.72 7.02 0.70 7.43 0.68 7.83 0.67 8.64 0.Q.4
1.0 7.00 0.79 7.s0
0.]8 8.00 0.76 8.50 0.75 9.00 0.73 10.00 0.70
1.1 7.81 0.86 8.42 0.85 9.02 0.83 9.63 0.80 10.23 0.19 11.44 0.76
1.2 8.64 0.92 9.36 0.91 0.08 0.89 10.80 0.61 11.52 0.85 12.96 0.62
1.3 9.49 0.98 10.)4 0.91 1.18 0.95 12.03 0.93 12.87 0.91 14.56 0.87
1.4 10.36 1.04 11.)4 1.03 2.32 1.00 13.30 0.98 14.28 0.96 16.24 0.9)
1.5 11.25 1.10 12.38 1.08 3.50 1.06 14.63 1.04 15.75 1.01 18.00 0.98
1.6 12.16 1.16 n.44 1.14 .... 72 1.12 16.00 1.09 17.28 1.07 19.84 1.03
1.7
1).09 1.22 14.54 1.20 15.98 1.17 17.4) 1.15 18.87 1.13 21.76 1.09
1.8 14.0It 1.27 15.66 1.25 17.28 1.23 18.90 1.20 20.52 1.18 23.76 1.14
1.9 15.01 1.32 16.82 1.30 18.62 1.28 20.43 1.25 22.2) 1.24 25.84 1.19
2.0 16.00 1.37 18.00 1.36 1.)4 22.00 1.)1 24.00 1.29 28.00 1.24
2.5 21.25 1.61 24.38 1.61 27.50 1.60 30.63 l.se 33.75 1.55 40.00 1.50
3.0 27.00 1.86 31.50 1.87 )6.00 1.85 40.50 1.8) 45.00 1.80 54.00 1.76
5 : b: 7: 9: 10:1
A 1\ A 1\ A R A
"
A R A R
;
0.5 4.25 0.38 4.50 0.37 4.75 0.36 5.00 0.)6 5.25 0.35 5.50 0.34
0.6 5.90 0.45 5.76 0.43 6.12 0.42 6.i+B 0.41 6.84 0.41 7.20 0.40
0.7 6.65 0.51 7.14 0.49 7.63 o.i+B 8.12 0.47 8.61 0.46 9.10 0.45
0.8 B.oO 0.56 8.64 0.55 9.28 0.54 9.92 0.53 10.56 0.49 11.20 0.51
. 0.9
9.45 0.62 10.26 0.61 11.07 0.59 11.88 0.58 12.69 0.57 13.50 0.55
1.0 11.00 0.68 12.00 0.66 t3.00 0.65 22.12 0.63 15.00 0.62 16.00 0.6\
t 1 12.65 0.73 13.86 0.12 15.07 0.70 16.28 0.69 17.49 0.67 18.70 0.67
1.2 14.40 0.79 15.84 0.77 17.28 0.75 18.72 0.74 20.16 0.75 21.60 0.72
1.1 16.25 0.85 17.94 0.82 19.63 0.80 21.32 0.79 23.01 0.78 24.70 0.77
1.4 18.20 0.90 20.16 0.87 ;22 .12 0.B5 24.08 0.84 26.04 0.8) 2B.oo 0.82
1.5 20.25 0.95 22.50 0.92 ;74.75 0.91 27.00 0.90 29.25 0.88 31.50 0.B7
1.6 22.40 l.ttO 24.96 0.98 !27.52 0.96 39.08 0.95 32.64 0.93 35.20 0.92
1.7 24.l15 \.06 27.54 1.03 30.43 1.01 33.32 1.00 36.21 0.97 39.10 0.97
1.8 27.00 1.11 30.24 1.08 33.48 LOG :)6.72 1.08 39.96 1.04 43.20 \.02
1.9 29.45 1.16 33.06 1.14 36.67 1.12 40.28 1.10 113.89 i.09 47.50 1.07
2.0 32.01) 1.21 36.00 1.19 L;O.OO 1.17 1.15 IIU.OO 1.13 52.00 1.12
2.5 46.25 1.47 52.50 1.45 58.75
1 .I,u
65.00 1.'10 71.7.5 1.39 77.50 1.33
3.0 63.00 1.72 12.00 1.70 81.00 I. 71 !';o.oo 99.00 l.G6 108.00 I
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-89013, Vol 1
,---WP A
d " A= xd
2
+ 8 d
LI "--_... x WP= + 8
R=A/WP
Depth,
Slope ratio
d 1 :I li'l Z :1 2i" '+: 1
{feet} A R It R A R A R A R A R
OS 4.25 0.'+5 4.}8 o.4S 4.50 0.44 4.63 0.43 4.75 a.ll) 5.00 0.41
0.6 5.16 0.5) S.:J' 0.S3 5.52 0.52 S.70 0.51 5.88 0.50 6.2" 0.'+8
0.1 6.09 0.61 6.)\ 0.60 6.58
0.5' 6.83 0.58 7.01 0.57 7.56 0.55
0.8 7.04 0.69 7.36 0.68 7.68 0.66 8.00 0.65 8.32 0.64 8.96 0.61
0.9 8.01 0.76 8.42 0.75 8.82 0.73 9.22 0.72 9.63 0.70 10.44 0.68
1.0 9.00 0.83 9.50 0.82 10.00 0.80 10.50 0.78 11.00 0.77 12.00 0.74
1.1 10.01 0.90 10.62 0.89 11.12 0.87 11.83 0.85 12.43 0.83 \3.64 0.80
1.2 I' .04 0.97 11.76 0.95 12.48 0.93 13.20 0.91 13.91 0.89 15.36 0.86
1.3 12.09 1.04 12.94 1.02 13.78 1.00 14.63 0.98 15.97 0.95 17.16 0.92
1.4 13.16 1.10 14.14 1.08 15.12 1.06 16.10 1.04 17.08 1.01
'9.04 0.97
1.5 14.25 1.16 15.38 1.14 16.50 1.12 17.63 1.10 18.75 1.07 21.00 1.03
1.6 15.36 1.23 16.64 1.21 17.92 1.18 19.20 1.16 20.48 1.13 23.04 1.09
1.7 16.49 1.29 17.44 1.27 19.38 1.24 20.83 1.22 22.27 1.19 25.16 I. '4
1.8 17.64 1.35
19.26 1.;3 20.88 1.30 22.,0 1.11 29.12 1.2lt 21.36 l.lQ
1.9 18.81 1.41 20.63 1.40 22.42 1.36 24.23 1.33 26.03 1.30 29.64 1.25
2.0 20.00 1.46 22.00 1.45 24.00 1.42 26.00 1.39 28.00 1.)6 )2.00 1.31
2.5 26.25 1.76 29.38 1.72- )2.50 1.69 35.6) 1.66 ;8.75 1.6) 45.00 1.57
3.0 33.00 2.00 31.50 1.99 42.00 1.96 46.50 1.93 51.00 1.89 60.00 1.83
5: 1 6:1 7 :1 8:1 .2: I ID :1
A R A R A R A R A R A fl
. O.S 5.25 0.40 5.50 0.39 5.75 6.00 0.37 6.25 0.3& 6.50 0.36
0.6 6.00 0.47 6.96 0.44 7.32 0.44 7.68 0.43 8.04 0.43 8.40 0.42
0.7 8.05 0.53 8S4 0.52 9.03 0.50 9.52 0.49 10.01 0.48 10.50 0.'+8
0.8 9.60 0.59 10.24 0.58 10.88 0.56 11.20
0.5'* 12.16 0.54 12.80 0.53
0.9 11.25 0.65 12.06 0.64 1l.87 0.63 13.68 0.61 14.49 0.60 15.30 0.59
1.0 13.00 0.71 14.00 0.70 15.00 0.68 16.00 0.66 17.00 0.65 18.00 0.64
1.1 llt.S5 0.77 H>.of> 0.75 17.27 0.73 18.48 0.72 19.69 0.71 20.90 0.69
1.2 16.80 0.83 18.24 0.81 19.68 0.79 21.12 0.77 n.5G 0.76 24.00 0.74
1.3 18.85 0.88 20.54 0.80 22.23 0.84 23.92 0.83 25.61 0.81 27.30
1.4 21.00 0:92 22.96 0.91 24.92 0.90 26.88 0.88 28.84 0.86 30.80 0.84
1.5 23.25 1.00 25.50 0.97 27.75 0.95 ,0.00 0.93 32.25 0.91 34.50 0.90
1.6 25.60 1.05 28.16 1.03 30.72 1.00 33.28 0.98 35.84 0.97 38.40 0.96
1.7 28.25 1.11 30.94 1.08 33.85 1.06 3u.72 1.04 39.6\ 1.02 42.50 1.01
1.8 30.60 1.Tu 33.84 1.13 37.08 1.11 M.32 1.08 43.56 1.07 46.80 1.06
1.9 33.25 1.22 36.86 1.18 40.47 1.16 44.08 1.14 47.1)9 1.12 51.30 J.lt
2.0 36.00 1.28 40.00 1.24 44.00 1.21 48.00 1.19 '52.00 1.18 56.00 1.16
2.5 57.25 1.54 57.50 1.50 63.75 1.48 70.00 1.45 7":;.25 1.43 82.50 1.42
3.0 69.00 1.80 78.00 1.77 8] .00 I.]ll 9:.>.00 1.70 105.00 1.70 114.00 1.69
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Depth,
Slope ratio
cl
1:1 li:1 2:1 21:1 3:1 11:1
(feet)
-
A It A It .. It A- B A R A It
0.5
'25
o.WI
'.38.
O.WI 5.50 0.45 5.63 0."
5TS
0."",,,
6.00 0.112
0.6 6.)6 6.5" 0.511 6.72 053 6.90 0.52 7.08 051 7.U 0.50
0.1 0.63 7.7\ 0.62 7.98 0.61 8.2,3 0.60 8 .... 7
059 8.96 0.57
0.8 0.11
8.96 0.70 9.26 0.68 9.60 0.6'7
9.92 0.66 10.56
0., ,.81 0.76 10.22 0.77 10.62 0.76 J.l.01 0.74 ll .... )
073 0:10
1.0 1l.00 0.86 1l.50 0.85 12.00 0.B3
1250
0.81
1300
O.eo 1 .... 00 0.77
1.1 12.21
093 12.82
092 13.1.2 0.90 1 .... 03 0.88 1 .... 63 0.86 15.811 0.83
1.2 13." 1.00 1 .... 1.6 0.99 1 88 0.97 15.60 095 16.32 093 17.76 0.89
1.3 liJ69 1.07 15.5" 1.06 16.)8 1.01. 17.23 1.01 18.07 099 19.76 0.95
15.96 1.1_
1.6.94 1.13 1792 1.10 lB. 90 1.08 19.88 105
21.811. 1.01
1.5 1725 1.21 lB.)8 1.19 19.50 1.17 3>.63
1.14
21.15 1.12 1.07
1.6 18.$6 1.'i!B 19.$4 1.as 21.12 1.2,3 22.40 1.20 2,3.68 1.18 1.13
1.7 19.&9 1.3- 2l.,Y. 1.32 22.78 1.29 1.26 25.67 26.$6 1.19
1.8
21."
22.86 1.39 2ff.108 1.36 as.l0 1.33 '27.72 1.)0 30.96 1.25
1.9 22.61 1.47 1 .... 5 26.22 1.42
26.03 1.39 29.83 135 33."
1.)0
'2.0 1.53 as. 00 1.51 26.00 1.108 )0.00
1." 32.00 1. ... 1 36.00 1.)6
2.,
3125 1.83 34.38 1.81 37.50 1.77 40.63 1.73 "3.75 169 50.00 1.6)
3.0 39.00 2.11 1,3.50 2.09 108.00 2.05 52.50 2.01 57.00 197
66.00
190
5:1 6:1
7:1
8:1 9:1 10:1
A Il A Il A R A It A- ft A ft
0.,
625
0._1
6.50 0.110 6.15 0.40
700 0.39
725 038 7.50 037
0.6 1.80 o.W! 8.1.6 0.-7 8.52 0.46 8.88 0.45 0.-... 9.60 0.-...
0.7 9.It,
055 9.94 0.5'" 10.i!.3 0.52 1092 0.51 U.41
050 11.90 0.19
0.8 11.21) 0.62 0.60 12.48 059 1312 0.57 13.76 0.56 1 .... 1+0
05'
0.9 1305 0.68 13.86 0.66 14.67 0.65 0.63 16.29 0.62 17.10 0.61
1.0 15.00 O.'J'If 16.00 0.72 17.00 0.70 16.00 0.69 1900 0.68 m.oo 0.66
1.1
1705 0.80 18. as 0.78 19.47 0.76 3'.>.68 075 21. SI] 073 2310 0.72
1.2 19.21) 0.85 22.08 0.82 23.52 0.80 24.96 079
as. 40 0.77
1.3 21.45 0.92 23.1" 090 2ff.83 087 as52 0.136 g). 21 0.8Il
2990
0.63
1 ....
23.80 0.98 25.76 095 ra72 093 29.68 091 0.89 33.60 0.88
1., as. 25 1.011 23.50 1.01
3075 099 3300 0.'/7 3525 095 3750 093
1.6 g). 80 1.10 31.36 1.06
3392
1.01. 36.W! 1.02 1.00 41.60 0.99
1.1 )l.45 1.15 34.34 1.12
3723
1.09 1+0.12 1.cr{ 4).01
105 45.90 1.04
1.8 1.21
31"
1.17 i1C.68 1.15 4).92 1.1) 47.16 1.11 5040 1.09
19 3105
1.as 40.66 1.2,3
".ra
1.20 4788 1.18 51.lI.9 1.1.6 5510 1.14
2.0 Ita. 00
132 ".00 1.26 48.00 1.25 52.00 1.23 56.00 1.21 60.00 1.20
2.5 $625 1.58 62.50 155 68.15 1.52 1500 1."9 81.25 87.50 1.il5
].0 1500 1.85 811..00 1.81
9300 177 102.00 1.75 lll.oo
173
120.00 1.71
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table C-9. Hydraulic radius (R) and area (A) of nonsymmetrical trapezoidal channels (2-foot
bottom width)
..... -2
Depth
d
:) - }:I It'l-3'1
I (feet) R A R
1.0 At.OO 0.61 It.2S 0.61
1..1 4.62 0.66 It.92 0.66
1.2 5.28 0.70 5.64 0.71
I .. )
5.98 0.75 6.40 0.76
1.4 6.72 0.80 7.21 0.80
1.5 7.50 0.85 8.06 0.85
1.6 8.32 0.89 8.96 0.91
1.7 9.18 0.94 9.90 0.95
t.8 10.08 0.99 10.89 1.00
1.9 11.02 , .03
11.92 1.04
2.0 12.00 1.07 13.00 1.09
2.2 14.08 1.17 15.29 1.19
2.4 16.32 1.26 17.76 J.28
2.6 18.72 1.35 20.41 1.37
2.8 21.2.8 1.43 23.2'+ 1.'+6
3.0 24.00 1.52 26.25 1.5'+
3.5 31.5.0 1.76 }It.57 1.78
4.0 !to.DO 1.97 44.00 2.00
A= t dZ(x+y) +2d
WP 11 d cvI'+;'! ."ti'+xI')+ 2
R 11 A/WP
SIODe rj1tlo
2:1 - 3:1 Zt'l- 3'1
q!l-}:I
A R A R A R
4.50 O.bl 4.75 0 . 6 ~ 5.50 0.59
5.23 0.66 5.53 0.66 6.44 0.64
6.00 . 0.71 6.36 0.70 7.44 0.68
6.83 0.76 7.25 0.75 8.52 0.73
7.70 0.81 8.19 0.81 9.66 0.79
8.63 0.85 9.19 0.85 10.88 0.84
9.60 0.91 10.24 0.90 12.16 0.90
10.63 0.95 11.35 0.95 13.52 0.94
11.90 1.01 12.51 1.00 14.94 0.98
12.83 I.OS 13.73 I.OS 16.lt4 1.03
14.00 1.10 15.00 1.10 18.00 1.09
16.50 1.19 11.71 1.19 21.34 1.19
19.20 1.28 20.64 1.29 24.96 1.28
22.10 1.37 23.79 1.38 28.86 1.38
25.20 1.48 27.16 1.48 33..04 1.48
28.50 1.57 )0.75 1.57 37.50 1.57
37.63 1.80 40.70 1.81 49.88 1.81
ltB.OO 2.02 52.00 2.03 64.00 2.04
5:1-3:1
A R
6.00 0.58
7.04 0.63
8.16 0.68
9.)6 0.74
10.64 0.79
12.00 0.84
13.44 0.88 .
14.96 0.93
16.56 0.98
18.24 1.03
20.00 1.08
2).76 1.18
27.84 1.27
32.2'+ 1.37
36.76 1.48
42.00 1.57
56.01 1.81
72.00 2.04
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table C-10. Hydraulic radius (R) and area (A) of nonsymmetrical trapezoidal channels (4-foot
bottom width)
Depth,
d
1:1 - 3:1 It:l- 3:1
. A R A R
1.0 b.OO 0.70 6.25 0.69
1.1 6.82 0.75 7.12 0.75
1.2 7.68 0.80 8.04 0.80
1.3 8.58 0.86 9.00 0.86
1.4 9.52 0.91 10.01 0.91
1.5 10.50 0.97 11.06
1.6 11.52 1.02 12.16 1.02
1.7 12.58 1.06 13.30 1.07
1.8 13.38 1.10 14.49 1.12
1.9 14.82 1.17 15.72 1.17
2.0 16.00 1.21 17.00 1.22
2.2 18.48 1. 31 19.69 1.32
2.4 21.12 1.41 22.56 1.42
2,6 23.92 1.51 25.61 1.51
2.8 26.88 1.60 28.84 1.61
3.0 30.00 1.69 32.25 1.71
3.5 38.50 1.93 41.57 1.94
4.0 48.00 2.15 52.00 2. I 7
A= td2(x+y) +2d
wp=
R = A/WP
ratio
2: 1 -3:1 2,:1 3,1 4: 1-3: 1
A R A R A R
6.50 0.69 G.75 O.b!i 7.50 0.66
7.43 0.75 7.73 0.74 8.64 0.72
8.40 0.81 8.76 0.79 9.84 0.78
9.43 0.85 9 .. 85 0.85 11.12 0.81
10.59 0.92 10.99 0.90 12.46 0.88
11.63 0.96 12.19 0.95 13.88 0.93
12.80 1.01 13.44 1.00 15.36 0.98
14.03 1.07 14.75 1.06 16.92 1.04
15.50 1.13 16.11 1.11 18.54 1.08
16.63 1.17 17.53 1.12 20.24 1.13
18.00 1.22 19.00 1.21 22.00 1.18
20.90 1.32 22.11 1. 31 25.74 1.29
24.00 1.41 25.44 1.41 '29.76 I.>a
27.30 1.51 28.99 1.51 34.06 1.49
30.80 1.62 32.76 1.61 38.64 1.59
1.71 36.75
I
34;50 1.71 43.50 1.68
44.63 1.95 47.70 1.95 56.a8 1.93
56.00 2. la 60.00 2.18 72 .00 2.16
5 :1-3:1
A R
8.00 0.65
9.74 0.70
10.56 0.76
11.96 0.81
13.44 0.a7
15.00 0.92
16.64 0.96
la.36 1.01
20.16 1.07
22.04 1.12
1.17
28.16 1.28
32.64 1.37
37.44 1.47
42.36

48.00 1.66
63.07 1.92
80.00 2.15
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
APPENDIX D
CONE INDEX REQUIREMENTS
Fine-Grained Soils
Tr a c k e d Ve h i c le s
Veh icle
Weigh t
Veh icle Des cr ipt ion (kips )
Amph ibiou s veh icles
Ca r r ier , ca r go, a mph ibiou s , 10. 9
t r acked, M116
Lan din g veh icle, t r acked, 97. 5
comma n d, M5(LVTP5A1(CMD))
Lan din g veh icle, t r acked, 87.8
per s on n el, M5 (LVTP5A1)
7
20
19
18
49
45
Ar mor ed bu lldozer s
Bu lldozer , ea r t h movin g t a n k, 116.0 23 53
t a n k-mt d, M9 (t a n k, comba t ,
105-mm gu n , M60, an d M60A1)
Tr a ct or , a r mor ed, comba t 35. 6 18 41
ea r t h mover (ACE), M9
NOTES:
1 . It e ms lis t e d in c lu de s e le c t e d s e lf-pr ope lle d ve h ic le s a s of J a n u a r y 1 9 9 3 . Ce r t a in
i t e ms i n fi n a l de ve lopme n t or u n de r goi n g fi e ld t e s t i n g h a ve be e n i n c lu de d wh e r e t h e
t ype of c la s s ific a t ion is pe n din g.
2 . Th e VCIs h a ve be e n c a lc u la t e d fr om t h e for mu la s , c u r ve s , a n d t a ble s i n NRMM. Th e
ve h ic le we igh t wa s ba s e d on n or ma l de s ign loa ds or c omba t we igh t s , e qu ipme n t , c r os s -
c ou n t r y t ir e pr e s s u r e s , a n d c r e ws a s t h e c on dit ion s wou ld be u n de r fu ll ope r a t ion a l
de ployme n t in t ypic a l off-r oa d move me n t s . Tr u c k s wh i c h c ou ld ope r a t e a t lowe r t i r e
pr e s s u r e s wou ld ge n e r a t e s li gh t ly lowe r VCI va lu e s wi t h i n c r e a s e d t i r e de fle c t i on .
3 . Amph i bi ou s ve h i c le s a n d e n gi n e e r t r a c t or s h a ve gr ou s e r s gr e a t e r t h a n 1 1 / 2 i n c h e s ;
a ll ot h e r t r a c k e d ve h i c le s h a ve gr ou s e r s le s s t h a n 1 1 / 2 i n c h e s .
4 . On e k ip e qu a ls 1 , 0 0 0 pou n ds (US c u s t oma r y).
Cone Index Requirements D-1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Tr a c k e d Ve h i c le s (c on t i n u e d)
Veh icle
Weigh t
Veh icle Des cr ipt ion
(kips )
Comb a t veh icles
Ar mor ed r econ n a is s a n ce
air bor n e as s au lt veh icle
(Gen er al Sh er idan ), M551
Howit zer , h ea vy, s elf-
pr opelled, fu ll- t r acked,
8-in , M55 (T108)
Howit zer , h ea vy, s elf-
pr opelled, 8-in , M110
(T236E1)
Howit zer , mediu m, s elf-
pr opelled, 155-mm, M109
(T196E1)
Howit zer , ligh t , s elf-pr opelled,
fu ll-t r acked, 105-mm, M37
fu ll-t r acked, 105-mm,
M52
M52A1
105-mm, M108
LAV-25, 8x8, ligh t , a r mor ed
veh icle
Mor t a r , in fa n t r y, s elf-
pr opelled, fu ll-t r acked,
107-mm (4.2-in ), M84
Ta n k, comba t , fu ll-t r a cked,
90-mm gu n ,
M48
M48C
M48A1
M48A2
M48A2C
M48A3 (M48A1E2)
M48A5
105-mm gu n ,
M60
M60A1
M60A3
35. 8
98. 0
58.5
53.2
46. 0
53. 0
53. 0
46.9
27. 7
47. 1
99. 0
99. 0
104.0
105.0
105.0
104.0
106.0
110.0
116.0
110.0
1 5
20
20
2 5
N/ A
N/ A
N/ A
N/ A
3 2
N/ A
20
20
21
21
21
21
22
21
22
20
35
47
47
57
58
46
46
54
72
46
47
47
49
49
49
49
50
48
51
46
D-2 Cone Index Requirements
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Veh icle
Weigh t
Comba t veh icles con t in u ed
120-mm gu n ,
Ml
M1A1
M 1A2
Veh icle, combat en gin eer ,
fu ll-t r acked, 165-mm gu n ,
M729 (bas ic M60A1 t an k)
Ar m o r e d v e h i c l e b r i d g e s
La u n ch er , M48 t a n k ch a s s is ,
t r a n s por t in g
La u n ch er , M48 t a n k ch a s s is ,
t r a n s por t in g, wit h br idge,
ar mor ed veh icle lau n ch ed,
s cis s or in g t ype, clas s 60,
60-ft
Lau n ch er , M60A1 ch as s is ,
t r a n s por t in g
Lau n ch er , M60A1 ch as s is ,
t r a n s por t in g wit h br idge,
ar mor ed veh icle lau n ch ed,
s cis s or in g t ype, clas s 60,
60-ft
Ca r r ier s
Ca r r ier , ca r go, t r a cked,
6-on , M548
Ca r r ier , comma n d pos t , ligh t ,
t r acked,
M577
M577A1
Car r ier , per s on n el, fu ll-
t r a cked, a r mor ed,
M113
M113A1
M113A2
M113A3
115.0 23
125.0 25
140.0 28
115.0 N/ A
96. 0
128. 0
86.3
115. 9
28. 0
23. 9
24.4
22. 6
23. 4
23. 4
23. 6
N/ A
N/ A
15
22
N/ A
17
17
N/ A
N/ A
N/ A
N/ A
54
58
64
54
49
65
36
51
37
40
40
48
49
49
49
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1 FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Veh icle
Weigh t
Ca r r ier s (con t in u ed)
In fa n t r y figh t in g
M2A1
M2A2
Mu lt iple La u n ch
Recover y veh icles
Recover y veh icle,
veh icle,
Rocket Sys t em
fu ll-
Tr u cks
t r a cked, mediu m, M88
Recover y veh icle, fu ll-
t r a cked, ligh t , a r mor ed,
M578
Wh eeled Veh icles
Tr u ck, u t ilit y, 1/ 4-t on ,
4x4, M151
Tr u ck, u t ilit y, 1 1/ 4-t on ,
4x4 M998 (HMMWV)
Tr u ck, car go, 1 1/ 4-t on ,
6x6, M561
4x4, M 1028 commer cial
car go veh icle (CUCV)
6x6, M34
6x6, M35A 1
Tr u ck, car go, 5-t on , 6x6
M923
M520
M125
M125A1
M977
M 1084
u t ilit y
50. 2
66. 0
54, 2
112.0
54. 0
3. 1
7.5
9. 6
9.3
17. 2
19. 2
32.5
43. 4
49.5
49.5
60. 4
35. 8
15
16
15
21
21
19
20
19
31
27
26
30
43
37
37
36
25
35
37
35
50
49
44
47
44
70
61
59
68
97
84
84
79
57
D-4 Cone Index Requirements
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Wh e e le d Ve h i c le s (c on t i n u e d)
Veh icle
Weigh t
Tr u cks (con t in u ed)
Tr u ck, car go, 2
4x4, M1078
Tr u ck, du mp, 2
6x6, M47
l/ 2-t on , 21. 8 25 57
1 / 2-t on , 19. 2 28 64
Tr u ck, du mp, 5-t on , 6x6,
M51
M51A2
M929
Tr u ck, t r a ct or , 5-t on , 6x6
M52 (w/ o pa yloa d)
M52A1 (w/ o pa yloa d)
Tr u ck, t r a ct or , 10-t on , 6x6
M123 (w/ o payload)
M123C (w/ o payload)
M123D (w/ o pa yloa d)
Tr u ck, van , expan s ible,
2 1/ 2-t on , 6x6, M292
Tr u ck, van , s h op, 2 1/ 2-
t on , 6x6, M109A1
Tr u ck, van , s h op, 2 1/ 2-
t on , 6x6, M220
Tr u ck, wr ecker , cr an e,
2 1/ 2-t on , 6x6, M108
Tr u ck, t r a ct or , wr ecker ,
mediu m, 5-t on , 6x6, M246
(w/ pa yloa d)
Tr u ck, wr ecker , mediu m,
5-t on , 6x6, M543
Pa llet ized Loa din g Sys t em,
10 x 10
32. 7
32. 7
32. 7
17. 8
17. 8
28. 9
30. 2
30. 2
25. 1
21. 0
20.4
19. 8
44.8
34. 4
86. 6
32
32
30
21
21
21
22
22
N/ A
N/ A
N/ A
N/ A
32
N/ A
34
72
72
68
48
48
48
50
50
76
65
62
63
73
76
77
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
APPENDIX E
SOIL-TRAFFICABILITY TEST SET
Tr a ffica bilit y mea s u r emen t s a r e ma de wit h
t h e s oil-t r a ffica bilit y t es t s et . Th is s et con -
s is t s of on e can vas car r yin g cas e, on e con e
pen et r omet er wit h 3/ 8-in ch s t eel a n d 5/ 8-
in ch a lu min u m s h a ft s a n d a 0.5-s qu a r e-
in ch con e, on e s oil s ampler , r emoldin g
equ ipmen t (wh ich in clu des a 3/ 8-in ch s t eel
s h aft an d a 0.2-s qu ar e-in ch con e, a 5/ 8-
in ch s t eel s h a ft wit h foot a n d h a n dle, a 2
1/ 2-pou n d h a mmer , a n d a cylin der a n d
ba s e wit h pin ), a n d a ba g of h a n d t ools
(wh ich in clu des on e combin at ion s pan n er
wr en ch an d 1 / 4-in ch s cr ewdr iver ; t wo open -
en d wr en ch es , 1/ 2 by 9/ 16; on e 6-in ch
St ills on wr en ch ; on e 3/ 16-in ch Allen
wr en ch ; an d on e 2-in ch s cr ewdr iver wit h a
1/ 8-in ch bit ). Th e it ems ar e s h own in t h eir
pr oper places in t h e car r yin g cas e in Figu r e
E-1, SC-6635-98-CL-E02-HR gives com-
pon en t lis t in gs a n d s t ock n u mber s .
CONE PENETROMETER
Th e con e pen et r omet er is s h own in Figu r e
E-2, page E-2. It con s is t s of a 30-degr ee
con e wit h a 1/ 2-in ch -s qu a r e ba s e a r ea , a
s t eel s h aft 19 in ch es lon g an d 3/ 8 in ch in
dia met er , a pr ovin g r in g, a micr omet er dia l,
a n d a h a n dle.
Us e of t h e Con e Pe n e t r ome t e r
In s pect a n d a dju s t t h e con e pen et r omet er
pr ior t o u s e. Us in g a n oper a t or s a s s is t a n t
Figure E-1. Soil Trafficability test set
Soil Trafficability Test Set E-1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure E-2. Cone penetrometer
wh ich mea s u r emen t s ca n be ma de a n d
r ecor ded an d u s u ally dimin is h es t h e
likelih ood of er r or s .
Ins pection. In s pect t h e pen et r omet er befor e
u s in g it t o ma ke s u r e t h a t a ll n u t s , bolt s ,
a n d join t s a r e t igh t a n d t h a t t h e dia l-ga ge
s t em con t a ct s t h e pr ovin g-r in g bea r in g
block.
Zeroing. Allow t h e pen et r omet er t o h a n g
ver t ica lly fr om it s h a n dle, a n d r ot a t e t h e
dia l fa ce u n t il 0 is u n der t h e n eedle. Wh en
t h e in s t r u t men t is kept ver t ica l bet ween t h e
fin ger t ips a n d a llowed t o r es t on it s con e,
t h e dia l will r egis t er a bou t 2 t o 4 pou n ds
t h e t ot a l weigh t of t h e in s t r u men t or 4 t o
8 on t h e dial.
Oper a t ion . Oper a t e t h e pen et r omet er a s fol-
lows :
1. Pla ce on e h a n d over t h e ot h er on t h e
h a n dle, pa lms down , a n d a ppr oxima t ely a t
r igh t an gles as s h own in Figu r e E-3. Th is
min imizes eccen t r ic loa din g of t h e pr ovin g
r in g an d h elps keep t h e s h aft ver t ical.
2. Apply for ce u n t il s low, s t eady down -
wa r d movemen t occu r s .
3. Take a dial r eadin g ju s t as t h e bas e of
t h e con e becomes flu s h wit h t h e gr ou n d s u r -
face. To do t h is , wat ch t h e con e des cen d
u n t il a n in s t a n t befor e t h e con e ba s e is ex-
pect ed t o be flu s h wit h t h e gr ou n d s u r fa ce,
t h en immedia t ely s h ift t h e vis ion t o t h e dia l
fa ce. Con t in u e t h e s low, s t ea dy, down wa r d
movemen t an d t ake s u cces s ive dial r eadin gs
Figure E-3. Using a cone penetrometer in the
upright position
E-2 Soil Trafficability Test Set
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
a t a ppr opr ia t e 6-in ch in t er va ls t o a dept h of
18 in ch es , If it is n eces s ar y t o s t op t h e
down war d pr ogr es s ion of t h e con e
pen et r omet er for a n y r ea s on , pr ogr es s ma y
be r es u med wit h n o adver s e effect s on t h e
con e pen et r omet er r ea din gs . Pr ogr es s ion
s h ou ld be s t opped bet ween dept h s s o t h at
t h e n ext r ea din g is t a ken on ly a ft er
down war d pr ogr es s ion h as r es u med. For ex-
a mple, wh en on ly on e per s on is on t h e t r a f-
ficabilit y r econ n ais s an ce, it may be con -
ven ien t t o ma ke t wo con e pen et r omet er r ea d-
in gs , s t op t h e pen et r a t ion t o r ecor d t h e
r ea din gs , r es u me t h e pen et r a t ion t o obt a in
t wo a ddit ion a l r ea din gs , t h en s t op t o r ecor d.
Precautions . Obs er ve t h e followin g pr ecau -
t ion s wh en oper a t in g a pen et r omet er :
Keep t h e in s t r u men t ver t ica l.
Do n ot a t t empt t o t a ke r ea din gs h igh er
t h an t h e capacit y of t h e dial (300). Th is
ma y over s t r es s t h e pr ovin g r in g.
If dial capacit y is exceeded at les s t h an
18 in ch es of pen et r a t ion , ma ke a n ot h er
pen et r a t ion n ea r by. Th e con e ma y be
s t r ikin g a n is ola t ed r ock fr a gmen t or
ot h er object .
Wit h dr a w t h e in s t r u men t by t h e s h a ft ,
n ever by t h e r in g or t h e h an dle. Pu llin g
t h e h a n dle ma y s t r et ch t h e pr ovin g r in g.
Rea d t h e CI on ly a t t h e pr oper dept h . If
r ea din gs a r e ma de a s lit t le a s 1/ 4 in ch
fr om t h e pr oper dept h an d r ecor ded as
bein g a t t h e pr oper dept h , a n a ver a ge of
s u ch r ea din gs will n ot a ccu r a t ely r eflect
t h e aver age s t r en gt h . Car eles s n es s in
ma kin g pr oper dept h det er min a t ion s is
pr oba bly t h e gr ea t es t s ou r ce of er r or in
u s in g t h e pen et r omet er .
Tr a i n i n g Pe n e t r ome t e r Ope r a t or s
Tr a in oper a t or s in a r ea s t h a t h a ve u n ifor m
s oil con dit ion s . Th e in s t r u ct or s h ou ld t a ke
a ppr oxima t ely 50 s et s of r ea din gs equ a lly
s paced over t h e ar ea. Th e aver age CI for 6-
in ch layer s s h ou ld be compu t ed an d u s ed
as s t an dar ds or r efer en ces . Th e t r ain ee
s h ou ld be in s t r u ct ed in all pr oper t ech n i-
qu es of oper a t ion . He s h ou ld pr act ice
pen et r at ion , obs er ved by a qu alified in s t r u c-
t or , u n t il h e becomes fa milia r wit h t h e t ech -
n iqu es of oper a t ion . Th e t r a in ee s h ou ld
t h en make 50 s et s of r eadin gs , u s in g an as -
s is t a n t t o r ecor d t h em. Th e a ver a ge CIs ob-
t a in ed by a t r a in ee s h ou ld be compa r ed t o
t h e s t a n da r d. If t h e t r a in ees r ea din gs
deviat e widely, t h e cau s es for t h e deviat ion s
s h ou ld be s ou gh t an d cor r ect ed.
In a u n ifor m a r ea , a 5-per cen t devia t ion is
wide. Th e mos t pr obable cau s e of er r or is
car eles s n es s in det er min in g t h e pr oper
dept h . Th e r at e of pr ogr es s ion r ecom-
men ded is s u ch t h a t fou r r ea din gs (s u r fa ce,
6, 12, an d 18 in ch es ) can be meas u r ed in
15 s econ ds du r in g a con t in u ou s pen et r a t ion
in s oft s oil. Slower or fa s t er pen et r a t ion
r at es will r eflect lower or h igh er valu es ,
r es pect ively, bu t t h e dis cr epan cies will n ot
be lar ge. Th e CI is als o in s ign ifican t ly af-
fect ed by t h e va r ia t ion in t h e r a t e of
pen et r a t ion for t h e s a me oper a t or or be-
t ween exper ien ced oper at or s . However , if
deviat ion s per s is t , ch eck t h e pos s ibilit y of
con e-pen et r omet er mech an ical imper fec-
t ion s , In s pect t h e dia l fa ce t o en s u r e t h a t
it s pos it ion h a s n ot s h ift ed a r ou n d t h e
dia ls s h a ft a n d t h a t t h e n eedle is n ot s t ick-
in g or h a s n ot s lipped on it s s h a ft . An y of
t h es e con dit ion s cou ld cau s e an impr oper
zer o s et t in g. Secon dly, in s pect t h e pr ovin g
r in g. A da ma ged or over s t r es s ed r in g migh t
r equ ir e r ecalibr at ion . Fin ally, ch eck t o en -
s u r e t h e In s t r u men t wa s pr oper ly zer oed.
Th e micr omet er dia l s t em ma y n ot h a ve
been in good con t a ct wit h t h e pr ovin g-r in g
b ea r in g block when the instrument was
zeroed.
Ca r e a n d Adju s t me n t of t h e Pe n e t r ome t e r
Keep t h e pen et r omet er fr ee fr om dir t a n d
r u s t a n d keep a ll pa r t s t igh t . Fr equ en t ly
ch eck t h e in s t r u men t a n d r ezer o, if n eces -
s a r y. En s u r e n o gr it is ca u gh t bet ween t h e
s t em of t h e dia l a n d t h e lower mou n t in g
block.
Dial Care. Th e micr omet er dial is a s en s i-
t ive in s t r u men t t h a t s h ou ld be pr ot ect ed
a ga in s t wa t er a n d r ou gh u s e. Never im-
mer s e it in wa t er , a n d wipe it dr y a s s oon
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
a s pos s ible a ft er u s e in r a in y wea t h er .
Wh en t h e dia l is t r a n s por t ed by t r u ck, wr a p
it in pa per or clot h .
Bearing-Block Ad jus t ment . If eit h er or bot h
bear in g blocks become loos en ed an d moved,
a dju s t t h em s o t h a t t h ey lie on t h e s a me
dia met er of t h e r in g. Ret igh t en t h em a n d
r eca libr a t e t h e pr ovin g r in g. Do n ot
ca libr a t e wh ile on r econ n a is s a n ce. In s t ea d,
n ot e a ll r ea din gs ma de in t h e field a ft er
bear in g blocks h ave been r emoved an d cor -
r ect t h em a ccor din g t o t h e ca libr a t ion ma de
la t er .
Cone Replacement. Con s ider able u s e of t h e
s a me con e ma y r es u lt in a r ou n din g of it s
poin t , bu t it will n ot a ffect t h e a ccu r a cy of
t h e in s t r u men t , However , if t h e ba s e of t h e
con e h as h ad exces s ive wear or is defor med
by h ar d u s e, r eplace t h e con e.
Proving-Ring Recalibration. Th e ca libr a t ion
will r ema in t r u e for t h e life of t h e in s t r u -
men t u n les s t h e bear in g blocks ar e moved
or t h e r in g is over s t r es s ed (defor med by a
h a r d kn ock or s u bject ed t o ext r eme ch a n -
ges in t emper a t u r e or ot h er u n u s u a l
s t r a in s ). If t h e r in g n eeds r ecalibr at ion ,
complet e t h e followin g s t eps :
1. Remove t h e h a n dle a n d s h a ft ,
2. Pla ce t h e lower mou n t in g block of t h e
r in g a s s embly on a s moot h , h or izon t a l s u r -
fa ce.
3. Ch eck t h e bear in g-block align men t an d
t igh t n es s . Bot h blocks s h ou ld be on t h e
s a me dia met er of t h e r in g. Us e a dr a ft in g
t r ia n gle or a ca r pen t er s s qu a r e for t h is
oper at ion . Th e bolt s s h ou ld be s n u g.
4. En s u r e t h a t t h e s t em of t h e dia l bea r s
fir mly on t h e lower bea r in g block. En s u r e
t h a t t h e dia l a r m h a s s u fficien t t r a vel a va il-
a ble for t h e fu ll r a n ge of mot ion (a p-
pr oximat ely 1/ 10-in ch deflect ion ) of t h e
pr ovin g r in g. Th e dial can be moved u p or
down by a dju s t in g t h e t wo n u t s on t h e
t h r ea ded s t u d t h a t h olds t h e ga ge in pos i-
t ion . Bot h n u t s s h ou ld be t igh t wh en in
fin a l pos it ion .
5. Zer o t h e dia l by r ot a t in g it s fa ce s o t h a t
0 is u n der t h e n eedle.
6. Add t h e load in 10-pou n d in cr emen t s
u p t o 150 pou n ds . Ma r k or n ot e t h e
n eedles pos it ion on t h e dial aft er t h e addi-
t ion of ea ch loa d in cr emen t . An y of t h e fol-
lowin g loa din g met h ods ma y be u s ed:
Add dea dweigh t s t o t h e t op of t h e r in g
a s s embly. If a pla t e is u s ed t o h old t h e
weigh t s , it s weigh t s h ou ld be con -
s ider ed in t h e fir s t 10-pou n d load.
Us e a n y of t h e loa d ma ch in es common ly
u s ed in la bor a t or y wor k t o a pply t h e
loa d.
Pla ce t h e r in g a s s embly on a s et of pla t -
for m s ca les . Apply t h e loa d in cr emen t s
wit h a ja ck a n d mea s u r e t h em wit h t h e
pla t for m s ca les .
7. Remove t h e load in 10-pou n d in cr e-
men t s , n ot in g t h e pos it ion of t h e n eedle
a ft er t h e r emova l of ea ch in cr emen t .
8. Ma ke t h e loa d r u n a t lea s t t wice, u s in g
t h e a ver a ge of t h e n eedle pos it ion for ea ch
in cr emen t a s t h e fin a l poin t .
9. Expect s ome var iat ion in n eedle pos i-
t ion ; it will n ot be s ign ifica n t .
10. Es t ablis h 10-pou n d in t er vals on t h e
dial face an d mar k t h em 20, 30, 40, s o on ,
t o 300. Each in t er val s h ou ld be s u bdivided
s epar at ely becau s e t h e ar cs for var iou s 10-
pou n d in t er va ls a r e n ot n eces s a r ily t h e
s a me.
NOTE: If t h e i n s t r u me n t c a n n ot be
c a li br a t e d or t h e pr ovi n g r i n g i s s e ve r e ly
da ma ge d, t h e i n s t r u me n t wi ll n e e d t o be
t u r n e d i n for r e pa i r .
SOIL SAMPLER
A pis t on -t ype s oil s ampler , as s h own in Fig-
u r e E-4, is u s ed t o ext r a ct s oil s a mples for
r emoldin g t es t s .
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure E-4. Soil sampler and sampling cylinder
Op e r a t i on
Th e s oil s ampler is u s ed in t h e followin g
wa y:
1. Loos en t h e kn u r led h an dle of t h e s oil
s ampler s o t h e pis t on r od will move fr eely.
Hold t h e s a mpler fir mly in bot h h a n ds a n d
for ce it in t o t h e s oil ver t ically (Figu r e E-5).
Do n ot t wis t t h e s a mpler wh ile pu s h in g it
in t o t h e s oil. Somet imes t wo people a r e
n eeded t o for ce t h e s a mpler in t o fir m s oils .
2. Aft er lockin g t h e pis t on r od by t u r n in g
t h e kn u r led h a n dle, t wis t t h e s a mpler s ligh t -
ly a n d wit h dr a w.
3. Depos it t h e s a mple dir ect ly in t o t h e
r emoldin g cylin der .
Figu r e E-6, page E-6,
for u s in g t h e s a mpler
s h ows t h e t ech n iqu e
in a pr on e pos it ion .
Figure E-5.
Ca r e
Operating the sampler in the
upright position
to keep the inside of the sam- It is es s en t ia l
plin g t u be, t h e pis t on r in g, a n d t h e lea t h er
was h er clean . Aft er 5 t o 25 s a mplin gs ,
depen din g u pon t h e t ype of s oil, complet e
t h e followin g clean in g pr ocedu r es :
1. Immer s e t h e t u be fir s t in wa t er a n d
t h en in fu el oil. Wor k t h e pis t on u p a n d
down five or s ix t imes in each liqu id.
2. Wipe off t h e exces s fu el oil, an d s qu ir t
ligh t ma ch in e oil in t o t h e t u be.
3. If t h e s a mpler becomes s t iff a n d h a r d t o
wor k, r emove t h e t u be, dis as s emble an d
t h or ou gh ly clea n t h e pis t on , a n d oil t h e
lea t h er wa s h er . Tu be wa lls a n d cu t t in g
edges ar e s oft an d s h ou ld be h an dled wit h
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure E-6. Using the sampler in a prone
position
car e. Th e cu t t in g edges will r equ ir e s h ar -
pen in g fr om t ime t o t ime.
Ad j u s t m e n t
Adju s t t h e pis t on -r od len gt h t o keep t h e
fa ce of t h e pis t on flu s h wit h t h e cu t t in g
edge of t h e t u be wh en t h e pis t on -r od h a n d-
le (dis k) is fu lly depr es s ed. To do t h is ,
loos en t h e s et s cr ew on t h e h an dle, s cr ew
t h e h a n dle u p or down t o t h e cor r ect pos i-
t ion , a n d r et igh t en t h e s et s cr ew.
Re moldin g t e s t
Th e equ ipmen t for t h e r emoldin g t es t ,
s h own in det ail in Figu r e E-7 an d in u s e in
Figu r es E-8 t h r ou gh E-11, pages E-7
t h r ou gh E-9, con s is t s of t h e followin g:
Figure E-7. Remolding test equipment
A s t eel cylin der appr oximat ely 2 in ch es
in dia met er a n d 8 in ch es lon g, mou n t ed
on a n a lu min u m ba s e.
A 2 1/ 2-pou n d s t eel dr op h ammer s lid-
in g on a n 18-in ch s t eel s h a ft wit h a
h an dle.
A con e pen et r omet er
A con e pen et r omet er ma y be equ ipped wit h
a n a lu min u m s h a ft (5/ 8-in ch in dia met er )
or a s t eel s h a ft (3/ 8-in ch in dia met er ) wit h
a 0.5-s qu ar e-in ch con e (for fin e-gr ain ed
s oils ) or a mor e s len der s t eel s h a ft wit h a
0.2-s qu ar e-in ch con e (for r emoldable
s an ds ). Th e pen et r omet er is u s ed t o
meas u r e s oil s t r en gt h in t h e cylin der befor e
an d aft er r emoldin g. Th e s ampler (Figu r e
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure E-8. Operating the remolding test
equipment to obtain a soil sample
E-4, page E-5) is u s ed t o obt ain t h e s oil
s a mple fr om t h e cr it ica l la yer a n d pla ce it
in t h e r emoldin g cylin der .
Te s t Pr oc e du r e for Fin e -Gr a in e d Soils
Th e followin g r emoldin g t es t is per for med
for fin e-gr ain ed s oils :
1. Ta ke a s a mple fr om t h e cr it ica l la yer
wit h t h e s a mpler a s s h own in Figu r e E-8,
eject it dir ect ly in t o t h e r emoldin g cylin der
as s h own in Figu r e E-9, page E-8, an d
pu s h it t o t h e bot t om of t h e
t h e foot of t h e dr op-h a mmer
2. Mea s u r e t h e s t r en gt h
cylin der wit h
s h a ft .
wit h t h e
pen et r omet er (s t eel s h a ft ) by t a kin g CI r ea d-
in gs a s t h e ba s e of t h e con e en t er s t h e s u r -
face of t h e s oil s ample an d at each s u cces -
s ive in ch , t o a dept h of 4 in ch es , as s h own
in Figu r e E-10, page E-9,
3. Apply 100 blows wit h t h e dr op h ammer
fallin g 12 in ch es as s h own in Figu r e E-11,
page E-9.
4. Mea s u r e t h e r emolded s t r en gt h fr om
t h e s u r face t o t h e 4-in ch dept h at 1 -in ch in -
cr emen t s , a s wa s don e befor e r emoldin g a s
s h own in Figu r e E-10.
NOTE: Some s a mple s a r e s o h a r d t h e y
c a n n ot be pe n e t r a t e d t h e fu ll 4 i n c h e s .
In s u c h c a s e s , t h e fu ll dia l c a pa c it y (3 0 0 )
i s r e c or de d for e a c h i n c h be low t h e la s t
r e a di n g obt a i n e d.
To fin d t h e r emoldin g in dex, t a ke t h e s u m
of t h e five CI r ea din gs a ft er r emoldin g a n d
divide by t h e s u m of t h e five r eadin gs
befor e r emoldin g.
Te s t Pr oc e du r e for Re molda ble Sa n ds
Th e t es t pr ocedu r e for r emoldable s an ds is
gen er a lly t h e s a me a s t h a t for fin e-gr a in ed
s oils . However , t h e CI mea s u r emen t s a r e
ma de wit h t h e s len der s h a ft a n d 0.2-s qu a r e-
in ch con e, an d t h e s ample is r emolded by
pla cin g a r u bber s t opper in t h e t op of t h e
r emoldin g t u be a n d dr oppin g it (a lon g wit h
t h e cylin der an d bas e) 25 t imes fr om a
h eigh t of 6 in ch es on t o a fir m s u r fa ce, s u ch
a s a piece of t imber . Some r emolda ble
s a n ds wit h a la r ge a mou n t of fin es (mor e
t h a n 12 bu t les s t h a n 50 per cen t ) r ea ct
ver y mu ch like fin e-gr ain ed s oil, Wh en t es t -
in g a r emolda ble s a n d wit h a la r ge a mou n t
of fin es , r u n bot h t h e fin e gr a in s a n d r emol-
dable s an ds t es t s , an d u s e t h e lower r emold-
in g in dex. Con t in u e t o u s e t h e mor e cr it i-
ca l t es t t h r ou gh ou t t h e a r ea .
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure E-9. Operating test equipment to load the cylinder
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure E-10. Measuring cone index in a remolding cylinder
Figure E-11. Applying hammer blows with remolding equipment
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
APPENDIX F
CURVE TABLES
FUNCTIONS OF A1-DEGREE CURVE
Th e lon g ch or ds (C), middle or din at es (M),
ext er n a ls (E), a n d t a n gen t dis t a n ces (T) in
Table F-1, pages F-2 t h r ou gh F-30, ar e for
a 1-degr ee cu r ve, bas ed on t h e ar c defin i-
t ion (5,729.578-foot r adiu s ). To fin d t h e
cor r es pon din g fu n ct ion s of a n y ot h er cu r ve,
divide t h e t abu lar valu es by t h e degr ee of
cu r va t u r e.
CORRECTIONS FOR TANGENTS AND
DISTANCES
Complet e t h e followin g s t eps t o det er min e
t h e degr ee of cu r va t u r e for a ll cu r ves ot h er
t h an t h e 1-degr ee cu r ve:
1. Det er min e t h e va lu e cor r es pon din g t o
t h e given in t er s ect ion an gle fr om Table F-1.
2. Divide t h is valu e by t h e given degr ee of
cu r va t u r e.
3. Add t h e cor r ect ion der ived fr om Table
F-2, pages F-30 an d F-31.
Curve Tables F-1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table F-1. Functions of a 1-degree curve
F-2 Curve Tables
C, Long M, Middle E, External T, Tangent
Degrees Minutes Chord Ordinate Distance Distance
0 0 0.000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
;0 16.666 0.0060 0.0060 8.3333
20 33.333 0.0242 0.0242 16.6667
30 49.999 0.0545 0.0545 25.0001
40 66.666 0.0969 0:0969 33.3337
50 83.332 0.1515 0.1515 41.6674
1 0 99.998 0.2181 0.2181 50.0012
10 116.664 0.2969 0.2969 58.3353
20 133.330 0.3878 0.3878 66.6696
30 149.995 0.4908 0.4908 75.0042
40 166.660 0.6060 0.6060 83.3392
50 183.325 0.7332 0.7333 91.6744
2 0 199.989 0.8726 0.8727 100.0101
iO
"'04 .. IV"A" .. 1\I').A1l 1 nil
c;.IO.O;h)
I.U''''''''

20 233.317 1.1877 1.1879 116.6827
30 249.980 1.3634 1.3638 125.0198
40 266.642 1.5513 1.5517 133.3574
50 283.304 1.7513 1.7518 141.6955
3 0 299,965 1.9633 1.9640 150.0342
10 316.626 2.1875 2.1884 158.3736
20 333.286 2.4238 2.4249 166.7136
30 349.945 2.6723 2.6735 175.0544
40 366.604 2.9328 2.9343 183.3959
50 383.261 3.2055 3.2073 191.7381
4 0 399.918 3.4903 3.4924 200.0812
in A-4t:. J:7A '1 71171
3.7896 208.4251 IV
...,.IU.""'''''
...,.IU' ,
20 433.230 4.0961 4.0991 216.7700
30 449.884 4.4172 4.4207 225.1157
40 466.537 4.7505 4.7544 233.4624
I
I
50
I
483.190 I 5.
0958
1
5.1003 1 241.8100 11
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table F-1. Functions of a 1-degree curve (continued)
Curve Tables F-3
C" Long
M,. Middle E,. External T,o Tangent
5 0 499.841 5.4532 5.4584 250.1587
10 516.491 5.8228 5.8287 258.5085
20 533.140 6.2044 6.2112 266.8593
30 549.788 6.5982 6.6058 275.2113
40 566.435 7.0041 7.0127 283.5645
50 583.081 7.4221 7.4317 291.9188
6 0 599.725 7.8521 7.8629 300.2744
10 616.369 8.2943 8.3063 308.6313
20 633.010 8.7486 8.7620 316.9894
30 649.651 9.2150 9.2298 325.3490
40 666.290 9.6935 9.7099 333.7099
50 682.928 10.1841 10.2022 342.0722
7 0 699.564 10.6868 10.7067 350.4360
10 716.199 11.2016 11.2235 358.8012
20 732.832 11.7284 11.7525 367.1680
30 749.464 12.2674 12.2937 375.5363
40 766.094 12.8185 12.8472 383.9063
50 782.723 13.3817 13.4130 392.2778
8 0 799.350 13.9569 13.9910 400.6511
10 815.975 14.5443 14.5813 409.0260
20 832.599 15.1437 15.1838 417.4027
30 849.220 15.7552 15.7987 425.7811
40 865.840 16.3788 16.4258 434.1614
50 882.458 17.0145 17.0652 442.5435
9 0 899.075 17.6623 17.7169 450.9275
10 915.689 18.3222 18.3810 459.3134
20 932.301 18.9941 19.0573 467.7013
30 948.912 19.6782 19.7460 476.0912
40 965.520 20.3743 20.4470 484.4831
50 982.126 21.0825 21.1603 492.8770
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
F-4 Curve Tables
Cl. Long M
l
Middle El. External T
l
Tangent
10 0 998.731 21.8027 21.8860 501.2731
10 1,015.333 22.5351 22.6240 509.6713
20 1,031.933 23.2795 23.3744 518.0716
30 1,048.531 24.0359 24.1372 526.4742
40 1,065.126 24.8045 24.9123 534.8790
50 1,081.720 25.5851 25.6999 543.2861
11 0 1,098.311 26.3778 26.4998 551.6956
10 1,114.900 27.1825 27.3121 560.1073
20 1,131.486 27.9993 28.1368 568.5215
30 1,148.070 28.8282 28.9740 576.9381
40 1,164.652 29.6691 29.8236 585.3572
50 1,181.231 30.5221 30.6856 593.7788
12 0 1,197.807 31.3872 31.5601 602.2029
10 1,214.382 32.2643 32.4470 610.6295
20 1,230.953 33.1534 33.3464 619.0588
30 1,247.522 34.0546 34.2582 627.4908
40 1,264.088 34.9679 35.1826 635.9254
50 1,280.652 35.8932 36.1194 644.3628
13 0 1,297.213 36.8305 37.0688 652.8029
10 1,313.771 37.7799 38.0307 661.2458
20 1,330.326 38.7413 39.0050 669.6916
30 1,346.879 39.7148 39.9920 678.1402
40 1,363.429 40.7003 40.9914 686.5917
50 1,379.975 41.6978 42.0035 695.0462
14 0 1,396.519 42.7074 43.0281 703.5037
10 1,413.060 43.7289 44.0653 711.9642
20 1,429.598 44.7626 45.1150 720.4277
30 1,446.133 45.8082 46.1774 728.8943
40 1,462.665 46.8659 47.2524 737.3641
50 1,479.194 47.9356 48.3400 745.8371
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Curve Tables F-5
" ...... ' .':' ....... : . .;:':.::':.:.;.':-:;.':-::-::::::-::::';::;.,::-: .. :.
Cl' Long M
1
Middle El' External T
1
Tangent
15 0 1,495.719 49.0173 49.4403 754.3132
10 1,512.242 50.1110 50.5532 762.7926
20 1,528.761 51.2168 51.6787 771.2753
30 1,545.277 52.3345 52.8169 779.7613
40 1,561.790 53.4643 53.9679 788.2507
50 1,578.300 54.6060 55.1315 796.7434
16 0 1,594.806 55.7598 56.3078 805.2396
10 1,611.309 56.9256 57.4968 813.7393
20 1,627.808 58.1034 58.6986 822.2425
30 1,644.304 59.2931 59.9132 830.7492
40 1,660.796 60.4949 61.1404 839.2595
50 1,677.285 61.7087 62.3805 847.7735
17 0 1,693.771 62.9344 63.6334 856.2911
10 1,710.252 64.1722 64.8990 864.8124
20 1,726.731 65.4219 66.1775 873.3375
30 1,743.205 66.6836 67.4688 881.8663
40 1,759.676 67.9573 68.7730 890.3990
50 1,776.143 69.2429 70.0900 898.9355
18 0 1,792.606 70.5406 71.4199 907.4760
10 1,809.066 71.8502 72.7626 916.0203
20 1,825.522 73.1717 74.1183 924.5686
30 1,841.974 74.5053 75.4869 933.1210
40 1,858.422 75.8508 76.8684 941.6774
50 1,874.866 77.2082 78.2629 950.2379
19 0 1,891.306 78.5777 79.6703 958.8025
10 1,907.742 79.9590 81.0907 967.3713
20 1,924.174 81.3524 82.5241 975.9443
30 1,940.602 82.7576 83.9705 984.5215
40 1,957.026 84.1749 85.4299 993.1030
50 1,973.445 85.6040 86.9024 1,001.6889
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
F-6 Curve Tables
Cl' Long M,. Middle E,. External T,. Tangent
20 0 1,989.861 87.0451 88.3879 1,010.2791
10 2,006.272 88.4981 89.8865 1,018.8738
20 2,022.680 89.9631 91.3982 1,027.4729
30 2,039.082 91.4400 92.9230 1,036.0764
40 2,055.481 92.9288 94.4609 1,044.6845
50 2,071.875 94.4296 96.0120 1,053.2972
21 0 2,088.265 95.9423 97.5762 1,061.9145
10 2,104.650 97.4669 99.1536 1,070.5364
20 2,121.031 99.0034 100.7441 1,079.1630
30 2,137.408 100.5518 102.3479 1,087.7943
40 2,153.779 102.1121 103.9649 1,096.4304
50 2,170.147 103.6843 105.5952 1,105.0713
22 0 2,186.510 105.2684 107.2387 1,113.7171
10 2,202.868 106.8645 108.8955 1,122.3677
20 2,219.221 108.4724 110.5656 1,131.0233
30 2,235.570 110.0922 112.2490 1,139.6839
40 2,251.914 111.7239 113.9458 1,148.3494
50 2,268.253 113.3675 115.6559 1,157.0201
23 0 2,284.588 115.0229 117.3793 1,165.6958
10 2,300.917 116.6903 119.1162 1,174.3766
20 2,317.242 118.3695 120.8665 1,183.0626
30 2,333.562 120.0605 122.6302 1,191.7539
40 2,349.877 121.7635 124.4074 1,200.4504
50 2,366.187 123.4783 126.1980 1,209.1522
24 0 2,382.492 125.2050 128.0021 1,217.8593
10 2,398.792 126.9435 129.8198 1,226.5719
20 2,415.087 128.6939 131.6509 1,235.2898
30 2,431.377 130.4561 133.4957 1,244.0133
40 2,447.661 132.2302 135.3539 1,252.7422
50 2,463.941 134.0161 137.2258 1,261.4767
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Curve Tables F-7
C
t
Long Mt' Middle Et' External Tt' Tangent
25 0 2,480.215 135.8138 139.1113 1,270.2168
10 2,496.484 137.6234 141.0105 1,278.9625
20 2,512.747 139.4448 142.9232 1,287.7140
30 2,529.006 141.2780 144.8497 1,296.4711
40 2,545.259 143.1231 146.7899 1,305.2340
50 2,561.507 144.9800 148.7438 1,314.0027
26 0 2,577.749 146.8487 150.7114 1,322.7773
10 2,593.985 148.7292 152.6928 1,331.5577
20 2,610.217 150.6215 154.6880 1,340.3441
30 2,626.443 152.5256 156.6970 1,349.1365
40 2,642.663 154.4415 158.7198 1,357.9349
50 2,658.877 156.3692 160.7565 1,366.7393
27 0 2,675.086 158.3086 162.8070 1,375.5499
10 2,691.290 160.2599 164.8715 1,384.3667
20 2,707.487 162.2230 166.9499 1,393.1896
30 2,723.679 164.1978 169.0422 1,402.0188
40 2,739.865 166.1844 171.1485 1,410.8542
50 2,756.046 168.1828 173.2688 1,419.6960
28 0 2,772.220 170.1929 175.4031 1,428.5442
10 2,788.389 172.2148 177.5515 1,437.3988
20 2,804.552 174.2484 179.7139 1,446.2598
30 2,820.708 176.2939 181.8905 1,455.1274
40 2,836.859 178.3510 184.0811 1,464.0015
50 2,853.004 180.4199 186.2859 1,472.8822
29 0 2,869.143 182.5005 188.5049 1,481.7696
10 2,885.276 184.5929 190.7380 1,490.6636
20 2,901.402 186.6970 192.9854 1,499.5644
30 2,917.523 188.8128 195.2470 1,508.4719
40 2,933.637 190.9404 197.5229 1,517.3863
50 2,949.745 193.0796 199.8131 1,526.3076
F-8 Curve Tables
C
1
0 Long M
1
0 Middle E
1
0 External T
1
0 Tangent
30 0 ,965.847 195.2306 202.1176 1,535.2357
10 2,981.943 197.3933 204.4364 1,544.1709
20 2,998.032 199.5676 206.7697 1,553.1130
30 3,014.115 201.7537 209.1173 1,562.0622
40 3,030.192 203.9515 211.4794 1,571.0185
50 3,046.262 206.1610 213.8559 1,579.9819
31 0 3,062.326 208.3821 216.2469 1,588.9526
10 3,078.383 210.6149 218.6524 1,597.9304
20 3,094.434 212.8594 221.0725 1,606.9156
30 3,110.478 215.1156 223.5071 1,615.9081
40 3,126.516 217.3834 225.9564 1,624.9079
50 3,142.547 219.6629 228.4202 1,633.9152
32 0 3,158.571 221.9541 230.8987 1,642.9300
10 3,174.589 224.2569 233.3919 1,651.9523
20 3,190.600 226.5713 235.8998 1,660.9822
30 3,206.604 228.8974 238.4224 1,670.0196
40 3,222.601 231.2352 240.9598 1,679.0648
50 3,238.592 233.5845 243.5121 1,688.1177 11
33 0 3,254.576 235.9455 246.0791 1,697.1783
10 3,270.553 238.3181 248.6610 ',706.2467
20 3,286.522 240.7023 251.2578 ',715.323
30 3,302.485 243.0981 253.8695 1,724.4072
40 3,318.442 245.5056 256.4961 ',733.4994
50 3,334.391 247.9246 259.1378
I
',742.5995
34 0 3,350.332 250.3 261.7944 ' , ,751.7077
10 3,366.267 252.7975 I 264.4661 60.824'
20 3;'382.195 255.2513 267.1529 1,769.9485
30 3,398.116 257.7167 269.8548 1,779.0812
40 3,414.029 260.1937 272.5718 ',788.2221
50 3,429.935 262.6822 275.3040 ',797.3714
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Curve Tables F-9
., ... , ..... ' ....':'.,':.:>:.:>.
C,. Long M,. Middle E,. External T,. Tangent
35 0 3,445.834 265.1823 278.0514 1,806.5290
10 3,461.726 267.6940 280.8140 1,815.6949
20 3,477.610 270.2172 283.5919 1,824.8694
30 3,493.487 272.7519 286.3851 1,834.0523
40 3,509.357 275.2982 289.1936 1,843.2438
50 3,525.219 277.8561 292.0175 1,852.4439
36 0 3,541.073 280.4255 294.8568 1,861.6527
10 3,556.921 283.0064 297.7115 1,870.8702
20 3,572.760 285.5988 300.5817 1,880.0964
30 3,588.592 288.2027 303.4674 1,889.3314
40 3,604.417 290.8182 306.3686 1,898.5753
50 3,620.234 293.4451 309.2855 1,907.8281
37 0 3,636.043 296.0836 312.2179 1,917.0899
10 3,651.845 298.7335 315.1659 1,926.3607
20 3,667.638 301.3950 318.1297 1,935.6406
30 3,683.424 304.0679 321.1091 1,944.9296
40 3,699.203 306.7523 324.1043 1,954.2278
50 3,714.973 309.4482 327.1153 1,963.5352
38 0 3,730.736 312.1555 330.1421 1,972.8519
10 3,746.490 314.8743 333.1848 1,982.1779
20 3,762.237 317.6046 336.2434 1,991.5133
30 3,777.976 320.3463 339.3179 2,000.8582
40 3,793.707 323.0994 342.4083 2,010.2125
50 3,809.430 325.8640 345.5148 2,019.5764
39 0 3,825.144 328.6400 348.6373 2,028.9499
10 3,840.851 331.4274 351.7759 2,038.3331
20 3,856.550 334.2263 354.9306 2,047.7260
30 3,872.240 337.0366 358.1015 2,057.1287
40 3,887.922 339.8582 361.2886 2,066.5411
50 3,903.596 342.6913 364.4919 2,075.9635
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
F-10 Curve Tables
Cl' L.ong M
l
l
Tangent
40 0 3,919.262 345.5358 367.7115 2,085.3958
iO 3,934.9i9 348.39i6 370.9474 2,094.838i
20 3,950.568 351.2589 374.1997 2,104.2904
30 3,966.209 354.1375 377.4683 2,113.7529
40 3,981.841 357.0275 380.7534 2,123.2255
50 3,997.465 359.9289 384.0550 2,132.7083
41 0 4,013.081 362.8416 387.3731 2,142.2014
10 4,028.687 365.7657 390.7077 2,151.7048
20 4,044.286 368.7011 394.0590 2,161.2186
30 4,059.876 371.6478 397.4268 2,170.7429
40 4,075.457 374.6059 400.8114 2,180.2776
50 4,091.030 377.5753 404.2127 2,189.8229
42 0 4,106.594 380.5561 407.6307 2,199.3789
10 4,122.149 383.5481 411.0656 2,208.9455
20 4,137.696 386.5515 414.5173 2,218.5228
30 4,153.234 389.5662 417.9859 2,228.1110
40 4,168.763 392.5921 421.4715 2,237.7100
50 4,184.283 395.6294 424.9740 2,247.3199
43 0 4,199.794 398.6779 428.4935 2,256.9407
10 4,215.297 401.7377 432.0302 2,266.5726
20 4,230.790 404.8088 435.5839 2,276.2156
30 4,246.275 407.8912 439.1548 2,285.8698
40 4,261.751 410.9848 442.7429 2,295.5351
50 4,277.217 414.0896 446.3482 2,305.2118
44 0 4,292.675 417.2057 449.9709 2,314.8997
10 4,308.123 420.3331 453.6109 2,324.5991
20 4,323.563 423.4716 457.2682 2,334.3099
30 4,338.993 426.6214 460.9430 2,344.0322
40 4,354.414 429.7825 464.6353 2,553.7661
50 4,369.826 432.9547 468.3451 2,363.5116
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Curve Tables F-11
C" Long M" Middle E" External T
1
, Tangent
45 0 4,385.229 436.1381 472.0725 2,373.2689
10 4,400.622 439.3327 475.8175 2,383.0379
20 4,416.006 442.5385 479.5802 2,392.8187
30 4,431.381 445.7556 483.3605 2,402.6114
40 4,446.746 448.9837 487.1587 2,412.4161
50 4,462.102 452.2231 490.9746 2,422.2328
46 0 4,477.448 455.4736 494.8085 2,432.0615
10 4,492.785 458.7353 498.6602 2,441.9024
20 4,508.113 462.0081 502.5299 2,451.7555
30 4,523.431 465.2920 506.4176 2,461.6209
40 4,538.739 468.5871 510.3234 2,471.4986
50 4,554.038 471.8934 514.2473 2,481.3888
47 0 4,569.327 475.2107 518.1893 2,491.2914
10 4,584.607 478.5392 522.1496 2,501.2065
20 4,599.877 481.8786 526.1281 2,511.1342
30 4,615.137 485.2294 530.1249 2,521.0746
40 4,630.387 488.5912 534.1401 2,531.0277
50 4,645.627 491.9641 538.1738 2,540.9936
48 0 4,660.858 495.3480 542.2259 2,550.9724
10 4,676.079 498.7430 546.2965 2,560.9641
20 4,691.290 502.1491 550.3857 2,570.9689
30 4,706.491 505.5662 554.4936 2,580.9866
40 4,721.682 508.9944 558.6201 2,591.0176
50 4,736.863 512.4336 562.7654 2,601.0617
49 0 4,752.034 515.8839 566.9295 2,611.1191
10 4,767.195 519.3452 571.1124 2,621.1898
20 4,782.346 522.8175 575.3143 2,631.2740
30 4,797.487 526.3008 579.5351 2,641.3716
40 4,812.617 529.7951 583.7749 2,651.4828
50 4,827.738 533.3005 588.0338 2,661.6076
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
F-12 Curve Tables
Cl' Long M
l
l
Tangent
50 0 4,842.848 536.8168 592.3118 2,671.7460
10 4,857.948 540.3441 596.6090 2,681.8983
20 4,873.038 543.8824 600.9255 2,692.0644
30 4,888.117 547.4316 605.2612 2,702.2444
40 4,903.186 550.9919 609.6164 2,712.4383
50 4,918.245 554.5630 613.9909 2,722.6463
51 0 4,933.293 558.1452 618.3850 2,732.8685
10 4,948.331 561.7382 622.7985 2,743.1048
20 4,963.359 565.3422 627.2317 2,753.3554
30 4,978.375 568.9571 631.6845 2,763.6203
40 4,993.382 572.5830 636.1571 2,773.8996
50 5,008.378 576.2197 640.6494 2,784.1935
52 0 5,023.363 579.8674 645.1616 2,794.5019
10 5,038.337 583.5259 649.6936 2,804.8249
20 5,053.301 587.1953 654.2456 2,815.1626
30 5,068.255 590.8756 658.8177 2,825.5151
40 5,083.197 594.5668 663.4098 2,835.8825
50 5,098.129 598.2688 668.0221 2,846.2648
53 0 5,113.050 601.9817 672.6546 2,856.6622
10 5,127.960 605.7055 677.3074 2,867.0746
20 5,142.859 609.4400 681.9805 2,877.5022
30 5,157.748 613.1854 686.6740 2,887.9450
40 5,172.625 616.9417 691.3880 2,898.4032
50 5,187.492 620.7087 696.1225 2,908.8767
54 0 5,202.347 624.4866 700.8777 2,919.3658
10 5,217.192 628.2752 705.6535 2,929.8703
20 5,232.026 632.0747 710.4500 2,940.3906
30 5,246.848 635.8849 715.2673 2,950.9265
40 5,261.660 639.7059 720.1055 2,961.4783
50 5,276.460 643.5377 724.9646 2,972.0459
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table F-1. Functlons of a 1-degree curve (continued)
Curve Tables F-13
Cl. Long M,. Middle E,. External T,. Tangent
55 0 5,291.249 647.3802 729,8448 2,982,6295
10 5,306,027 651.2335 734.7459 2,993.2291
20 5,320.793 655.0975 739.6683 3,003.8448
30 5,335.549 658.9723 744.6118 3,014.4768
40 5,350.293 662.8577 749.5766 3,025.1250
50 5,365.026 666.7539 754.5628 3,035.7896
56 0 5,379.747 670.6608 759.5704 3,046.4706
10 5,394.457 674.5785 764.5995 3,057.1682
20 5,409.156 678.5068 769.6501 3,067.8824
30 5,423.843 682.4458 774.7224 3,078.6133
40 5,438.519 686.3954 779.8163 3,089.3609
50 5,453.183 690,3558 784,9321 3,100.1255
57 0 5,467.836 694.3268 790,0697 3,110.9070
10 5,482.477 698.3084 795,2292 3,121.7055
20 5,497.107 702.3007 800.4107 3,132.5212
30 5,511.725 706.3036 805.6143 3,143.3541
40 5,526.331 710.3172 810.8401 3,154.2043
50 5,540.926 714.3413 816.0880 3,165.0718
58 0 5,555.509 718.3761 821.3583 3,175.9569
10 5,570.080 722.4215 826.6509 3,186.8595
20 5,584.639 726.4775 831.9660 3,197.7798
30 5,599.187 730.5440 837.3036 3,208.7178
40 5,613.722 734.6212 842.6638 3,219.6737
50 5,628.246 738.7088 848.0467 3,230.6474
59 0 5,642.758 742.8071 853.4523 3,241.6392
10 5,657.258 746.9159 858.8808 3,252.6491
20 5,671.746 751.0352 864.3323 3,263.6772
30 5,686.222 755.1651 869.8067 3,274.7236
40 5,700.686 759.3055 875.3042 3,285.7883
50 5,715.138 763.4564 880.8248 3,296.8716
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
F-14 Curve Tables
Cl. Long M
1
Middle El. External T
1
Tangent
Degrees MInutes Chord Ordinate Distance Distance
60 0 5,729.578 767.6178 886.3688 3,307.9734
10 5,744.005 771.7898 891.9360 3,319.0938
20 5,758.421 775.9722 897.5266 3,330.2330
30 5,772.824 780.1650 903.1408 3,341.3911
40 5,787.215 784.3684 8.7785 3,352.5681
50 5,801.594 788.5822 914.4398 3,363.7641
61 0 5,815.961 792.8065 920.1249 3,374.9793
10 5,830.315 797.0412 925.8339 3,386.2137
20 5,844.657 931.5667 3,397.4675
30 5,858.987 805.5419 937.3236 3,408.7407
40 5,873.304 809.8079 943.1045 3,420.0334
50 5,887.609 814.0843 948.9096 3,431.3457
62 0 5,901.901 818.3710 954.7390 3,442.6777
10 5,916.181 822.6682 960.5927 3,454.0296
20 5,930.448 826.9758 966.4709 3,465.4014
30 5,944.703 831.2937 972.3736 3,476.7932
40 5,958.945 835.6220 978.3009 3,488.2052
50 5,973.175 839.9606 984.2529 3,499.6374
63 0 5,987.392 844.3096 990.2297 3,511.0899
10 6,001.596 848.6689 996.2314 3,522.5628
20 6,015.788 853.0386 1,002.2581 3,534.0563
30 6,029.967 857.4185 1,008.3099 3,545.5704
40 6,044.133 861.8088 1,014.3868 3,557.1053
50 6,058.286 866.2094 1,020.4890 3,568.6610
64 0 6,072.427 870.6202 ',026.6166 3,580.2376
10 6,086.555 875.0414 1,032.7696 3,581.8354
20 6,100.670 879.4728 1,038.9482 3,603.4543
30 6,114.771 883.9144 1,045.1524 3,615.0944
40 6,128.860 888.3663 1,051.3823 3,626.7560
50 6,142.936 892.8285 1,057.6381 3,638.4391
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013.,Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Curve Tables F-15
65 0 6,157.000 897.3009 1,063.9198 3,650.1437
10 6,171.050 901.7835 1,070.2276 3,661.8701
20 6,185.086 906.2763 1,076.5615 3,673.6182
30 6,199.110 910.7793 1,082.9216 3,685.3884
40 6,213.121 915.2925 1,089.3081 3,697.1805
50 6,227.119 919.8159 1,095.7210 3,708.9948
66 0 6,241.103 924.3495 1,102.1604 3,720.8314
10 6,255.074 928.8933 1,108.6265 3,732.6904
20 6,269.032 933.4471 1,115.1194 3,744.5718
30 6,282.977 938.0112 1,121.6390 3,756.4759
40 6,296.909 942.5854 1,128.1857 3,768.4027
50 6,310.827 947.1697 1,134.7594 3,780.3523
67 0 6,324.732 951.7641 1,141.3602 3,792.3249
10 6,338.623 956.3686 1,147.9883 3,804.3206
20 6,352.501 960.9832 1,154.6438 3,816.3394
30 6,366.365 965.6080 1,161.3268 3,828.3816
40 6,380.217 970.2427 1,168.0374 3,840.4472
50 6,394.054 974.8876 1,174.7757 3,852.5363
68 0 6,407.878 979.5425 1,181.5418 3,864.6491
10 6,421.689 984.2075 1,188.3358 3,876.7857
20 6,435.486 988.8825 1,195.1578 3,888.9462
30 6,449.269 993.5675 1,202.0080 3,901.1308
40 6,463.039 998.2626 1,208.8865 3,913.3395
50 6,476.795 1,002.9676 1,215.7933 3,925.5724
69 0 6,490.537 1,007.6827 1,222.7286 3,937.8298
10 6,504.265 1,012.4077 1,229.6925 3,950.1117
20 6,517.980 1,017.1427 1,236.6852 3,962.4183
30 6,531.681 1,021.8877 1,243.7066 3,974.7496
40 6,545.369 1,026.6427 1,250.7570 3,987.1059
50 6,559.042 1,031.4076 1,257.8365 3,999.4872.
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
F-16 Curve Tables
Cl' Long M, Middle El' External T, Tangent
70 0 6,572.701 1,036.1824 1,264.9452 4,011.8937
10 6,586.347 1,040.9672 1,272.0831 4,024.3254
20 6,599.979 1,045.7619 1,279.2505 4,036.7826
30 6,613.596 1,050.5665 1,286.4475 4,049.2653
40 6,627.200 1,055.3810 1,293.6741 4,061.7738
50 6,640.790 1,060.2053 1,300.9305 4,074.3080
71 0 6,654.365 1,065.0396 1,308.2168 4,086.8682
10 6,667.927 1,069.8837 1,315.5331 4,099.4545
20 6,681.474 1,074.7377 1,322.8797 4,112.0670
30 6,695.008 1,079.6015 1,330.2565 4,124.7059
40 6,708.527 1,084.4752 1,337.6637 4,137.3713
50 6,722.032 1,089.3587 1,345.1014 4,150.0633
72 0 6,735.522 1,094.2520 1,352.5698 4,162.7820
10 6,748.999 1,099.1551 1,360.0691 4,175.5277
20 6,762.461 1,104.0680 1,367.5992 4,188.3004
30 6,775.909 1,108.9907 1,375.1604 4,201.1004
40 6,789.343 1,113.9232 1,382.7528 4,213.9276
50 6,802.762 1,118.8654 1,390.3765 4,226.7823
73 0 6,816.167 1,123.8174 1,398.0317 4,239.6646
10 6,829.557 1,128.7791 1,405.7185 4,252.5747
20 6,842.933 1,133.7506 1,413.4370 4,265.5127
30 6,856.294 1,138.7317 1,421.1873 4,278.4788
40 6,869.641 1,143.7226 1,428.9696 4,291.4730
50 6,882.974 1,148.7232 1,436.7841 4,304.4956
74 0 6,896.292 1,153.7335 1,444.6309 4,317.5467
10 6,906.595 1,158.7535 1,452.5100 4,330.6264
20 6,922.884 1,163.7831 1,460.4217 4,343.7349
30 6,936.158 1,168.8224 1,468.3662 4,356.8723
40 6,949.417 1,173.8713 1,476.3434 4,370.0388
50 6,962.662 ','78.9299 1,484.3536 4,383.2346
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Curve Tables F-17
Cl. Long M,. Middle E,. External T,. Tangent
75 0 6,975.892 1,183.9981 1,492.3970 4,396.4598
iD 6,989.107 1,189.0759 1,500.4736 4,409.7145
20 7,002.307 1,194.1633 1,508.5836 4,422.9989
30 7,015.493 1,199.2604 1,516.7272 4,436.3132
40 7,028.664 1,204.3670 1,524.9045 4,449.6576
50 7,041.819 1,209.4831 1,533.1156 4,463.0321
7t:. n ? n&:'A n.t!'n .. I'H A c-nan 0(1 I:. A .. A .. ""L'n
IU U ',U;..J41o,,,,UV I.I ..... OUO""
10 7,068.086 1,219.7442 1,549.6401 4,489.8722
20 7,081.198 1,224.8890 1,557.9537 4,503.3382
30 7,094.294 1,230.0433 1,566.3018 4,516.8350
40 7,107.375 1,235.2072 1,574.6845 4,530.3628
50 7,120.441 1,240.3806 1,583.1020 4,543.9218
77 0 7,133.492 1,245.5635 1,591.5544 4,557.5121
10 7,146.528 1,250.7558 1,600.0419 4,571.1338
20 7,159.549 1,255.9577 1,608.5647 4,584.7872
30 7,172.554 1,261.1690 1,617.1228 4,598.4725
40 7,185.545 1,266.3897 1,625.7165 4,612.1897
50 7,198.520 1,271.6199 1,634.3459 4,625.9390
78 0 7,211.480 1,276.8595 1,643.0113 4,639.7207
10 7,224.425 1,282.1086 1,651.7126 4,653.5349
20 7,237.354 1,287.3670 1,660.4502 4,667.3818
30 7,250.269 1,292.6349 1,669.2242 4,681.2615
40 7,263.167 1,297.9121 1,678.0347 4,695.1743
.,,,
..,. n..,. ..... ..
i ,303. i987 i,686.88i9 4,709. i202 ;;JV {,{O.V;;J I
79 0 7,288.919 1,308.4947 1,695.7660 4,723.0996
10 7,301.772 1,313.8000 1,704.6072 4,737.1125
20 7,314.609 1,319.1147 1,713.6455 4,751.1591
30 7,327.431 1,324.4387 1,722.6413 4,765.2397
40
7 -:u.n 'Y-l7 1 -:I.,Q 77.,n 1 7-:11 t:.7A7 .It 770 'lI::.A"l
, ,,v,,,,,, ''"V I,IVI,V''''' """t:I.vv",o,J
50 7,353.028 1 ,335.1146 1,740.7458 4,793.5033
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
F-18 Curve Tables
,.-:.:.<:; ...:;.': .. ;..' ............ .
C
t
Long Mt' Middle Et' External Tt' Tangent
80 0 7,365.803 1,340.4666 1,749.8548 4,807.6867
10 7,378.563 1,345.8278 1,759.0020 4,821.9048
20 7,391.307 1,351.1982 1,768.1874 4,836.1578
30 7,404.035 1,356.5780 1,777.4113 4,850.4458
40 7,416.748 1,361.9670 1,786.6738 4,864.7690
50 7,429.445 1,367.3652 1,795.9751 4,879.1276
81 0 7,442.126 1,372.7727 1,865.3155 4,893.5219
10 7,454.792 1,378.1893 1,814.6950 4,907.9519
20 7,467.441 1,383.6152 1,824.1140 4,922.4180
30 7,480.075 1,389.0503 1,833.5725 4,936.9202
40 7,492.694 1,394.4945 1,843.0707 4,951.4589
50 7,505.296 1,399.9480 1,852.6089 4,966.0341
82 0 7,517.882 1,402.4105 1,862.1872 4,980.6461
10 7,530.453 1,410.8823 1,871.8059 4,995.2951
20 7,543.007 1,416.3631 1,881.4651 5,009.9814
30 7,555.546 1,421.8531 1,891.1650 5,024.7050
40 7,568.069 1,427.3522 1,900.9058 5,039.4662
50 7,580.575 1,432.8604 1,910.6878 5,054.2653
83 0 7,593.066 1,438.3777 1,920.5111 5,069.1024
10 7,605.541 1,443.9041 1,930.3758 5,083.9777
20 7,617.999 1,449.4395 1,940.2823 5,098.8914
30 7,630.441 1,454.9840 1,950.2308 5,113.8438
40 7,642.868 1,460.5376 1,960.2213 5,128.8351
50 7,655.278 1,466.1001 1,970.2542 5,143.8655
84 0 7,667.672 1,471.6717 1,980.3296 5,158.9352
10 7,680.049 1,477.2523 1,990.4478 5,174.0443
20 7,692.441 1,481.8419 2,000.6090 5,189 .. 1933
30 7,704.756 1,488.4405 2,010.8133 5,204.3822
40 7,717.084 1,494.0480 2,021.0610 5,219.6113
50 7,729.397 1,499.6645 2,031.3524 5,234.8808
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Curve Tables F-19
C
1
Long M
1
Middle E
1
External T
1
Tangent
85 0 7,741.693 1,505.2899 2,041.6875 5,250.1909
10 7,753.973 1,510.9243 2,052.0668 5,265.5419
20 7,766.236 1,516.5676 2,062.4902 5,280.9340
30 7,778.483 1,522.2199 2,072.9582 5,296.3674
,on 7 7an 71 A 1 ""7 AA1 n
2,083.4709 5,311.8423 "TV
',''''''''''' "
1,"''-' ..... "'" I ...,
50 7,802.928 1,533.5510 2,094.0285 5,327.3591
86 0 7,815.125 1,539.2299 2,104.6313 5,342.9179
10 7,827.306 1,544.9176 2,115.2795 5,358.5189
20 7,839.470 1,550.6142 2,125.9733 5,374.1625
'>"
"7 .. 0 1 t:.r:.t:! 'l1 a7 '} 1 'lt:: 71"a
" A.lLA7 .;3V ',avl.vlu 1,,.J...JU,OtJ I,:;}' Lo, I VV., I L.'<J ...,,_ .... ...,.------.... ,
40 7,863.749 1,562.0339 2,147.4987 5,405.5780
50 7,875.864 1,567.7570 2,158.3308 5,421.3505
87 0 7,887.962 1,573.4889 2,169.2094 5,437.1665
10 7,900.043 1,579.2296 2,180.1349 5,453.0261
20 7,912.108 1,584.9791 2,191.1074 5,468.9298
30 7,924.155 1,590.7373 2,202.1272 5,484.8777
40 7,936.186 1,596.5043 2,213.1945 5,500.8700
50 7,948.201 1,602.2800 2,224.3096 5,516.9071
88 0 7,960.198 1,608.0645 2,235.4727 5,532.9891
10 7,972.179 1,613.8576 2,246.6841 5,549.1164
20 7,984.142 1,619.6595 2,257.9440 5,565.2892
30 7,996.089 1,625.4701 2,269.2527 5,581.5077
40 8,008.019 1,631.2894 2,280.6104 5,597.7723
50 8,019.932 1,637.1173 2,292.0174 5,614.0832
89 0 8,031.828 1,642.9539 2,303.4740 5,630.4406
10 8,043.707 1,648.7991 2,314.9804 5,646.8448
20 8,055.569 1,654.6530 2,326.5369 5,663.2961
30 8,067.414 1,660.5154 2,338.1437 5,679.7949
40 8,079.242 1,666.3865 2,349.8011 5,696.3412
I I
50
I
8,091.053 I 1,672.2662 I 2,361.5094 I
""704""
;;), ( 10<::. :1.;3;;);;)
I
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
F-20 Curve Tables
C,. Long M,. Middle E,. External T
1
T
Degrees Minutes Chord Ordinate Dlatance Distance
90 0 8,102.846 1,678.1545 2,373.2689 5,729.5780
10 8,114.623 1,684.0513 2,385.0797 5.746.2689
20 8,126.382 1,689.9567 2,396.9423 5,763.0086
30 8,138.125 ',695.8707 2,408.8568 5,779.7974
40 8,149.849 1,701.7931 2,420.8236
5 ~ 1
50 8,161.557 1,707.7241 2,432.8430 5,813.5232
91 0 8,173.248 1,713.6636 2,444.9151 5,830.4609
10 8,184.921 1,719.6116 2,457.0404 5,847.4487
20 8,196.577 1,725.5681 2,469.2190 5,864.4871
30 8,208.215 ',731.5331 2,481.4514 5.881.5763
40 8,219.836 1,737.5065 2,493.7377 5,898.7166
50 1,743.4883 2,506.0783 5,915.9083
92 0 8,243.026 1,749.4786 2,518.4734 5,933.1517
10 8,254.595 1,755.4773 2,530.9235 5,950.4471
20 8,266.147 1,761.4845 2,543.4286 5,967.7948
30 8,277.681 1,767.5000 2,555.9893 5,985.1952
40
R?RQ 1Q7
1,n3.5238
!> AAA R n ~ 7
6,002.6486
_, ___ w_ .. _. ___ I _'_ f
50 8,300.696 1,779.5561 2,581.2783 6,020.1552
93 0 8,312.178 1,785.5967 2,594.0072 6,037.7154
10 8,323.641 1,791.6457 2,606.7929 6,055.3295
20 8,335.088 ',797.7030 2,619.6355 6,072.9978
30 8,346.516 1,803.7686 2,632.5355 6,090.7207
40 8,357.927 1,809.8425 2,645.4932 6,108.4985
50 8,369.320 1,815.9247 2,658.5089 6,126.3316
94 0 8,380 .. _ 2,671.5829 6,144.2201
10 8,392.053 ',828.1139 2,684.7156 6,162.1646
20 8,403.393 ',834.2209 2,697.9072 6,180.1653
30 8,414.716 ',840.3361 2,711.1581 6,198.2225
40 8,426.020 i,846.4596 2,724.4687 6,216.3367
50 8,437.307 1,852.5913 2,737.8393 6,234.5081
Curve Tables F-21
C
1
Long M
1
Middle Et' External Tt' Tangent
95 0 8,448.576 1,858.7312 2,751.2702 6,252.7371
10 8,459.826 1,864.8792 2,764.7617 6,271.0241
20 8,471.059 1,871.0355 2,778.3143 6,289.3694
30 8,482.274 1,877.1999 2,791.9283 6,307.7734
40 8,493.472 1,883.3724 2,805.6040 6,326.2364
50 8,504.651 1,889.5531 2,819.3417 6,344.7588
96 0 8,515.812 1,895.7419 2,833.1419 6,363.3410
10 8,526.955 1,901.9389 2,847.0049 6,381.9833
20 8,538.080 1,908.1439 2,860.9311 6,400.6861
30 8,549.187 1,914.3570 2,874.9208 6,419.4497
40 8,560.276 1,920.5782 2,888.9743 6,438.2747
50 8,571.347 1,926.8074 2,903.0922 6,457.1612
97 0 8,582.400 1,933.0447 2,917.2747 6,476.1098
10 8,593.435 1,939.2900 2,931.5223 6,495.1208
20 8,604.451 1,945.5433 2,945.8352 6,514.1945
30 8,615.449 1,951.8047 2,960.2140 6,433.3315
40 8,626.429 1,958.0740 2,974.6589 6,552.5320
50 8,637.391 1,964.3513 2,989.1704 6,571.7966
98 0 8,648.334 1,970.6366 3,003.7489 6,591.1255
10 8,659,259 1,976.9298 3,018,3948 6,610,5192
20 8,670.166 1,983.2309 3,033.1084 6,629.9780
30 8,681.055 1,989.5400 3,047.8902 6,649.5025
40 8,691.925 1,995.8570 3,062.7406 6,669.0931
50 8,702.777 2,002.1819 3,077.6600 6,688.7500
99 0 8,713.610 2,008.5147 3,092.6488 6,708.4739
10 8,724.425 2,014.8554 3,107.7074 6,728.2650
20 8,735.221 2,021.2039 3,122.8363 6,748.1238
30 8,745.999 2,027.5602 3,138.0359 6,768.0508
40 8,756.759 2,033.9244 3,153.3066 6,788.0464
50 8.767.500 2.040.2964 3.168.6488 6.808.1110
"
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
F-22 Curve Tables
C,. Long M,. Middle
E";;;:J
T,. Tangent
Degrees Minutes Chord Ordinate Dlat Distance
100 0 8,778,222 2,046,6762 3,184,0630
10 8,788.926 I 2,053.0638 3,199.5496 6,848.4491
20 8,799,611 2,059.4592 3,215.1090 6,868.7235
30 8,810.278 2,065.8623 3,230.7418 6,889.0687
40 8,820,926 2,072.2732 3,246.4484 6,909.4852
50 8,831.555 2,078.6918 3,262.2291 6,929.9734
101 0 8,842.166 2,085.1182 3,278.0846 6,950.5339
10 8,852.758 2,091.5522 3,294.0151 6,971.1670
20
I
8,863.331 2,097.9940 3,310.0213 6,991.8733
30 8,873.886 2,104.4434 3,326.1035 7,012.6532
40 8,884.421 2,110.9005 3,342.2623 7,033.5072
50 8,894.938 2,117.3653 3,358.4982 7,054.4358
102 0 8,905.436 2,123.8377 3,374.8115 7,075.4395
10 8,915.916 2,'30.3177 3,391.2029 7,096.5188
20 8,926.376 2,136,8054 3,407.6727 7,117.6742
30 8,936.817 2,143.3006 3,424.2215 7,138.9062
40 8,947.240 2,149.8034 3,440.8498 7,160.2152
50 8,957.644 2,156.3138 3,457.5581 7,181.6019
103 0 8,968.028 2,162.8318 3,474.3469 7,203.0667
10 8,978.394 2,169.3573 3,491.2167 7,224.6101
20 8,988.741 2,175.8903 3,508.1681 7,246.2327
30 8,999.069 2,182.4309 3,525.2015 7,267.9350
40 9,009.377 2,188.9789 3,542.3174 7,289.7175
50 9,019.667 2,195.5345 3,559.5165 7,311.5808
104 0 9,029.938 2,202.0975 3,576.7993 7,333.5254
10 9,040.189 2,208.6680 3,594.1662 7,355.5518
20 9,050.421 2,215.2459 3,611.6179 7,377.6607
30 9,060.635 2,221.8313 3,629.1548 7,399.8525
40 9,070.829 2,228.4241 3,646.7777 7.422.1278
50 9,081.004 2,235.02430664.4869 7,444.4873
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Curve Tables F-23
105 0 9,091.159 2,241.6319 3,682.2830 7,466.9314
10 9,101.296 2,248.2468 3,700.1667 7,489.4607
20 9,111.413 2,254.8692 3,718.1386 7,512.0759
30 9,121.511 2,261.4988 3,736.1991 7,534.7775
40 9,131.589 2,268.1358 3,754.3489 7,557.5661
50 9,141.648 2,274.7802 3,772.5886 7,580.4423
106 0 9,151.688 2,281.4318 3,790.9187 7,603.4068
10 9,161.709 2,288.0908 3,809.3400 7,626.4600
20 9,171.710 2,294.7570 3,827.8529 7,649.6027
30 9,181.692 2,301.4305 3,846.4581 7,672.8354
40 9,191.654 2,308.1112 3,865.1562 7,696.1588
50 9,201.597 2,314.7992 3,883.9479 7,719.5736
107 0 9,211.521 2,321.4944 3,902.8337 7,743.0802
10 9,221.425 2,328.1968 3,921.8143 7,766.6795
20 9,231.309 2,334.9064 3,940.8904 7,790.3720
30 9,241.174 2,341.6232 3,960.0626 7,814.1584
40 9,251.019 2,348.3472 3,979.3315 7,838.0393
50 9,260.845 2,355.0783 3,998.6979 7,862.0155
108 0 9,270.651 2,361.8165 4,018.1623 7,886.0875
10 9,280.438 2,368.5619 4,037.7254 7,910.2561
20 9,290.205 2,375.3143 4,057.3880 7,934.5220
30 9,299.952 2,382.0739 4,077.1507 7,958.8859
40 9,309.680 2,388.8406 4,097.0142 7,983.3483
50 9,319.388 2,395.6143 4,116.9792 8,007.9102
109 0 9,329.076 2,402.3951 4,137.0464 8,032.5721
10 9,338.745 2,409.1829 4,157.2166 8,057.3347
20 9,348.393 2,415.9777 4,177.4903 8,082.1989
30 9,358.022 2,422.7796 4,197.8685 8,107.1653
40 9,367.632 2,429.5884 4,218.3517 8,132.2347
50 9,377.221 2,436.4042 4,238.9407 8,157.4078
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
F-24 Curve Tables
C
t
, Long Mt' Middle Et' External Tt' Tangent
110 0 9,386.791 2,443.2270 4,259.6364 8,182.6854
10 9,396.340 2,450.0568 4,280.4393 8,208.0681
20 9,405.870 2,456.8934 4,301.3504 8,233.5569
30 9,415.380 2,463.7370 4,322.3703 8,259.1525
40 9,424.870 2,470.5875 4,343.4998 8,284.8556
50 9,434.340 2,477.4450 4,364.7398 8,310.6671
111 0 9,443.790 2,484.3092 4,386.0909 8,336.5877
10 9,453.220 2,491.1804 4,407.5541 8,362.6182
20 9,462.630 2,498.0584 4,429.1301 8,388.7595
30 9,472.020 2,504.9432 4,450.8197 8,415.0123
40 9,481.390 2,511.8349 4,472.6237 8,441.3776
50 9,490.740 2,518.7333 4,494.5430 8,467.8561
112 0 9,500.070 2,525.6386 4,516.5784 8,494.4487
10 9,509.380 2,532.5506 4,538.7308 8,521.1562
20 9,518.670 2,539.4694 4,561.0010 8,547.9795
30 9,527.939 2,546.3950 4,583.3899 8,574.9194
40 9,537.189 2,553.3272 4,605.8983 8,601.9769
50 9,546.418 2,560.2662 4,628.5271 8,629.1528
113 0 9,555.627 2,567.2119 4,651.2773 8,656.4480
10 9,564.816 2,574.1643 4,674.1497 8,683.8635
20 9,573.985 2,581.1234 4,697.1451 8,711.4001
30 9,583.133 2,588.0891 4,720.2646 8,739.0587
40 9,592.261 2,595.0615 4,743.5091 8,766.8404
50 9,601.369 2,602.0405 4,766.8795 8,794.7459
114 0 9,610.456 2,609.0261 4,790.3767 8,822.7764
10 9,619.524 2,616.0183 4,814.0017 8,850.9327
20 9,628.570 2,623.0171 4,837.7554 8,879.2157
30 9,637.597 2,630.0225 4,861.6389 8,907.6266
40 9,646.603 2,637.0345 4,885.6531 8,936.1663
50 9,655.588 2,644.0529 4,909.7990 8,964.8357
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Curve Tables F-25
Cl' Long M
l
1
0 Tangent
115 0 9,664.554 2,651.0779 4,934.0776 8,993.6359
10 9,673.498 2,658.1095 4,958.4899 9,022.5679
20 9,682.423 2,665.1475 4,983.0370 9,051.
30 9,691.327 2,672.1920 5,007.7198 9,080.8315
40 9,700.210 2,679.2429 5,032.5395 9,110.1651
50 9,709.073 2,686.3003 5,057.4970 9,139.6348
116 0 9,717.915 2,693.3642 5,082.5935 9,169.2415
10 9,726.737 2,700.4345 5,107.8300 9,198.9863
20 9,735.538 2,707.5112 5,133.2077 9,228.8704
30 9,744.318 2,714.5942 5,158.7275 9,258.8948
40 9,753.078 2,721.6837 5,184.3907 9,289.0607
50 9,761.818 2,728.7795 5,210.1984 9,319.3692
117 0 9,770.536 2,735,8817 5,236.1516 9,349.8215
10 9,779.234 2,742,9902 5,262.2516 9,380.4186
20 9,787.911 2,750.1050 5,288.4995 9,411.1618
30 9,796.568 2,757.2261 5,314.8964 9,442.0523
40 9,805.204 2,764.3535 5,341.4436 9,473.0912
50 9,813.819 2,771.4872 5,368.1423 9,504.2797
118 0 9,822.413 2,778.6271 5,394.9937 9,535.6191
10 9,830.987 2,785.7733 5,421.9989 9,567.1105
20 9,839.540 2,792.9257 5,449.1593 9,598.7553
30 9,848.072 2,800.0843 5,476.4761 9,630.5547
40 9,856.583 2,807.2491 5,503.9505 9,662.5100
50 9,865.073 2,814.4201 5,531.5839 9,694.6224
119 0 9,873.542 2,821.5973 5,559.3775 9,726.8932
10 9,881.991 2,828.7806 5,587.3326 9,759.3238
20 9,890.419 2,835.9701 5,615.4 ,791.9155
30 9,898.825 2,843.1657 5,643.7327 9,824.6696
40 9,907.211 2,850.3673 5,672.1804 9,857.5875
50 9,915.576 2,857.5751 5,700.7950 9,890.6706
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
F-26 Curve Tables
C" Long
M, Middle E" External
~
Degrees Minutes Chord Ordinate Distance
120 0 9,923.920 2,864.7890 5,729,5780 9,923.9202
10 9,932.243 2,872.0089 5,758.5305 9,957.3377
20 9,940.544 2,879.2348 5,787.6542 9,990.9246
30 9,948.825 2,886.4668 5,816.9504 10,024.6823
40 9,957.085 2,893.7048 5,846.4206 10,058.6123
50 9,965.324 2,900.9488 5,876.0663 10,092.7159
121 0 9,973.541 2,908.1988 5,905.8888 10,126.9948
10 9,981.738 2,915.4547 5,935.8897 10,161.4503
20 9,989.913 2,922.7166 5,966.0706 10,196.0841
30 9,998.067 2,929.9844 5,996.4328 10,230.8976
40 10,006.200 2,937.2582 6,026.9781 10,265.8925
50 10,014.312 2.944.5379 6,057.7079 10,301.0701
122 0 10.022.403 2,951.8234 6.088.6239 10,336.4323
10 10,030.473 2,959.1148 6,119.7276 10,371.9805
20 10,038.521 2,966.4121 6,151.0206 10,407.7164
30 10,046.548 2,973.7153 6.182.5047 1 0,443.6416
40 10,054.554 2.981.0243 6,214.1813 10,479.7578
50 10,062.539 2,988.3390 6,246.0523 10,516.0667
123 0 10,070.502 2,995.6596 q,278.1193 10,552.5699
10 10,078.444 3,002.9860 6,310.3841 10,589.2692
20 10,086.365 3.010.3181 6,342.8483 10,626.1664
30 10,094.264 3,017.6560 6,375.5137 10,663.2632
40 10,102.142 3,024.9996 6,408.3821 10,700.5613
50 10,109.998 3,032.3490 6,441.4553 10,738.0626
124 0 10,117.834 3,039.7040 6,474.7352 10,775.7689
10 10,125.648 3,047.0648 6,508.2235 10,813.6821
20 10,133.440 3,054.4312 6,541.9221 10,851.8040
30 10,141.211 3,061.8032 6,575.8329 10,890.1365
40 10,148.960 3,069.1810 9578 10,928.6815
I
50 10,156.688 3,076.5643
.---7
10,967.4410
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Curve Tables F-27
125 0 10,164.395 3,083.9533 6,678.8577 11,006.4169
10 10,172.080 3,091.3478 6,713.6366 11,045.6112
20 10,179.744 3,098.7479 6,748.6375 11,085.0259
30 10,187.386 3,106.1536 6,783.8625 11,124.6631
40 10,195.006 3,113.5649 6,819.3134 11,164.5247
50 10,202.605 3,120.9817 6,854.9926 11,204.6130
126 0 10,210.182 3,128.4040 6,890.9019 11,244.9299
10 10,217.738 3,135.8318 6,927.0436 11,285.4777
20 10,225.272 3,143.2651 6,963.4199 11,326.2585
30 10,232.785 3,150.7038 7,000.0328 11,367.2744
40 10,240.275 3,158.1480 7,036.8847 11,408.5277
50 10,247.744 3,165.5977 7,073.9777 11,450.0207
127 0 10,255.192 3,173.0528 7,111.3141 11,491.7556
10 10,262.618 3,180.5133 7,148.8963 11,533.7347
20 10,270.022 3,187.9791 7,186.7264 11,575.9603
30 10,277.404 3,195.4504 7,224.8070 11,618.4348
40 10,284.765 3,202.9270 7,263.1404 11,661.1606
50 10,292.104 3,210.4090 7,301.7289 11,704.1401
128 0 10,299.421 3,217.8963 7,340.5750 11,747.3757
10 10,306.716 3,225.3889 7,379.6813 11,790.8700
20 10,313.989 3,232.8868 7,419.0502 11,834.6254
30 10,321.241 3,240.3900 7,458.6842 11,878.6446
40 10,328.471 3,247.8984 7,498.5860 11 ,922.9300
50 10,335.679 3,255.4121 7,538.7581 11,967.4842
129 0 10,342.865 3,262.9310 7,579.2032 12,012.3100
10 10,350.029 3,270.4552 7,619.9239 12,057.4100
20 10,357.172 3,277.9845 7,660.9230 12,102.7870
30 10,364.292 3,285.5191 7,702.2032 12,148.4436
40 10,371.391 3,293.0588 7,743.7673 12,194.3827
50 10,378.467 3,300.6037 7,785.6181 12,240.6071
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
F-28 Curve Tables
130 0 10,385.522 3,308.1537 7,827.7585 12,287.1196
10 10,392.554 3,315.7088 7,870.1913 12,333.9232
20 10,399.565 3,323.2690 7,912.9196 12,381.0208
30 10,406.554 3,330.8343 7,955.9462 12,428.4154
40 10,413.520 3,338.4047 7,999.2743 12,476.1100
50 10,420.465 3,345.9802 8,042.9067 12,524.1076
131 0 10,427.388 3,353.5607 8,086.8467 12,572.4114
10 10,434.288 3,361.1462 8,131.0975 12,621.0245
20 10,441.167 3,368.7367 8,175.6620 12,669.9501
30 10,448.023 3,376.3322 8,220.5437 12,719.1915
40 10,454.857 3,383.9328 8,265.7457 12,768.7518
50 10,461.669 3,391.5382 8,311.2715 12,818.6345
132 0 10,468.459 3,399.1486 8,357.1242 12,868.8428
10 10,475.227 3,406.7640 8,403.3075 12,919.3803
20 10,481.973 3,414.3842 8,449.8246 12,970.2504
30 10,488.697 3,422.0094 8,496.6792 13,021.4565
40 10,495.398 3,429.6394 8,543.8747 13,073.0023
50 10,502.077 3,437.2743 8,591.4148 13,124.8913
133 0 10,508.734 3,444.9141 8,639.3032 13,177.1272
10 10,515.369 3,452.5586 8,687.5434 13,229.7138
20 10,521.981 3,460.2080 8,736.1394 13,282.6548
30 10,528.571 3,467.8622 8,785.0950 13,335.9539
40 10,535.139 3,475.5212 8,834.4139 13,389.6152
50 10,541.685 3,483.1850 8,884.1001 13,443.6425
134 0 10,548.208 3,490.8535 8,934.1577 13,498.0398
10 10,554.709 3,498.5267 8,984.5905 13,552.8112
20 10,561.188 3,506.2047 9,035.4029 13,607.9608
30 10,567.644 3,513.8873 9,086.5988 13,663.4926
40 10,574.078 3,521.5747 9,138.1826 13,719.4111
50 10,580.490 3,529.2667 9,190.1585 13,775.7204
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Curve Tables F-29
C,. Long M,. Middle E,. External T,. Tangent
135 0 10,586.879 3,536.9634 9,242.5308 13,832.4249
."
.. ""J .c:A A n 1"\1"\t::. ""11"\..411"\ .. .., oon .c:'U'\1'\
IV I ,
20 10,599.590 3,552.3706 9,348.4826 13,947.0372
30 1 0,605.913 3,560.0812 9,402.0710 14,004.9541
40 10,612.212 3,567.7963 9,456.0740 14,063.2842
50 1 0,618.489 3,575.5160 9,510.4962 14,122.0323
136 0 10,624.744 3,583.2403 9,565.3423 14,181.2031
10 10,630.976 3,590.9691 9,620.6172 14,240.8015
20 10,637.186 3,598.7024 9,676.3257 14,300.8324
30 10,643.373 3,606.4402 9,732.4730 14,361.3006
40 10,649.538 3,614.1825 9,789.0639 14,422.2114
50 10,655.680 3,621.9293 9,846.1036 14,483.5698
137 0 10,661.800 3,629.6806 9,903.5975 14,545.3811
."
.. " ,..,...., """'., n "''''.., An,...",
9.961.5506 14,607.6505 IV IV,OO(.O';1( ",o.;)( .'hlO"
20 10,673.971 3,645.1964 1 0,019.9685 14,670.3834
30 10,680.023 3,652.9609 1 0,078.8565 14,733.5853
40 10,686.052 3,660.7299 1 0,138.2202 14,797.2618
50 10,692.059 3,668.5032 10,198.0653 14,861.4184
138 0 10,698.043 3,676.2808 10,258,3975 14,926.0609
10 10,704.005 3,684.0628 10,319.2225 14,991.1952
20 10,709.944 3,691.8492 10,380.5463 15,056.8271
30 10,715.860 3,699.6398 10,442.3749 15,122.9626
40 10,721.753 3,707.4348 10,504.7144 15,189.6078
50 10,727.624 3,715.2340 10,567.5710 15,256.7690
139 0 10,733.472 3,723.0374 10,630.9509 15,324.4524
10 10,739.298 3,730.8452 10,694.8606 15,392.6645
20 10,745.100 3,738.6571 10,759.3066 15,461.4117
30 10,750.880 3,746.4733 10,824.2955 15,530.7007
40 10,756.638 3,754.2936 10,889.8340 15,600.5382
50 10,762.372 3,762.1182 10,955.9290 15,670.9310
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table F-2.Corrections for Tangents and Externals
F-30 Curve Tables
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table F-2. Corrections for Tangents and Externals (continued)
Curve Tables F-31
For externals add--
Angle In
Degrees 50 curve 10
0
curve 15
0
curve 20
0
curve 25
0
curve 30
0
curve
10 0.001 0.003 0.004 0.006 0.007 0.008
20 0.006 0.011 0.017 0.022 0.028 0.034
30 0.013 0.025 0.038 0.051 0.065 0.078
40 0.023 0.046 0.070 0.093 0.117 0.141
50 0.037 0.075 0.116 0.151 0.189 0.227
60 0.056 0.112 0.168 0.225 0.283 0.340
70 0.080 0.159 0.240 0.321 0.403 0.485
80 0.110 0.220 0.332 0.445 0.558 0.671
90 0.149 0.299 0.450 0.603 0.756 0.910
100 0.200 0.401 0.604 0.809 1.015 1.221
110 0.268 0.536 0.806 1.082 1.355 1.633
120 0.380 0.721 1.086 1.456 1.825 2.197
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
APPENDIX G
FROST DESIGN FOR ROADS
FROST-AREA CONSIDERATIONS
In a r ea s wh er e fr os t effect s h a ve a n impa ct
on t h e des ign of r oads , addit ion al con s ider a-
t ion s con cer n in g t h ickn es s es an d r equ ir ed
la yer s in t h e r oa d s t r u ct u r e mu s t be a d-
dr es s ed. Th e s pecific ar eas wh er e fr os t h as
an impact on t h e des ign ar e dis cu s s ed in
t h e followin g pa r a gr a ph s : h owever , a mor e
det ailed dis cu s s ion of fr os t effect s is pr e-
s en t ed in Special Repor t 83-27. For fr os t -
des ign pu r pos es , s oils h ave been divided
in t o s even gr ou ps as s h own in Table G-1.
On ly t h e NFS gr ou p is s u it a ble for a ba s e
cou r s e. NFS, S1, S2, F1, or F2 s oils may
be u s ed for a s u bbas e cou r s e, an d an y of
t h e s ix gr ou ps may be en cou n t er ed as s u b-
gr ade s oils . Soils ar e lis t ed in appr oximat e
or der of decr eas in g bear in g capabilit y du r -
in g per iods of t h a w.
REQUIRED THICKNESS
Wh er e fr os t -s u s cept ible s u bgr ades ar e en -
cou n t er ed, t h e s ect ion t h ickn es s r equ ir ed
will be det er min ed accor din g t o t h e r edu ced-
s u bgr a de-s t r en gt h met h od. Th e r edu ced-
s u bgr a de-s t r en gt h met h od r equ ir es t h e u s e
of fr os t -ar ea s oil-s u ppor t in dexes lis t ed in
Table G-2, page G-2, an d s t r en gt h cu r ves
s h own in Figu r e G-1, page G-2. Th e
Table G-1. Frost-design soil classification
Frost Design for Roads G-1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table G-2. Frost-area soil-support indexes of
subgrade soils
cu r ve, a n d t h en movin g ver t ica lly down wa r d
t o det er min e t h e des ign t h ickn es s in in ch es .
r equ ir ed t h ickn es s is det er min ed by compar -
in g t h e n a t u r a l s u bgr a de CBR t o t h e fr os t -
a r ea s oil-s u ppor t in dex a s s ocia t ed t o t h e
r eleva n t fir s t gr ou p. If t h e n a t u r a l s u b-
gr a de CBR is les s t h a n t h e fr os t -a r ea s oil-
s u ppor t in dex t h en t h e CBR va lu e gover n s
t h e des ign , an d t h e t h ickn es s is det er min ed
fr om Figu r e G-2. If t h e n a t u r a l s u bgr a de
CBR is gr ea t er t h a n t h e s oil-s u ppor t in dex,
t h en Figu r e G-1 is u s ed. Th e r equ ir ed
t h ickn es s is det er min ed by en t er in g Figu r e
G-1 a t t h e
zon t a lly t o
cor r ect des ign in dex movin g h or i-
in t er s ect t h e r eleva n t fr os t -gr ou p
REQUIRED LAYERS IN A ROAD SECTION
Wh en fr os t is a con s ider at ion , t h e r oad s ec-
t ion s h ou ld con s is t of a s er ies of la yer s t h a t
will en s u r e t h e s t a bilit y of t h e s ys t em, pa r -
t icu lar ly du r in g t h aw per iods . Th e layer ed
s ys t em in t h e a ggr ega t e fill ma y con s is t of a
wear in g s u r face of fin e-cr u s h ed s t on e, a
coar s e-gr aded bas e cou r s e, an d a well-
gr aded s u bbas e of s an d or gr avelly s an d as
s h own in t h e followin g exa mple:
Figure G-1. Frost-design reduced-subgrade-strength curves
G-2 Frost Design for Roads
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
To en s u r e t h e s t a bilit y of t h e wea r in g s u r -
fa ce, t h e widt h of t h e ba s e cou r s e a n d s u b-
bas e s h ou ld exceed t h e fin al des ir ed s u r face
widt h by a min imu m of 1 foot on ea ch s ide.
WEARING SURFACE
Th e wea r in g s u r fa ce con t a in s fin es t o pr o-
vide s t a bilit y in t h e a ggr ega t e s u r fa ce. Th e
pr es en ce of fin es h elps t h e layer s compac-
t ion ch a r a ct er is t ics a n d h elps t o pr ovide a
r ela t ively s moot h r idin g s u r fa ce. It s t h ick-
n es s will var y bet ween 4 an d 6 in ch es .
BASE COURSE
The coa r s e-gr a ded ba s e cou r s e is impor t a n t
in pr ovidin g dr a in a ge of t h e gr a n u la r fill. It
is a ls o impor t a n t t h a t t h is ma t er ia l be NFS
s o t h a t it r et a in s it s s t r en gt h du r in g s pr in g
t h a w.
SUBBASE
Th e well-gr aded s an d s u bbas e is u s ed for
a ddit ion a l bea r in g ca pa cit y over t h e fr os t -
s u s cept ible s u bgr ade an d as a filt er layer be-
t ween t h e coar s e-gr aded bas e cou r s e an d
t h e s u bgr ade. Th is pr oces s pr even t s t h e mi-
gr a t ion of t h e s u bgr a de in t o t h e voids in
t h e coa r s er ma t er ia l du r in g per iods of r e-
du ced s u bgr a de s t r en gt h . Th e ma t er ia l
mu s t t h er efor e meet s t a n da r d filt er cr it er ia .
Th e s an d s u bbas e mu s t be eit h er NFS, S1,
or S2. Th e filt er la yer ma y or ma y n ot be
n eces ar y depen din g u pon t h e t ype of s u b-
gr a de ma t er ia l. If t h e s u bgr ade con s is t s
pr in cipally of gr avel or s an d, t h e filt er layer
may n ot be n eces s ar y an d may be r eplaced
by a ddit ion a l ba s e cou r s e ma t er ia l, if t h e
gr a da t ion of t h e ba s e cou r s e is s u ch t h a t it
meet s filt er cr it er ia . However , for fin er -
gr ain ed s oils , t h e filt er layer will be n eces -
s ar y. If a geot ext ile is u s ed, t h e s an d s u b-
ba s e or filt er la yer ma y be omit t ed beca u s e
t h e fabr ic will be placed dir ect ly on t h e s u b-
gr a de a n d will a ct a s a filt er . If s elect ma t e-
r ia ls a r e u s ed, t h ey mu s t be eit h er NFS, S1,
S2, F1, or F2 fr om Table G-1, page G-1.
COMPACTION
Th e s u bgr ade s h ou ld be compact ed t o pr o-
vide u n ifor mit y of con dit ion s a n d a fir m
wor kin g pla t for m for pla cemen t a n d compa c-
t ion of t h e s u bba s e. However , compa ct ion
of t h e s u bgr a de will n ot ch a n ge it s fr os t -
a r ea s oil-s u ppor t in dex beca u s e fr os t a ct ion
will ca u s e t h e s u bgr a de t o r ever t t o a
wea ker s t a t e.
THICKNESS OF BASE COURSE AND
FILTER LAYER
Th e r elat ive t h ickn es s es of t h e bas e cou r s e
an d filt er layer ar e var iable an d s h ou ld be
ba s ed on t h e r equ ir ed cover (min imu m of 4
in ch es ] an d econ omic con s ider at ion s .
FROST-AREA DESIGN STEPS
St eps 1 t h r ou gh 5 a r e t h e s a me a s for r egu -
la r a ggr ega t e-s u r fa ced r oa ds . (Refer t o
Ch apt er 9, page 9-66.)
6. Det er min e t h e a pplica ble fr os t gr ou p for
t h e s u bgr ade t ype fr om Table G-1, page G-1.
7. Det er min e t h e fr os t -a r ea s oil-s u ppor t in -
dex fr om Table G-2, page G-4, bas ed on t h e
applicable fr os t gr ou p.
8. Det er min e t h e r equ ir ed r oa d-s t r u ct u r e
t h ickn es s . Fir s t , compa r e t h e n a t u r a l s u b-
gr a de CBR t o t h e fr os t -a r ea s oil-s u ppor t in -
dex.
a , If t h e n a t u r a l s u bgr a de CBR is les s
t h a n t h e fr os t -a r ea s oil-s u ppor t in dex, t h en
t h e CBR va lu e gover n s t h e des ign , a n d t h e
t h ickn es s is det er min ed fr om Figu r e G-2,
page G-4, as in n on fr os t des ign .
b. If t h e n a t u r a l s u bgr a de CBR is
gr ea t er t h a n t h e fr os t -a r ea s oil-s u ppor t in -
dex, t h en Figu r e G-1, page G-2, is u s ed.
Th e r equ ir ed t h ickn es s is det er min ed by en -
t er in g Figu r e G-1 at t h e des ign in dex, mov-
in g h or izon t a lly t o in t er s ect t h e fr os t -gr ou p
cu r ve, a n d t h en movin g ver t ica lly down wa r d
t o det er min e t h e t h ickn es s in in ch es .
9. Det er min e t h e r equ ir ed compa ct ion den -
s it ies for each layer fr om Table 9-12, page 9-
6 3 .
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure G-2. Design curves for aggregate-surfaced roads
10. Dr a w t h e s ect ion of t h e a ggr ega t e r oa d 2 . Th e ma t e r i a l s h ou ld me e t gr a da t i on r e -
s t r u ct u r e. qu ir e me n t s .
NOTES: 3 . Aft e r a ll pos s i ble de s i gn s e c t i on s a r e
de t e r min e d, t h e fin a l s e c t ion u s e d s h ou ld
1 . All la ye r de pt h s s h ou ld be r ou n de d u p be de t e r mi n e d on t h e ba s i s of e c on omi c
t o t h e n e xt fu ll i n c h for c on s t r u c t i on pu r - a n a lys is .
pos es .
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
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Exa mple (Fr os t -Ar ea Des ign ):
An a ggr ega t e-s u r fa ced r oa d in a fr os t a r ea
is t o be u s ed for on e year . Th e r oad will be
s u bject t o
Vehicles Average Daily Traffic
M998 HMMWV 1,800
M929 5-ton dump 600
(2 average trucks)
Available material CBR:
Natural subgrade = 4 (Clay PI = 14)
Compacted subgrade = 8
Fine-graded, crushed rock = 80
Coarse-graded, crushed rock = 80
Clean sand subbase = 15
Solu t ion :
1. Nu mber of daily pas s es = 2,400 (given ).
2. Select r oad clas s D fr om Table 9-8, page
9-59, bas ed on aver age daily t r affic of 2,400.
3. Select t r a ffic ca t egor y IV fr om pa ge 9-
59, bas ed u pon t h e pr es en ce of t h e 25-per -
cen t t r u ck t r a ffic.
4. Select des ign in dex of 4 fr om Table 9-9,
page 9-60.
5. Na t u r a l s u bgr a de CBR = 4.
Compa ct ed s u bgr a de CBR = 8
6. Fr om Table G-1, page G-1, t h e s u bgr ade
fr os t gr ou p is F3 bas ed on it bein g a clay
(CL) ma t er ia l.
7. Select fr os t -ar ea s u ppor t -in dex of 3.5
fr om Table G-1, bas ed on fr os t gr ou p F3.
8. Det er min e t h e a cqu ir ed r oa d-s t r u ct u r e
t h ickn es s .
a . Fir s t , look a t t h e r equ ir ed r oa d t h ick-
n es s if it wa s n ot des ign ed for fr os t . In
t h is ca s e, t h e compa ct s u bgr a de CBR = 8 is
u s ed in Figu r e G-2, page G-3. Th is r es u lt s
in a r equ ir ed t ot al t h ickn es s of 6.25 in ch es ,
r ou n din g u p t o 7 in ch es as s h own below.
b. Now, des ign t h e r oa d for fr os t . In t h is
ca s e, t h e n a t u r a l s u bgr a de CBR = 4, a n d
t h e fr os t -a r ea s oil-s u ppor t in dex = 3.5.
Sin ce t h e n a t u r a l s u bgr a de CBR is gr ea t er
t h a n t h e fr os t -a r ea s oil-s u ppor t In dex, Fig-
u r e G-1 is u s ed. A des ign in dex of 4 is
en t er ed in t o Figu r e G-1 r es u lt in g in a
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
des ign t h ickn es s of 24.5 in ch es , r ou n din g
u p t o 25 in ch es . Not ice t h e r at h er lar ge dif-
fer en ce in des ign t h ickn es s es bet ween fr os t
des ign an d n on fr os t des ign .
9. Compa ct ion den s it ies for ea ch la yer a r e
det er min ed fr om Table 9-12, page 9-63.
Wear in g cou r s e: at leas t 100 per cen t .
Bas e cou r s e: at leas t 100 per cen t .
Su bbas e cou r s e: 100 t o 105 per cen t .
Su bgr ade: 90 t o 95 per cen t for coh es ion
s oil (PI>5).
10. Dr a w t h e s ect ion of t h e fr os t -a r ea , a g-
gr ega t e r oa d s t r u ct u r e.
NOTES:
1 . Th e fu n c t i on of t h e s u bba s e a s a fi lt e r
la ye r is n ot a lwa ys r e qu ir e d, de pe n din g
u pon t h e s u bgr a de ma t e r i a l. In t h i s c a s e ,
t h e s u bgr a de i s a CL; t h e r e for e , i t i s r e -
qu ir e d.
2. For e c on omy, t h e t h ic k n e s s e s of t h e
ba s e a n d s u bba s e c ou r s e s c a n be a d-
ju s t e d, s o lon g a s t h e min imu m t h ic k n e s s
a bove t h e CBR=1 5 s u bba s e i s ma i n t a i n e d
a t 4 i n c h e s , a s de t e r mi n e d fr om Fi gu r e G-
2 , pa ge G-3 .
3. An ove r a ll mi n i ma l t h i c k n e s s la ye r of
4 i n c h e s s h ou ld be ma i n t a i n e d.
Wh en u s in g a geot ext ile a s a filt er la yer , t h e
des ign above cou ld be u s ed by dedu ct in g 6
in ch es of t h e clean s an d s u bbas e an d
r epla cin g it wit h a geot ext ile. Th e t ot a l
t h ickn es s a bove t h e geot ext ile mu s t be a
min imu m of 25 in ch es . Two a lt er n a t e
des ign s u s in g geot ext ile ar e s h own in t h e
exa mple a t t h e bot t om of t h e pa ge.
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-801, Vol 1
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APPENDIX H
GEOTEXTILE DESIGN
DESIGN GUIDELINES
Th e wides pr ead accept an ce of geot ext iles for
u s e in en gin eer in g des ign s h as led t o a
pr olifer a t ion of geot ext ile ma n u fa ct u r er s
a n d a mu lt it u de of geofa br ics , ea ch wit h dif-
fer en t en gin eer in g ch a r a ct er is t ics fr om
wh ich t o ch oos e. Th e des ign gu idelin es an d
met h odology t h a t follow h elp you s elect t h e
r igh t geofa br ic t o meet you r con s t r u ct ion r e-
qu ir emen t s .
UNPAVED-AGGREGATE DESIGN
Si t e Re c on n a i s s a n c e
As wit h a n y con s t r u ct ion pr oject , a s it e
r econ n ais s an ce pr ovides in s igh t on con s t r u c-
t ion r equ ir emen t s a n d pot en t ia l pr oblems .
De t e r mi n e Su bgr a de Soi l Type a n d
St r e n gt h
Iden t ify t h e s u bgr ade s oil an d det er min e it s
s t r en gt h a s ou t lin ed in Ch a pt er 9, FM 5-
410. If pos s ible, det er min e t h e s oils s h ear
s t r en gt h , C, in ps i. If you a r e u n a ble t o
det er min e C, u s e t h e n omogr a ph in Figu r e
H-1 t o con ver t CBR va lu e or CI t o C.
De t e r mi n e Pe r mi s s i ble Loa d on t h e Su b-
gr a de Soil
Th e a mou n t of loa din g t h a t ca n be a pplied
wit h ou t ca u s in g t h e s u bgr a de s oil t o fa il is
r efer r ed t o a s t h e permis s ible s tres s , S.
Per mis s ible s u bgr ade s t r es s wit h ou t a
geot ext ile:
S = (2.8)C
Per mis s ible s u bgr ade s t r es s wi t h a
geot ext ile:
S = (5.0)C
Figure H-1. Determining the soilss shear
strength by converting CBR value or cone
index
Geotextile Design H-1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
De t e r min e Wh e e l Loa ds , Con t a c t Pr e s -
Es t ima t e t h e a r ea bein g loa ded
s u r e , a n d Con t a c t Ar e a
Es t ima t e wh eel loa ds , con t a ct pr es s u r e, a n d
con t a ct -a r ea dimen s ion s fr om Ta ble
H-2. For geot ext ile des ign , s in gle an d du al
wh er e = len gt h of on e s ide of t h e s qu a r e
wh eels ar e r epr es en t ed as s in gle-wh eel
con t a ct a r ea
loa ds (L) equ a l t o on e-h a lf t h e a xle loa d,
Th e wh eel load exer t ed by a s in gle wh eel is
De t e r mi n e Aggr e ga t e -Ba s e Th i c k n e s s
applied at a s u r face con t act pr es s u r e (P)
As s u min g t h at wh eel loads will be applied
equ a l t o t h e t ir e in fla t ion pr es s u r e. Du a l-
over a s qu a r e a r ea , we ca n u s e t h e Bou s -
wh eel loads apply a P equ al t o 75 per cen t
s in es q t h eor y of loa d dis t r ibu t ion t o det er -
of t h e t ir e in fla t ion pr es s u r e. Ta n dem a xles
min e t h e aggr egat e-s ect ion t h ickn es s r e-
exer t 20 per cen t mor e t h a n t h eir a ct u a l
qu ir ed t o s u ppor t t h e des ign load. Bou s -
weigh t t o t h e s u bgr a de s oil du e t o over la p-
s in es q t h eor y coefficien t s ar e fou n d in Table
pin g s t r es s fr om t h e a dja cen t a xle in t h e
H- 2 .
t a n dem s et ,
Table H-1. Vehicle input parameters
H-2 Geotextile Design
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Table H-2. Boussinesq theory coefficients
Fir s t , s olve for X.
Wit h ou t a geot ext ile:
Wit h a geot ext ile:
Us in g t h e ca lcu la t ed va lu es of X a n d
fin d t h e cor r es pon din g valu e
of M a n d fr om Ta ble H-2.
Th en s olve for aggr egat e-bas e t h ickn es s
H a n d H geot ext ile.
Wit h ou t a geot ext ile:
Wit h a geot ext ile:
Th e differ en ce bet ween H an d H geot ext ile
is t h e a ggr ega t e s a vin gs du e t o t h e geot ex-
t ile.
Adju s t Aggr e ga t e -Se c t i on Th i c k n e s s for
Aggr e ga t e Qu a li t y
Th e des ign met h od is bas ed on t h e as s u mp-
t ion t h a t good-qu a lit y a ggr ega t e (min imu m
CBR valu e of 80) is u s ed. If lower -qu alit y
a ggr ega t e is u s ed, t h e a ggr ega t e-s ect ion
t h ickn es s mu s t be adju s t ed.
Table H-3, page H-4, con t ain s t ypical com-
pa ct ed s t r en gt h pr oper t ies of common s t r u c-
t u r a l ma t er ia ls . Th es e va lu es a r e a ppr oxi-
ma t ion s : u s e mor e s pecific da t a if it is a va il-
a ble. Ext r a ct t h e a ppr opr ia t e t h ickn es s
equ iva len t fa ct or fr om Ta ble H-3, t h en di-
vide H by t h a t fa ct or t o det er min e t h e a d-
ju s t ed aggr egat e-s ect ion t h ickn es s .
Adju s t Aggr e ga t e -Ba s e Th i c k n e s s for Se r v-
i c e Li fe
Th e des ign met h od a s s u mes t h a t t h e pa ve-
men t will be s u bject ed t o 1,000 pas s es of
t h e ma ximu m des ign a xle loa d.
fic is gr eat er t h an 1,000 pas s es ,
by t h e followin g per cen t ages :
2,000 pas s es 8%
5,000 pas s es 19%
10,000 pas s es
27%
If t h e t r a f-
in cr eas e H
If you a n t icipa t e mor e t h a n 10,000 pa s s es ,
you n eed t o in cr eas e t h e des ign t h ickn es s
by 30 per cen t a n d mon it or t h e per for ma n ce
of t h e r oa d.
A s econ d met h od of det er min in g min imu m
r equ ir ed cover above a s u bgr ade for wh eeled
veh icles wit h a n d wit h ou t a geot ext ile r e-
qu ir es fewer in pu t pa r a met er s . Aga in , u s e
Figu r e H-1 t o cor r ect CBR or CI va lu es t o a
C valu e. Det er min e t h e per mis s ible s t r es s
on t h e s u bgr ade s oil (S) by mu lt iplyin g C by
2.8 wit h ou t a geot ext ile a n d by 5.0 wit h a
geot ext ile. Select t h e h eavies t veh icle u s in g
t h e r oad an d t h e des ign veh icle for each
wh eel-load con figu r at ion : s in gle, du al, or
t a n dem. En t er t h e a ppr opr ia t e gr a ph (s ee
Figu r es H-2, H-3, or H-4, pages H-5
t h r ou gh H-7) a t S (wit h a n d wit h ou t a
geot ext ile). Rou n d des ign -veh icle wh eel
loads t o t h e n ext h igh er 5,000-pou n d in cr e-
men t . Det er min e t h e in t er s ect ion bet ween
t h e appr opr iat e wh eel-load cu r ve an d S
(wit h a n d wit h ou t a geot ext ile), t h en r ea d
t h e min imu m r equ ir ed t h ickn es s on t h e left
a xis . Us e t h e gr ea t es t t h ickn es s va lu es a s
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Table H-3. Typical compacted strength properties of common structural materials
t h e des ign t h ickn es s wit h a n d wit h ou t a men t s . Th e pat t er n an d open in g s pacin g
geot ext ile. Compa r e t h e cos t of t h e ma t e-
r ia l s a ved wit h t h e cos t of t h e geot ext ile t o
det er min e if t h e u s e of t h e geot ext ile is
cos t effect ive.
Up t o t h is poin t in t h e geot ext ile-des ign
pr oces s , you h ave been con cer n ed wit h gen -
er al des ign pr oper t ies for des ign in g u n -
pa ved a ggr ega t e r oa ds . Now you mu s t de-
cide wh ich geot ext ile fabr ic bes t meet s you r
pr oject r equ ir emen t s .
TYPES OF GEOTEXTILES
Th er e a r e t wo ma jor t ypes of geot ext iles :
woven an d n on woven . Woven fabr ics h ave
fila men t s woven in t o a r egu la r , u s u a lly r ec-
t a n gu la r , pa t t er n wit h fa ir ly even open in g
s pacin g an d s ize. Non woven fabr ics h ave
fila men t s con n ect ed in a met h od ot h er t h a n
weavin g, t ypically n eedle pu n ch in g or h ead
bon din g a t in t er s ect ion poin t s of t h e fila -
an d s ize ar e ir r egu lar in n on woven fabr ics .
Woven fa br ics a r e gen er a lly s t r on ger t h a n
n on woven fa br ics of t h e s a me fa br ic weigh t .
Woven geot ext iles t ypically r each peak t en -
s ile s t r en gt h at bet ween 5 an d 25 per cen t
s t r ain . Non woven fabr ics h ave a h igh elon -
ga t ion of 50 per cen t or mor e a t ma ximu m
s t r en gt h .
Table H-4, page H-8, pr ovides in for mat ion
on impor t a n t cr it er ia a n d pr in cipa l pr oper -
t ies u s efu l wh en s elect in g or s pecifyin g a
geot ext ile for a s pecific applicat ion . Th e
t ype of equ ipmen t u s ed t o con s t r u ct a r oa d
or a ir field pa vemen t s t r u ct u r e on t op of t h e
geot ext ile mu s t be con s ider ed. Equ ipmen t
gr ou n d pr es s u r e (in ps i) is an impor t an t fac-
t or in det er min in g t h e geot ext ile fa br ic
t h ickn es s ; a t h icker fabr ic is n eces s ar y t o
s t a n d u p t o h igh equ ipmen t gr ou n d pr es -
s u r e (s ee Table H-5, page H-9).
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
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Figure H-2. Thickness design curve for slngle-wheel load on gravel-surfaced pavements
On ce t h e r equ ir ed degr ee of geot ext ile s u r viv- t es t in g s t a n da r ds , t h e geot ext ile will be r e-
a bilit y is det er min ed, min imu m s peifica t ion qu ir ed t o wit h s t a n d t o meet u s e a n d con -
r equ ir emen t s can be es t ablis h ed bas ed on s t r u ct ion r equ ir emen t s , you a r e r ea dy t o
ASTM s t an dar ds (s ee Table H-6, page H- eit h er s pecify a geot ext ile for or der in g or
10). Wh en you h ave det er min ed t h e s et of eva lu a t e on -h a n d s t ocks .
ROADWAY CONSTRUCTION
Th er e is n o s in gu la r wa y t o con s t r u ct ma d- deeper t h an 3 or 4 in ch es (s ee Figu r e H-5,
wa ys wit h geofa br ics . However , t h er e a r e pa ge H-11). Compa ct t h e s u bgr a de if t h e
s ever al applicat ion s an d gen er al gu idelin es s oil CBR is gr ea t er t h a n 1. Th e compa ct ion
t h a t ca n be u s ed. a ids in loca t in g u n s u it a ble ma t er ia ls t h a t
ma y da ma ge t h e fa br ic. Remove u n s u it a ble
SITE PREPARATION materials wh er e pr a ct ica l.
Clea r , gr u b, a n d exca va t e t h e s it e t o des ign
gr ade: fill in r u t s an d s u r face ir r egu lar it ies
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
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Figure H-3. Thickness design curve for
Wh en con s t r u ct in g over ext r emely s oft s oils
(s u ch a s pea t bogs ), s u r fa ce ma t er ia ls (s u ch
a s t h e r oot ma t ) ma y be a dva n t a geou s a n d
s h ou ld be dis t u r bed as lit t le as pos s ible.
dual-wheel load on gravel-surfaced pavements
gr a de. Th e fa br ic is common ly, bu t n ot a l-
wa ys , la id in t h e dir ect ion of t h e r oa dwa y.
Wh er e t h e s u bgr ade cr os s s ect ion h as lar ge
a r ea s a n d levelin g is n ot pr a ct ica l, t h e
Us e s a n d or s a wdu s t t o cover r oot s , s t u mps , fa br ic ma y be cu t a n d la id t r a n s ver s e t o t h e
or s t alks . Th is cu s h ion s t h e fabr ic an d r oadway. Lar ge wr in kles s h ou ld be avoided.
r edu ces t h e pot en t ia l for fa br ic pu n ct u r e. In t h e ca s e of wide r oa ds , mu lt iple widt h s of
Non woven geot ext iles ar e pr efer r ed wh en t h e fabr ic ar e laid an d over lapped. Lap len gt h
s oil s u r face is u n even . n or mally depen ds on s u bgr ade s t r en gt h .
Table H-7, page H-12, pr ovides gen er al
LAYING OF FABRIC
Th e fabr ic s h ou ld be r olled ou t by h an d,
ah ead of backfillin g, dir ect ly on t h e s oil s u b-
gu idelin es for lap len gt h s .
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure H-4. Thickness design curve for tandem-wheel load on gravel-surfaced pavements
LAYING OF BASE
If a n gu la r r ock is t o for m t h e ba s e, it is
common t o fir s t pla ce a pr ot ect ive la yer of 6
t o 8 in ch es of fin er ma t er ia l, Ba s e ma t er ia l
is t h en en d-du mped dir ect ly on t o t h e pr e-
viou s ly s pr ead load, pu s h ed ou t over t h e
fa br ic, a n d s pr ea d fr om t h e cen t er u s in g a
bu lldozer . Veh icles mu s t n ot be dr iven
dir ect ly on t h e fa br ic beca u s e t h ey migh t
pu n ct u r e it . Sma ll, t r a cked bu lldozer s
(wit h a ma ximu m gr ou n d pr es s u r e of 2 ps i)
ar e common ly u s ed for s pr eadin g. Th e
blade is als o kept h igh t o avoid dr ivin g r ock
down in t o t h e fa br ic. Aft er s pr ea din g, com-
pa ct ion a n d gr a din g ca n be ca r r ied ou t wit h
s t a n da r d compa ct ion equ ipmen t . If t h e
r oa dwa y h a s s ide dr a in s , t h ey a r e con -
s t r u ct ed a ft er t h e pa vemen t .
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table H-4. Geotextile evaluation
Criteria and Parameter
Design Requirements
Mechanical strength
Tensile strength
Tensile modulus
Seam strength
Tension creep
Soil-fabric friction
Hydraulic
Flow capacity
Piping resistance
Clogging resistance
Constructability Requirements
Tensile strength
Seam strength
Bursting resistance
Puncture resistance
Tear resistance
F - Filtration
D- Drainage
S - Se?lration
R - Reinforcement
Property
Wide-width strength
Wide-width modulus
Wide width
Creep
Friction angle
Permeability,
Transmissivity
Apparent opening size (AOS)
Pommetry
, Gradient ratio
Grab strength
Grab strength
i Mullen burst
! Red puncture
i Trapesoidal tear
I
F
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Application
D S
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
R
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
T
a
b
l
e

H
-
5
.

R
e
q
u
i
r
e
d

d
e
g
r
e
e

o
f

g
e
o
t
e
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-
9
Table H-S. Required degree of geotextile survivability as a function of cover material and construction equipment
Cover Material
Fine sand to 2-inch-diameter
gravel, round to subangular
Coarse aggregate with diameter
up to one-half proposed lift
thickness, may be angular
Some to most aggregate with
diameter greater than one-half
proposed lift thickness, angular
and sharp-edge few fines
NOTES:
6- to 12-lnch
Initial LIft Thickness
Low- Medium-
Ground- Ground-
Pressure Pressure
Equipment Equipment
<4 psi ?o4 pSi, <8 psi
Low Moderate
Moderate High
High Very High
12- to 18-lnch
Initial Lift Thickness
Medlum- Hlgh-
Ground- Ground-
Pressure Pressure
Equipment Equipment
?o4 psi, <8 psi ?8 psi
Low Moderate
Moderate High
High Very High
18- to 24-lnch
Initial Lift
Thickness
Hlgh-Ground-
Pressure
Equipment
?o8 psi
Low
Moderate
High
1. For special construction techniques such as preruttlng, Increase geotextlle survtvablllty requirement one level.
2. Placement of an excessive Initial cover-material thickness may cause bearing failure of soft subgrades.
>24-lnch
Initial LIft
Thickness
High-Ground-
Pressure
Equipment
?o8 psi
Low
Low
Moderate
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table H-6. Minimum properties required for geotextile survivability
Required Degree
Grab Strength 1 Puncture Strength 21 Burst Strength 3 Trap Tear
4
of Geotextile
Survivability
Ib Ib , psi Ib
Very high 270 110 430 75
High 180 75 290
I
50
Moderate 130 40 210 40
Low 90 30 145 30
i
1
ASTMD4632
2
ASTM D4833
3
ASTM D3786
4
ASTM D 4533, either principal direction
Note: All values represent minimum average roll values (for example, any roll in a 101 should meet or exceed Ihe minimum values in Ihis.
lable). These values are normally 20 percenllower Ihan typical values.
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Figure H-5. Construction sequence using geotextiles
1. Prepare the ground by removing
stumps, boulders, and so forth; fill
in low spots.
Dump aggregate onto previously
placed aggregate. Do not drive
directly on the geotextile. Maintain at
least 6 to 12 inches cover between
the truck tires and the geotextile.
;,\... '.\;.6"-
2. Unroll the geotextile directly over
the ground to be stabilized. If more
than one roll width is required, overlap
the rolls. Inspect the geotextile.
4. Spread the aggregate over the
geotextile to the design thickness.
.. , ....
. ....... J > c."i ............ ,;'
. L' .. r
__ "" ,e .. '" '\ ' .. 0 ... 0
5. Compact the aggregate using ...... '. i
dozer tracks or a vibratory roller.
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Table H-7. Recommended minimum overlap requirements
CBR Minimum Overlap
>2 1 -1.5 feet
1-2 2 -3 feet
0.5 -1 3 feet or sewn
< 0.5 Sewn
AJI roll ends 3 feet or sewn
AABNCP
AASHO
AASHTO
ABS
AC
ACE
a dj
ADR
AFCS
AFM
AF P
AFR
a m m o
APC
a p p r ox
Ap r
AR
ASCE
ASTM
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
GLOSSARY
a dva n ced a ir bor n e con t r ol pla t for m
Amer ica n As s ocia t ion of St a t e High wa y Officia ls
Amer ica n As s ocia t ion of St a t e High wa y a n d Tr a n s por t a t ion Officia ls
acr ylon it r ile-bu t adien e-s t yr en e (plas t ic)
a s ph a lt cemen t
a r mor ed comba t ea r t h mover
a dju s t ed
a ir ba s e da ma ge r epa ir
Ar my Fa cilit ies Compon en t Sys t em
Air For ce ma n u a l
Air For ce pa mph let
Air For ce r egu la t ion
a ggr ega t e
a ver a ge h a u l dis t a n ce
air field mar kin g an d ligh t in g
a mmu n it ion
ar mor ed per s on n el car r ier
a ppr oxima t ely
Ap r il
Ar my r egu la t ion
Amer ican Societ y of Civil En gin eer s
Amer ica n Societ y of Tes t in g a n d Ma t er ia ls
a g g
AHD
AML
At t e r be r g Li mi t s Soil plas t icit y t es t u s ed t o meas u r e s oil coh es iven es s : t h at is , coh es ive or
coh es ion les s ,
ATTN a t t en t ion
Au g Au gu s t
Glossary - 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
a v a bs olu t e volu me
a ve r a ge da i ly t r a ffi c (ADT) Th e an t icipat ed aver age n u mber of veh icles per day t h at will
u s e a complet ed fa cilit y.
ba n k e d c u bi c ya r da ge (BCY) Soil mea s u r ed in it s n a t u r a l s t a t e.
a ve r a ge r u n n i n g s pe e d Th e s peed expect ed t o be main t ain ed by mos t veh icles . It is equ al
t o t h e t ot a l t r a veled d is t a n ce d ivid ed b y t ot a l t ime con s u med .
ba s e c ou r s e or ba s e Ba s e cou r s e con s is t s of well-gr a ded, gr a n u la r ma t er ia ls t h a t h a ve a
liqu id limit les s t h a n 25 per cen t a n d a pla s t ic limit les s t h a n 5 per cen t ,
Th e ba s e cou r s e is t h e mos t impor t a n t elemen t in a r oa d s t r u ct u r e. It
fu n ct ion s a s t h e pr ima r y loa d-bea r in g compon en t of t h e r oa d, u lt ima t ely
pr ovidin g t h e pa vemen t (or s u r fa ce) s t r en gt h . Th er efor e, it is ma de of h igh er
qu a lit y ma t er ia l t h a n s u bba s e ma t er ia l.
be a r i n g c a pa c i t y Th e a bilit y of a s oil t o s u ppor t a veh icle wit h ou t u n du e s in ka ge of t h e
veh icle.
be n c h i n g Ter r acin g on a s lope.
be r m A r a is ed lip, u s u a lly of ea r t h , pla ced a t t h e t op edge of a ch a n n el t o pr even t
flow in t o t h e ch a n n el a t pla ces n ot pr ot ect ed a ga in s t er os ion .
bit u me n or bit u min ou s Th e mos t common t ype of a s ph a lt s u r fa ce pla ced in t h e t h ea t er of
oper a t ion s .
Bn ba t t a lion
bor r ow pit An exca va t ed a r ea wh er e ma t er ia l h a s been du g for u s e a s fill a t a n ot h er
loca t ion .
BTU Br it is h t h er ma l u n it
BVM Ba ys Villa ge of Ma r yla n d
C Cels iu s
C cu t
CAD compu t er -aided des ign
CAMMS Con den s ed Ar my Mobilit y Modelin g Sys t em
Ca li for n i a Be a r i n g Ra t i o (CBR) A mea s u r e of t h e s h ea r in g r es is t a n ce of a s oil u n der
ca r efu lly con t r olled con dit ion s of den s it y a n d mois t u r e.
CDR comma n der
CE 5 5 La bor a t or y compa ct ive effor t (CE) a ccomplis h ed by t h e impa ct of 55 h a mmer
blows per layer .
Glossary - 2
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
CES civil en gin eer in g s qu adr on
CEV combat en gin eer veh icle
c f cu bic feet
c fs cu bic feet per s econ d
CH clays , h igh compr es s ibilit y (LL>50)
CI con e in dex
cen t er lin e
CL clays , low compr es s ibilit y (LL<50)
c m cen t imet er
c m/ s e c cen t imet er s per s econ d
CMD comma n d
CMP cor r u ga t ed met a l pipe
c o compa n y
c oa r s e -gr a in e d s oil A fr ee-dr a in in g s oil of wh ich mor e t h a n 50 per cen t by weigh t of t h e
gr ain s will be r et ain ed on a No. 200 s ieve. For t r affic abilit y pu r pos es , t h es e
ar e dr y beach an d des er t s oils u s u ally con t ain in g les s t h an 7 per cen t of
mat er ial pas s in g t h e No. 200 s ieve. Gr avels ar e n ot con s ider ed t o pos e a
t r a ffica bilit y pr oblem.
c ompa c t e d c u bic ya r ds (CCY) A mea s u r emen t of compa ct ed s oil.
c om p a c t i on Pr oces s of mech an ically den s ifyin g a s oil, n or mally by t h e applicat ion of a
movin g (or dyn a mic) loa d.
c ompa c t i ve e ffor t (CE) Met h od u s ed t o compa ct t h e s oil.
c on e in de x (CI) An in dex of t h e s h ear in g r es is t an ce of s oil. Th e CI is obt ain ed wit h a
con e pen et r omet er . Th e n u mber r epr es en t s r es is t a n ce t o pen et r a t ion in t o t h e
s oil of t h e 30-degr ee con e wit h a 1/ 2-s qu ar e-in ch bas e ar ea (act u al load in
pou n ds on con e bas e ar ea in s qu ar e in ch es ), u s in g a dial calibr at ed t o
pr odu ce an in dex of 300 wh en 150 lb of pr es s u r e ar e exer t ed on t h e h an dle.
Th e CI r ea din g is n or ma lly t a ken a t t h e 0-in ch (ba s e of t h e con e) a n d a t
ever y 3-in ch in t er val down t o 18 in ch es or u n t il t h e dial r each es t h e
ma ximu m of 300. A n u mber of t es t s will be t a ken a n d ea ch s pecified
in t er val r eadin g will be aver aged. Th a t a ver a ge becomes t h e CI for t h e in ch
level.
CONUS
CPT
con t in en t a l Un it ed St a t es
ca pt a in
Glossary - 3
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
c r i t i c a l la ye r
c r own
c r own
CSS
c u c m
c u ft
CUCV
c u l ve r t
c u t or c u t t i n g
c u t s lope
c y
DA
DBH
DD
De c
d e g
d e p t
Th e s oil layer t h at det er min es t h e r at in g con e in dex (for fin e-gr ain ed s oil) or
con e in dex (for coar s e-gr ain ed s oil) of t h e ar ea con s ider ed. It s dept h var ies
wit h t h e s oil pr ofile a n d t h e weigh t a n d t ype of veh icle. Gen er a lly, t h e
cr it ical layer for fin e-gr ain ed s oils is 6 t o 12 in ch es below t h e s u r face wh en
s u bject ed t o pas s es of a veh icle. For coar s e-gr ain ed s oils , t h e cr it ical layer is
u s u a lly fr om t h e s u r fa ce t o a 6-in ch dept h for a ll veh icu la r pa s s es .
Th e differ en ce in elevat ion bet ween t h e cen t er lin e an d t h e s u r face edge. Th e
cr own expedit es s u r fa ce-wa t er r u n off on t h e r oa d. Th e a mou n t of cr own
depen ds on t h e s u r face u s ed. Su r fa ces s u ch a s con cr et e or bit u min ou s
ma t er ia ls r equ ir e lit t le cr own beca u s e of t h eir imper mea bilit y, bu t per mea ble
s u r fa ces s u ch a s ea r t h or gr a vel r equ ir e a la r ge cr own .
Th e ou t s ide t op of t h e cu lver t .
ca t ion ic s low s et t in g
cu bic cen t imet er
cu bic foot
commer cia l u t ilit y ca r go veh icle
An en clos ed wa t er wa y u s ed t o pa s s wa t er t h r ou gh a s t r u ct u r e con s is t in g of
a n emba n kmen t or fill.
Th a t por t ion of t h r ou gh con s t r u ct ion pr odu ced by t h e r emova l of t h e n a t u r a l
for ma t ion of ea r t h or r ock, wh et h er s loped or level. Th e t er ms s id ehill cut
a n d through-hill cu t des cr ibe t h e r es u lt in g cr os s s ect ion s common ly en cou n t er ed.
Th e s lope fr om t h e t op of a cu t t o t h e dit ch lin e (bot t om of dit ch ). Somet imes
it is called t h e back s lope.
cu bic yar d
Depa r t men t of t h e Ar my
dia met er a t br ea s t h eigh t
Depa r t men t of Defen s e
December
degr ee
depa r t men t
de s ign h ou r ly volu me (DHV) Th e n u mber of veh icles t h a t a r oa d ma y t ypica lly be expect ed
t o a ccommoda t e in a n h ou r . Th e DHV is 15 per cen t of t h e ADT.
de s ign s pe e d Th e s peed for wh ich a facilit y is des ign ed. Per t in en t geomet r ic feat u r es , s u ch
as h or izon t al cu r ves an d gr ades , may be bas ed on des ign s peed.
Glossary - 4
FM 5a-a430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
de s ign s t or m
d e t e n t i on
d i a
d i p
dit c h s lope
di ve r s i on di t c h
DMZ
d r op
DT
E
e l e v
EM
EM
En gr
EOD
e r os i on
EW
F
F
Fe b
fi ll or fi lli n g
fill s lope
Th e s t or m of gr ea t es t in t en s it y for a given per iod. For exa mple, a 2-yea r
des ign s t or m is a s t or m expect ed t o be equ alled on ce in 2 year s .
Th e s t or a ge of wa t er in depr es s ion s in t h e ea r t h s s u r fa ce.
dia met er
A paved for d u s ed for cr os s in g dr y, wide, s h allow ar r oyos or was h es in s emi-
ar id r egion s s u bject t o flas h floods .
Th e s lope of t h e dit ch ext en din g fr om t h e ou t s ide edge of t h e s h ou lder t o t h e
bot t om of t h e dit ch . Th is s lope s h ou ld be r ela t ively fla t t o a void da ma ge t o
veh icles dr iven in t o t h e dit ch an d t o per mit eas y r ecover y.
A dit ch u s ed t o t r a n s por t wa t er a wa y fr om r oa dwa ys or a ir fields .
demilit a r ized zon e
A s t r u ct u r e t h a t a bs or bs t h e impa ct en er gy of wa t er a s it fa lls ver t ica lly t o a
lower level wa t er wa y.
dit ch t ime
ea s t
eleva t ion
en gin eer ma n u a l
en lis t ed member
en gin eer
explos ive or dn an ce dis pos al
Th e t r a n s por t a t ion of wea t h er ed ma t er ia ls by win d or wa t er .
ea s t -wes t
fill
Fa h r en h eit
Febr u a r y
Mat er ial u s ed t o fill a r ecept acle, cavit y, pas s age, or low place, Us in g
ma t er ia l t o fill a ca vit y or low pla ce.
Th e in clin e ext en din g fr om t h e ou t s ide edge of t h e s h ou lder t o t h e t oe (bot t om)
of a fill.
fi n e -gr a i n e d s oi l A s ilt or cla y s oil of wh ich mor e t h a n 50 per cen t by weigh t of t h e gr a in s
will pas s a No. 200 s ieve (s maller t h an 0.074 millimet er in diamet er ).
Glossary - 5
FM 5-430-00-1/AFAPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
F M field ma n u a l
for d A s h a llow pla ce in a wa t er wa y wh er e t h e bot t om per mit s t h e pa s s a ge of
per s on n el an d veh icles .
fp m feet per min u t e
fp s feet per s econ d
fr os t a c t ion Pr oces s es wh ich a ffect t h e a bilit y of s oil t o s u ppor t a s t r u ct u r e wh en
a ccu mu la t ed wa t er in t h e for m of ice len s es in t h e s oil is s u bject ed t o
fr eezin g con dit ion s .
fr os t -s u s c e pt ible s oil Soil in wh ich s ign ifican t ice s egr egat ion will occu r wh en t h e
n eces s a r y mois t u r e a n d fr eezin g con dit ion s a r e pr es en t .
ft feet
FT For t
ft / ft feet per foot
ft / i n feet per in ch
s qu a r e feet per s qu a r e ya r d
G gr a vel
n a t u r a l
ga bi on La r ge, s t eel wir e-mes h ba s ket s filled wit h s t on es , u s u a lly r ect a n gu la r in
s h ape an d var iable in s ize. Th ey ar e des ign ed t o s olve t h e pr oblem of er os ion .
ga l ga llon
ga l/ lb gallon s per pou n d
ga llon s per s qu a r e ya r d
GC clayey gr avel
ge ome t r i c de s i gn (ge ome t r y or ge ome t r i c fe a t u r e s ) Refer s t o a ll vis ible fea t u r es of t h e
r oa d s u ch a s la n e widt h , s h ou lder widt h , a n d a lign men t .
GLE
GM
gm
GP
gr a d e
gr ou n d i c i n g
gr ade-lin e elevat ion
s ilt y gr avel
gr a m
poor ly gr aded gr avel
To level off t o a s moot h h or izon t a l or s lopin g s u r fa ce.
An icin g wh os e s ou r ce of wa t er is fr om gr ou n dwa t er flow a bove per ma fr os t .
Glossary - 6
FM 5 -4 3 0 -0 0 -1 / AFPAM 3 2 -8 0 1 3 , Vol 1
gr ou n dwa t e r t a ble Th e u pper limit of t h e s a t u r a t ed zon e of fr ee wa t er .
gu n i t e A mixt u r e of cemen t , s a n d, a n d wa t er s pr a yed fr om a h igh pr es s u r e n ozzle
on t o a s u r fa ce t o pr ot ect it .
GW well-gr a ded gr a vel
HMMWV h igh mobilit y, mu lt ipu r pos e wh eeled veh icle
HP h igh poin t
HW h igh wa t er
h ydr a u li c gr a di e n t Th e s lope in feet per foot of a dr a in a ge s t r u ct u r e.
h ydr ologic c yc le Th e con t in u ou s pr oces s in wh ich wa t er is t r a n s por t ed fr om t h e ocea n s t o
i c i n g
i n
i n fi l t r a t i on
i n / h r
i n s i t u
i n t e r c e p t i on
J a n
J u l
J u n
k g
k i p
k m
k p h
la mi n a r flow
la t
lb
LI P
t h e a t mos ph er e t o t h e la n d a n d ba ck t o t h e s ea .
An ir r egu lar s h eet or field of ice.
in ch
Th e a bs or pt ion of r a in wa t er by t h e gr ou n d on wh ich it fa lls .
in ch es per h ou r
Soil in it s n a t u r a l (u n dis t u r bed] s t a t e.
Th e h oldin g of r a in fa ll in t h e lea f ca n opy of t r ees a n d pla n t s .
J a n u a r y
J u ly
J u n e
kilogr a m
kilopou n d (1,000 pou n ds )
kilomet er
kilomet er s per h ou r
Th e t ype of flow t h a t occu r s wh en vis cos it y for ces pr edomin a t e a n d t h e
pa r t icles of t h e flu id move in s moot h , pa r a llel pa t h s .
la t it u de
pou n d
len gt h in place
Glossary - 7
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
li q liqu id
LL liqu id limit
LOC lin es of commu n ica t ion
LP low poin t
M s ilt
m met er
Mar Ma r ch
ma s s dia gr a m Ea r t h wor k volu me plot t ed on gr a ph pa per , s h owin g cu t a n d fill oper a t ion s .
m a x ma ximu m
ma xi mu m t owi n g for c e (T1) Th e ma ximu m con t in u ou s t owin g for ce in pou n ds a veh icle
ca n exer t . It is expr es s ed as a r at io or per cen t age of veh icle weigh t .
MD
Ma r yla n d
MH s ilt , h igh compr es s ibilit y (LL>50)
m i mile
m i n min imu m
m i n min u t e
ML s ilt , low compr es s ibilit y (LL<50)
m m millimet er
MO ma ximu m offs et
MO Mis s ou r i
mobilit y in de x (MI) A n u mber t h a t r es u lt s fr om a con s ider a t ion of cer t a in veh icle
MOPP
m p h
MS
N
N
N/ A
Glossary - 8
ch a r a ct er is t ics .
mis s ion -or ien t ed pr ot ect ive pos t u r e
miles per h ou r
mediu m s et t in g
Slipper in es s s ymbol mean in g n ot s lipper y u n der an y con dit ion s .
n or t h
n ot applicable
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013,Vol 1 FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
NATO
NBC
NCO
NE
NFS
No.
Nov
NP
NRMM
NRS
NS
NSN
Ot t
OL
P
PC
p e r m
p e r m a fr os t
PF S
P I
PI
POL
p e n d i n g
p op
R
Pr i me BEEF
Nor t h At la n t ic Tr ea t y Or ga n iza t ion
n u clear , biological, ch emical
n on commis s ion ed officer
n or t h ea s t
n on fr os t s u s cept ible
n u mber
November
n u mber of pipes
NATO Refer en ce Mobilit y Model
n a va l r a dio s t a t ion
n or t h -s ou t h
n a t ion a l s t ock n u mber
offs et
Oct ober
or der len gt h
Slipper in es s s ymbol mean in g s lipper y wh en wet .
poin t of cu r va t u r e
per ma n en t
Con s t a n t ly fr ozen gr ou n d.
pos s ibly fr os t s u s cept ible
pla s t icit y in dex
poin t of in t er s ect ion
pet r oleu m, oils , a n d lu br ica n t s
Th e a ccu mu la t ion of wa t er a t t h e u ps t r ea m en d of a cu lver t .
popu la t ion
pr oba bilit y
pr ime bas e en gin eer emer gen cy for ces
Glossary - 9
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
p s i pou n ds per s qu ar e in ch
PT poin t of t a n gen cy
PVC polyvin yl ch lor ide
PVC poin t of ver t ica l cu r va t u r e
P VI poin t of ver t ica l in t er s ect ion
PVT poin t of ver t ica l t a n gen cy
QSTAG Qu a dr ipa r t it e St a n da r diza t ion Agr eemen t
r a t in g c on e in de x (RCI) Th e meas u r ed con e in dex mu lt iplied by t h e r emoldin g in dex (RCI =
CI x RI). Th e RCI expr es s es t h e s oil-s t r en gt h r a t in g of a s oil a r ea s u bject ed
t o s u s t a in ed t r a ffic.
RC r apid cu r in g
RED HORSE r apid en gin eer in g deployable h eavy oper at ion al r epair s qu adr on s , en gin eer in g
r e molda ble s a n d A poor ly dr ain ed, coar s e-gr ain ed s oil, u s u ally con t ain in g 7 per cen t or
mor e mat er ial pas s in g a No. 200 s ieve. Poor in t er n a l dr a in a ge in cr ea s es t h e
wa t er con t en t gr ea t ly in flu en cin g t h e t r a ffica bilit y ch a r a ct er is t ics a n d
per mit t in g t h e r emoldin g t es t t o be per for med. Wh en wet , t h es e s oils r ea ct
t o t r a ffic in a ma n n er s imila r t o fin e-gr a in ed s oils a n d a r e mor e s en s it ive t o
r emoldin g.
r e m ol d i n g Th e ch an gin g or wor kin g of a s oil by t r affic or a r emoldin g t es t . Th e ben e-
ficia l, n eu t r a l, or det r imen t a l effect s of r emoldin g ma y ch a n ge s oil s t r en gt h .
r e moldin g in de x (RI) Th e r a t io of r emolded s oil s t r en gt h t o or igin a l s t r en gt h . Soil con dit -
ion s t h a t per mit t h e r emoldin g t es t t o be per for med wit h ea s e will u s u a lly
r es u lt in a los s of s t r en gt h .
Re qd r equ ir ed
r e qu i r e d t owi n g for c e (T2 ) Th e for ce in pou n ds r equ ir ed t o t ow an oper able, power ed
veh icle on level t er r ain .
R I r emoldin g in dex
r i p r a p Rocks or r u bble pla ced in t h e bot t om a n d on t h e s ides of a dit ch t o pr even t
s oil er os ion s .
r i ve r i c i n g An icin g for med a lon g r iver s or s t r ea ms a n d a dja cen t a r ea s h a vin g a s ou r ce
of wat er above or below t h e r iver bed.
r oa d be d Th e en t ir e widt h of s u r fa ce on wh ich a veh icle ma y s t a n d or move. Th e
r oa dbed con s is t s of bot h t h e t r a veled wa y a n d t h e s h ou lder s .
Glossary - 10
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
r oa d c la s s ific a t ion s ys t e m An or ga n ized lis t of fou r r oa d t ypes ba s ed on t h e n u mber of
veh icles each is des ign ed t o accommodat e in a 24-h ou r per iod, Road
ch a r a ct er is t ics a r e ba s ed on a ver a ge da ily t r a ffic.
r oa d wa y
RR
RRR
RS
RT
RTCB
RTO
S
S
S2
S3
s a n d gr id
SC
SC
SCIP
SEATO
s e c
Se p t
SFC
s h ou ld e r
Th e en t ir e widt h wit h in t h e limit s of ea r t h wor k con s t r u ct ion a n d is mea s u r ed
bet ween t h e ou t s ide edges of cu t or fill s lopes . Roa dwa y widt h does n ot
in clu de in t er cept or dit ch es if t h ey fall ou t s ide t h e s lopes , Th e r oadway widt h
va r ies fr om s ect ion t o s ect ion depen din g on t h e h eigh t of cu t or fill, dept h of
dit ch es , an d s lope r at ios .
r a ilr oa d
r a pid r u n wa y r epa ir
r a pid s et t in g
r oa d t a r
r oa d t a r cu t ba ck
r a diot eleph on e oper a t or
Slipper in es s s ymbol mean in g s lipper y at all t imes ,
s an d
In t elligen ce Officer (US Ar my)
Oper a t ion s a n d Tr a in in g Officer (US Ar my)
A h on eycomb s h aped geot ext ile meas u r in g 20 feet by 8 feet by 8 in ch es deep
wh en fu lly expan ded. It is u s ed t o develop a beach h ead for logis t ics -over -t h e-
s h or e oper a t ion s . It is a ls o u s efu l in expedien t r evet men t con s t r u ct ion .
s u pply ca t a log
s low cu r in g
s ca r ify a n d compa ct in pla ce
Sou t h ea s t As ia Tr ea t y Or ga n iza t ion
s econ d
Sept ember
s er gea n t fir s t cla s s
Th a t pa r t of t h e t op s u r fa ce of a n a ppr oa ch emba n kmen t , ca u s ewa y, or cu t
immedia t ely a djoin in g t h e r oa dwa y t h a t a ccommoda t es s t opped veh icles in
emer gen cies an d lat er ally s u ppor t s bas e an d s u r face cou r s es .
Glossary - 11
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
s h ou lde r s lope s Th es e ma y be t h e s a me a s t h e t r a veled wa y, bu t u s u a lly t h ey a r e gr ea t er
beca u s e s h ou lder s a r e mor e pr eviou s t h a n t h e s u r fa ce cou r s e.
s i gh t di s t a n c e r e s t r i c t i on fa c t or Th e per cen t of t h e t ot a l len gt h of t h e r oa d on wh ich t h e
s l i p p e r i n e s s
s lop e
s lope r a t io
SM
SOP
SP
s pr i n g i c i n g
s q
s q ft
s q in
Sr
SS
SSG
s t a
STANAG
s t i c k i n e s s
s t i lli n g ba s i n
s igh t dis t an ce is les s t h an 1,500 feet .
Th e low t r a ct ion ca pa cit y of a t h in s oil s u r fa ce owin g t o it s lu br ica t ion by
wa t er or mu d wit h ou t t h e occu r r en ce of s ign ifica n t veh icle s in ka ge.
Th e in clin ed s u r fa ce of a n exca va t ed cu t or a n emba n kmen t .
Th e r elat ive s t eepn es s of t h e s lope expr es s ed as a r at io of h or izon t al dis t an ce
t o ver t ical dis t an ce. Th u s , a 2:1 s lope r at io s ign ifies t h at for ever y 2 feet
h or izon t a lly t h er e is a r is e or fa ll of 1 foot . Th e valu e of t h e s lope r at io u s ed
in con s t r u ct ion depen ds on t h e pr oper t ies of t h e s oil a n d t h e ver t ica l h eigh t
of t h e s lope. Dit ch s lopes ma y a ls o be gover n ed by t h e a mou n t of wa t er t o be
dr ain ed an d t h e pos s ibilit y of er os ion .
s ilt y s an ds an d poor ly gr aded s an d-s ilt mixt u r e
s t an din g oper at in g pr ocedu r e
poor ly gr aded s an d
An icin g wh os e s ou r ce of wa t er is fr om s u bper ma n en t levels .
s qu a r e
s qu a r e feet
s qu a r e in ch
s en ior
s low s et t in g
s t a ff s er gea n t
s t a t ion
St a n da r diza t ion Agr eemen t
Th e a bilit y of a s oil t o a dh er e t o t h e veh icle u n der ca r r ia ge or r u n n in g gea r .
A s t r u ct u r e u s ed t o pr ot ect t h e cu lver t ou t let a ga in s t er os ion .
s u bba s e or s u bgr a de Des cr ibes t h e in s it u s oil on wh ich a r oad, air field, or h elipor t is
bu ilt . Th e s u bgr a de in clu des s oil t o t h e dept h t h a t ma y a ffect t h e s t r u ct u r a l
des ign of t h e pr oject or t h e dept h a t wh ich clima t e a ffect s t h e s oil.
s u bs u r fa c e wa t e r Wa t er ben ea t h t h e s u r fa ce of t h e la n d.
Glossary - 12
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FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
s u p e r e l e v a t i o n Th e t r a n s ver s e down wa r d s lope fr om t h e ou t s ide t o t h e in s ide of t h e
t r a veled wa y on a cu r ve. It is u s u ally expr es s ed in in ch es of dr op per
h or izon t a l foot or foot -dr op per h or izon t a l foot .
s u r fa c e c ou r s e Th e s u r fa ce cou r s e pr ovides a s moot h , h a r d s u r fa ce on wh ich t h e t r a ffic
moves . It ma y be con s t r u ct ed fr om a s ph a lt or t a r pr odu ct s , con cr et e, gr a vel,
or compa ct ed ea r t h wit h cer t a in t ypes of bin der s . Th e s u r fa ce cou r s e s h ou ld
be all-weat h er an d s h ou ld pr ovide for t h e r apid r u n off of wat er . Th e u s e of
t r ea t ed s u r fa ces is limit ed t o r oa ds t h a t h a ve a lon g des ign life. A divis ion a l
r oa d wit h a life expect a n cy of 6 mon t h s or les s will r eceive on ly a n ea r t h or
gr avel s u r face.
SUSV s mall-u n it s u ppor t veh icle
SW s ou t h wes t
SW well-gr a ded s a n d
T1 ma ximu m t owin g for ce
T2 r equ ir ed t owin g for ce
TBM t empor a r y ben ch ma r k
TC t r a in in g cir cu la r
t e m p t emper a t u r e
t i me of c on c e n t r a t i on (TOC) Th e t ime it t a kes for a n en t ir e dr a in a ge ba s in t o begin
con t r ibu t in g r u n off t o a dr a in a ge s t r u ct u r e.
TM
t ech n ica l ma n u a l
TN a ir t r a n s por t
TO t h ea t er of oper a t ion s
TOE t a ble(s ) of or ga n iza t ion a n d equ ipmen t
TP t r a n s it ion poin t
t r a c t i on c a pa c i t y Th e a bilit y of s oil t o r es is t t h e veh icle t r ea d t h r u s t r equ ir ed for s t eer in g
an d pr opu ls ion .
t r a ffi c la n e Th e t r a ffic la n e con s is t s of t h e r oa d s u r fa ce over wh ich a s in gle la n e of t r a ffic
will pas s ,
t r a n s p i r a t i on Th e pr oces s by wh ich wa t er t h a t h a s t r a veled fr om t h e gr ou n d t h r ou gh t h e
pla n t s s ys t em is r et u r n ed t o t h e a ir t h r ou gh t h e lea f s ys t em.
t r a ve le d wa y Th e r oad s u r face u pon wh ich all veh icles move or t r avel. For a s in gle-lan e
r oa d, t h e t r a veled wa y is t h e s a me a s on e t r a ffic la n e. For a mu lt ila n e r oa d,
t h e t r a veled wa y is t h e s u m of t h e t r a ffic la n es , If a s u r fa ce cou r s e is
pr ovided, it n or ma lly ext en ds on ly a cr os s t h e t r a veled wa y.
Glossary - 13
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
t u r bu le n t flow Th e t ype of flow t h a t occu r s wh en vis cos it y for ces a r e r ela t ively wea k a n d
t h e in dividu a l wa t er pa r t icles move in r a n dom pa t t er n s wit h in t h e a ggr ega t e
for wa r d-flow pa t t er n .
US Un it ed St a t es
USAES US Ar my En gin eer Sch ool
Us e s Un ified Soil Clas s ificat ion Sys t em
UXO u n exploded or dn an ce
VC vit r ified clay
ve h i c le c on e i n de x (VCI) Th e in dex a s s ign ed t o a given veh icle t h a t in dica t es t h e min imu m
s oil s t r en gt h in t er ms of r a t in g con e in dex (or con e in dex for coa r s e-gr a in ed
s oil) r equ ir ed for on e pas s or ot h er pas s es (VCI) of t h e veh icle.
Us u a lly on e a n d fift y pa s s es a r e u s ed a s ext r emes .
VMC
Vol
W1
W2
w/
w/ o
WF
wp
W. R. C.
wt
WT
yd
yr
<
>
vis u a l met eor ologica l con dit ion s
volu me
weigh t of a t owin g veh icle
weigh t of a t owed veh icle
wit h
wit h ou t
wa s t e fa ct or
wet t ed per imet er
wir e r ope cable
weigh t
weigh t t ype
ya r d
yea r
les s t h a n
les s t h a n or equ a l t o
gr ea t er t h a n
gr ea t er t h a n or equ a l t o
ch a n ge of gr a de
Glossary - 14
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
REFERENCES
SOURCES USED
Th es e a r e t h e s ou r ces qu ot ed or pa r a ph r a s ed in t h is pu blica t ion .
St a n da r di za t i on Agr e e me n t s (STANAGs a n d QSTAGs )
QSTAG 306, Fortification for Park ed Aircraft 14 J u n e 1978.
STANAG 2929. Airfield Damage Repair. 11 J an u ar y 1989.
STANAG 3346 AML (Edit ion 4). Mark ing and Lighting of Airfield Obs tructions .
17 Oct ober 1988.
STANAG 3601 TN (Edit ion 3). Criteria for Selection and Mark ing of Landing Zones for Fixed
Wing Trans port Aircraft. 2 J u ly 1985.
STANAG 3619 AML (Edit ion 2, Amen dmen t 2). Helipad Mark ing. 7 Oct ober 1980.
STANAG 3652 AML (Amen dmen t 3). Helipa d fighting, Vis ual Met eor ologica l Con dit ion s .
1 Mar ch 1979.
STANAG 3685 AML. Airfield Portable Mark ing. 26 April 1988.
J oi n t a n d Mu lt i s e r vi c e Pu bli c a t i on s
AR 415-30/ AFR 93-10. Troop Cons truction and Engineering Support of the Air Force
Overs eas . 15 May 1979.
FM 5-430-00-2/ AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 2. Planning and Des ign of Roads , Airfields , and Heli-
ports in the Theater of Operations : Volu me 2, Air field an d Helipor t Des ign . To be pu blis h ed
wit h in s ix mon t h s .
FM 5-530. Materials Tes ting. (NAVFAC MO-330; AFM 89-3.) 17 Au gu s t 1987.
TM 5-624. Maintenance and Repair of Surface Areas . (NAVFAC MO-102: AFR 85-8.)
31 Mar ch 1977.
TM 5-822-2. General Provis ions and Geometic Des ign for Roads , Streets , Walk s , and
Open Storage Areas . (NAVFAC DM-5.5; AFM 88-7, Ch ap 5,) 14 J u ly 1987.
TM 5-822-5, Pavement Des ign for Roads , Streets , Walk s , and Open St or a ge Area s .
(AFM 88-7, Ch ap 1.) 12 J u n e 1992,
TM 5-825-2. Flexible Pavement Des igns for Airfields . (NAVFAC DM-21. 3; AFM 88-6. )
1 Au gu s t 1978.
TM 5-852-7. Surface Drainage Des ign for Airfields and Heliports in Arctic and Subarctic
Regions (AFM 88-19, Ch ap 7.) 15 Apr il 1981,
Ai r For c e Pu bli c a t i on s
AFR 93-2. Contingency Res pons e Planning. 19 J a n u a r y 1990.
Ar m y Pu bl i c a t i on s
FM 5-34. Engineer Field Data. 14 Sept ember 1987,
FM 5-36. Route Reconnais s ance and Clas s ification. 10 May 1985.
FM 5-233. Cons truction S urvery ing. 4 J an u ar y 1985.
FM 5-250. Explos ives and Demolitions . 15 J u n e 1992.
FM 5-410. Military S oils Engineering. 23 December 1992.
FM 5-434. Earthmoving Operations . 30 Sept ember 1992.
References - 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-446. Military Nons tand ard Fixed Brid ging. 3 J u n e 1991.
MIL-STD-621. Tes t Methods for Pavement Subgrade, Subbas e, and Bas e Cours e Material.
22 December 1964.
SC-6635 -98-CL-E02-HR. Hand Receipt Catalog Covering Content of Tes t Set, Soil.
19 April 1982.
Special Repor t 83-27. Revis ed Procedures for Pavement Des ign Under Seas onal Fros t
Con dit ion s , US Ar my Cor ps of En gin eer s . Office of t h e Ch ief of En gin eer s , Wa s h in gt on ,
DC 20314. Sept ember 1983.
TM 5-232. Elements of S urvey ing. 1 J u n e 1971.
TM 5-302-Ser ies . Army Facilities Components Sy s tem: Des ign. 28 Sept ember 1973.
TM 5-332. Pits and Quarries . 15 December 1967.
TM 5-337. Paving and S urfacing Operations . 21 Febr u a r y 1966.
TC 5-340. Air Bas e Damage Repair (Pavement Repair]. 27 Decemb er 1 9 8 8 .
Non m i l i t a r y Pu bl i c a t i on s
ASTM D1557. Soil and Soil Aggregate Mixture Us ing 10 Pounds 4.54KJ Rammer and 18-Inch
457 mm Dr op, Mois t u r e Den s it y Rela t ion of 27 Apr 78. 1989.
ASTM D1633. Compres s ion Strength of Molded Soils Cementing Cy linders . 1 9 9 0 .
ASTM D3786. Tes t Method for Hy draulic Burs ting Strength of Knitted Goods and Nonw oven
Fa br ics : Dia ph r a gm Bu r s t in g St r en gt h Tes t er Met h od. 1987.
ASTM D4533. Tes t Method for Trapez oid Tearing Strength of Geotextiles . 1 9 9 1 .
ASTM D4632. Tes t Method for Break ing Load and Elongation of Geotextiles (Grab Method).
1991.
ASTM D4833. Tes t Method for Index Puncture Res is tance of Geotextiles Geomembranes ,
an d Relat ed Pr odu ct s . 1988.
DOCUMENTS NEEDED
Th es e docu men t s mu s t be a va ila ble t o t h e in t en ded u s er s of t h is pu blica t ion .
DA For m 1248. Road Reconnais s ance Report . J u ly 1960.
DA For m 1711-R. Engineer Reconnais s ance Report (LRA). Ma y 1985.
DA For m 2028. Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank For ms . Febr u a r y 1974.
DD For m 2641. Trafficability Tes t Data. Au gu s t 1993
References - 2
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013. Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
INDEX
A
AASHTO. See Amer ica n As s ocia t ion of St a t e High wa y a n d Tr a n s por t a t ion Officia ls
(AASHTO) met h od T96.
a bn or ma l s t r en gt h pr ofile, 7-8
ADR. See a ir field a n d h elipor t ma in t en a n ce, a ir ba s e da ma ge r epa ir (ADR).
ADT. See a ver a ge da ily t r a ffic (ADT).
aer ial ph ot o, 7-28
aggr egat e, 9-55
bit u min ou s con s t r u ct ion , 9-47
des ir able ch ar act er is t ics , 9-47
iden t ificat ion , 9-47
r ollin g, 9-56
s pr eadin g, 9-56
t r affic con t r ol, 9-57. See als o r oa d ma in t en a n ce, wit h t r a ffic a n d ba t on met h od.
AHD. See a ver a ge h a u l dis t a n ce (AHD).
air field an d h elipor t main t en an ce, 8-17
air bas e damage r epair (ADR). 8-17
Air For ce r es pon s ibilit ies , 8-17
Ar my r es pon s ibilit ies , 8-17
ice con t r ol, 8-20. See als o ice con t r ol.
main t en an ce du r in g flyin g oper at ion s , 8-21
mu d con t r ol, 8-18
r eh abilit at ion of capt u r ed air fields , 8-21
s n ow r emoval, 8-20
t u r f s u r faces , 8-18
align men t , 2-3, 9-6
allu vial t er r aces , 2-2
Amer ica n As s ocia t ion of St a t e High wa y a n d Tr a n s por t a t ion Officia ls (AASHTO) met h od T96,
9-48
Ar my t r a ck. See r oa ds , Ar my t r a ck.
as ph alt dis t r ibu t or , 9-57
a s ph a lt pa vemen t , min imu m t h ickn es s , 9-71
as ph alt s an d t ar s , 9-45
aver age daily t r affic (ADT), 9-4
aver age h au l dis t an ce (AHD), 3-23
B
balan ce lin es , 3-22
ba t on met h od, 8-11. See als o r oa d ma in t en a n ce, wit h t r a ffic
bas e cou r s e, 5-10
compact ion , 5-11
gr adat ion , 5-11
liqu id limit , 5-11
Index - 7
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FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
mat er ials , 5-11, 5-12
n a t u r a l ma t er ia ls , 5-13
ot h er ma t er ia ls , 5-14
plas t icit y in dex, 5-11
pr oces s ed mat er ials , 5-13
r equ ir emen t s , 5-11
bas e flow, 6-9
ber m, 6-51
bit u min ou s
bas e, 5-15
mat er ials , 9-41
pavemen t s , 9-69
cold-laid, bit u min ou s -con cr et e plan t mix, 9-69
des ign , 9-71
des ign s t eps , 9-73
h ot -mix, bit u min ou s -con cr et e, 9-69
pen et r a t ion ma ca da m, 9-69
r oad mix, 9-69
s an d as ph alt mix, 9-69
s an d-t ar mix, 9-69
s h eet as ph alt mix, 9-69
s t on e-filled s h eet as ph alt mix, 9-69
t ypes an d u s es , 9-69
bit u min ou s s u r fa ces . See ma in t en a n ce, bit u min ou s s u r fa ces .
blin d dr ain . See s u bs u r face dr ain age, t ech n iqu es , blin d dr ain s .
box-cu lver t flow, 6-77
br idge appr oach es , 2-3
bridges , 6-113. See a ls o r oa d ma in t en a n ce, for ds a n d br idges .
Bu r ea u of Recla ma t ion , 6-125
bu r n in g pit s , See for es t clea r in g con s ider a t ion s , wa s t e a r ea s , bu r n in g pit s ,
c
C var iable, See r a t ion a l met h od of es t ima t in g r u n off, for mu la va r ia bles , C va r ia ble.
CAD, See en d-a r ea -det er min a t ion met h od, compu t er -a ided des ign (CAD).
calciu m ch lor ide, 8-7, See als o ice con t r ol, ca lciu m ch lor ide a n d ma in t en a n ce, gr a vel
s u r faces , u s e of calciu m ch lor ide,
CAMMS. See Con den s ed Ar my Mobilit y Modelin g Sys t em,
ca mou fla ge. See for es t clea r in g con s ider a t ion s , ca mou fla ge a n d t a ct ica l con s ider a t ion s ,
ca mou fla ge.
cau s eways , 6-112
CBR, 5-1. See als o des ign CBR, va lu es a n d r oa ds , CBR r equ ir emen t s .
cemen t gr ades , 9-45
ch an n el flow. See dit ch es , t ypes of flow, ch an n el.
ch a n n els
con s t r u ct ion a n d ma in t en a n ce, 6-53
s pecial, 6-51
Index - 2
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FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
gu t t er s , 6-51
median , 6-51
ch ar act er is t ics of gr as s es , 8-19
ch eck dams , 8-3
ch es pa lin g. See r oa ds , ch es pa lin g.
ch or d-len gt h calcu lat ion s , 9-14
CI. See con e in dex (CI).
clea r in g equ ipmen t . See clear in g, s t r ippin g, an d gr u bbin g; clear in g wit h equ ipmen t ,
clear in g, s t r ippin g, an d gr u bbin g, 4-1
clea r in g wit h equ ipmen t , 4-6
ext r eme s lopes , 4-12
gr ader , 4-15
lar ge t r ees , 4-9
mediu m t r ees , 4-8
ripper, 4-15
Rome plow, 4-10
s mall t r ees , 4-8
t r a ct or -mou n t ed win ch es , 4-13
t r ee dozer , 4-10
t r u ck-mou n t ed win ch es , 4-14
win ch es , 4-13
win dr owin g. 4-11
clear in g wit h explos ives , 4-15
bou lder s , 4-15
t r ees an d s t u mps , 4-15
fellin g equ ipmen t , 4-14
limit at ion s of en gin eer equ ipmen t , 4-7, 4-8
per for man ce t ech n iqu es , 4-6
pr oper applicat ion of en gin eer equ ipmen t , 4-6
r emovin g bu r ied explos ives , 4-17
u n exploded or dn an ce (UXO), 4-17
r emovin g s t r u ct u r es , 4-17
r emovin g s u r face r ocks , 4-15
s t r ippin g, 4-17
u n s u it able s oil, 4-17
climat e clas s ificat ion s of for es t s , 4-1
dr y for es t s , 4-2
mon s oon for es t s , 4-2
r ain for es t s , 4-2
t emper a t e for es t s , 4-1
CMP, See cu lver t s , cor r u ga t ed met a l pipe (CMP).
coar s e-gr ain ed s oils , 7-37, See als o s t r en gt h pr ofile, coar s e-gr ain ed s oils .
oper at ion s , 7-26
cold climat es , h ydr au lic cr it er ia, 6-102
compa ct ion , 5-4
cla ys t h a t los e s t r en gt h , 5-6
s elect mat er ials , 5-9
s ilt s , 5-6
s u bbas e mat er ials , 5-9
s wellin g s oils , 5-7
Index - 3
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
Con den s ed Ar my Mobilit y Modelin g Sys t em (CAMMS), 7-1
con e in dex (CI), 7-2
r an ge, 7-5
r equ ir emen t s , equ ipmen t , D-1
con e pen et r omet er , 7-4
con s t r u ct ion
air field, 1-2
Air For ce r es pon s ibilit ies 1-2
Ar my r es pon s ibilit ies , 1-2
dr ain age, 6-1
met h ods , 9-49
oper at ion s , 5-15
blen din g an d mixin g, 5-16
compa ct in g, 5-16
fin e gr adin g, 5-15
fin is h in g, 5-17
h au lin g: placin g, an d s pr eadin g, 5-16
wa t er in g ba s e ma t er ia ls , 5-16
r oad, 1-2
con s t r u ct ion s t a kes , 3-3
a lign men t , 3-3
cen t er lin e, 3-3
cu lver t , 3-6
fin is h -gr ade, 3-5
h u b, 3-3
offs et , 3-5
r efer en ce, 3-6
s lope, 3-4
con s t r u ct ion s u r veys , 3-1
ben ch mar ks , 3-6
ea r t h wor k es t ima t ion , 3-6
fin al locat ion , 3-2
h or izon t a l con t r ol, 3-2
ver t ical con t r ol, 3-2
la you t , 3-2
pr elimin ar y, 3-2
r econ n a is s a n ce, 3-2
cor a l, See ma in t en a n ce, cor a l s u r fa ces .
cor du r oy. See r oa ds , cor du r oy-s u r fa ced.
cor r u ga t ion s , 8-6
cu t backs , 9-45
cover ed-a ggr ega t e s u r fa ce t r ea t men t . See s u r fa ce t r ea t men t s , cover ed a ggr ega t e,
cr it ical layer , 7-3
dept h var iat ion s , 7-3
cr it ical s lope, 6-77
cr own ed s ect ion , 9-25
cu lver t s , 6-59
align men t , 6-60
Index - 4
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
as s emblin g n es t able CMP, 6-59
ba ckfill, 6-70
beddin g (fou n dat ion s ), 6-68
con cr et e box, 6-60
con cr et e pipe, 6-59
cor r u gat ed met al pipe (CMP), 6-59
cover , 6-63
dept h of fill, 6-63
des ign , 6-73
wit h s u bmer ged in let s , 6-77
wit h u n s u bmer ged in let s , 6-78
er os ion con t r ol, 6-72
h eadwalls , win g walls , an d apr on s , 6-71
h ydr au lics , 6-73
maximu m per mis s ible cover for CMP, 6-68
ma ximu m per mis s ible cover for cor r u ga t ed a lu min u r n -a lloy pipe, 6-69
s lope, 6-62
t ypes an d des ign s , 6-59
con s t r u ct ion , 6-60
des ign , 6-73
expedien t , 6-60
per man en t , 6-59
cu r ves
1-degr ee met h od, 9-8, F-1
compou n d, 9-7
h or izon t a l, 9-7
des ign , 9-10
poin t of cu r vat u r e (PC), 9-7
poin t of in t er s ect ion (PI), 9-7
poin t of t an gen t (PT), 9-7
r ever s e, 9-6
s imple, 9-6
s pir al, 9-7
ver t ical, 9-19
allowable r at e of ch an ge of gr ade (r ), 9-20
ch an ge of gr ade (AG), 9-20
des ign , 9-20
elemen t s , 9-19
fr equ en cy of placin g s u r vey s t akes , 9-20
len gt h det er min a t ion , 9-20
len gt h fact or (k), 9-20
s igh t dis t an ce (S), 9-20
t ypes , 9-19
u s in g met r ic u n it s , 9-25
cu r ve t ables , F-1
cu t oper at ion , 3-20
D
DBH. See t r ee dia met er s a t br ea s t h eigh t (DBH)
des ign
in dex, 9-59
Index - 5
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
pn eu mat ic-t ir ed veh icles , 9-59
life, 9-60
s pecial con s ider at ion s , 9-75
fr os t , 9-75
s t abilized s oil, 9-75
des ign CBR
bas e cou r s e, aggr egat e s u r faces , 9-63
bas e cou r s e, flexible pavemen t , 9-70
va lu es
s elect ion , 5-10
s u bs oil, 5-7
s u bgr ade, 5-7
des ign con s ider at ion s , 5-1
pa vemen t s t r u ct u r es , 5-1
des ign h ou r ly volu me (DHV), 9-4
det en t ion . See dr a in a ge, h ydr ology, det en t ion .
DHV. See des ign h ou r ly volu me (DHV).
dips , 6-111
dis s ipat or s , 6-125
dit ch es
des ign con s ider at ion s , 6-45
locat ion , 6-45
pr opos ed lin in g, 6-45
qu a n t it y of r u n off (Q), 6-45
s lope (S), 6-45
des ign t ech n iqu es , 6-46
s t eps , 6-46
diver s ion , 6-38
in t er cept or , 6-38
lon git u din al s lope or gr ade (S), 6-43
n on s ymmet r ica l, 6-39
s ide, 6-38
s ide-s lope
back, 6-39
dit ch , 6-39
fr on t , 6-39
n on s ymmet r ica l, 6-39
r at io, 6-39
s ymmet r ical, 6-39
t r apezoidal, 6-39
t r ia n gu la r , 6-39
t ypes of flow, 6-40
con t in u ou s , 6-40
lamin ar , 6-40
open ch an n el, 6-40
s t eady, 6-40
t u r bu len t , 6-40
u n ifor m, 6-40
V-t ype, 6-39
velocit y of flow (V), 6-42
dit ch in g, 6-3
Index - 6
in t er cept ion , 6-3
dr ags , 8-4
dr a in a ge. See a ls o con s t r u ct ion , dr a in a ge.
bas e, 6-92
des ign in ar ct ic an d s u bar ct ic r egion s , 6-102
h ydr ology, 6-4
det en t ion , 6-4
in filt r a t ion , 6-4
in t er cept in g, 6-92
in t er cept ion , 6-4
pr ecipit a t ion , 6-4
r u n off, 6-4, 6-8
s t or ms , 6-4
s u bgr ade, 6-92
t r a n s pir a t ion , 6-4
wea t h er da t a , 6-6
dr ain age-s ys t em des ign , 6-11
available r es ou r ces , 6-11
des ign dat a r equ ir emen t s , 6-11
met eor ologica l da t a , 6-11
pr ocedu r es , 6-11
delin eat in g wat er s h eds , 6-13
des ign in g for ma ximu m r u n off, 6-19
det er min in g a r ea con t r ibu t in g r u n off, 6-12
det er min in g s ize, 6-17
es t ablis h in g dr ain age-s t r u ct u r e locat ion s , 6-12
es t ima t in g qu a n t it y of r u n off, 6-19
s oil ch ar act er is t ics , 6-11
t opogr a ph ica l in for ma t ion , 6-11
dr op in let s an d gr at in gs , 6-89
main t en an ce, 6-91
dr y s eas on , 7-27
du s t con t r ol, 8-5
du s t pr oofin g, 9-51
E
ear t h wor k, 2-3
oper at ion s , 2-3
ear t h wor k volu me s h eet , 3-18
edge r avelin g, 8-8
emu ls ion s , 9-47
en d-a r ea -det er min a t ion met h ods , 3-7
compu t er -aided des ign (CAD), 3-13
dou ble-mer idian t r ian gle, 3-10
plan imet er , 3-12
s t r ipper , 3-9
t r apezoidal, 3-7
Index - 7
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
en gin eer in g fabr ics , 9-77.
en gin eer in g s t u dy, 1-3
en t r a n ces . See en t r a n ces , exit s , a n d s egmen t s .
en t r an ces , exit s , an d s egmen t s , 9-60.
en vir on men t al con dit ion s , 4-1
EOD, See explos ive or dn a n ce dis pos a l (EOD).
equ ivalen cy fact or s , applicat ion , 9-75
er os ion con t r ol, 6-54, 6-114. See als o cu lver t s , er os ion con t r ol,
cu lver t ou t let s , 6-124
cu lver t t r an s it ion s , 6-124
plain ou t let s , 6-124
s t illin g bas in s , 6-125
es t ima t in g r u n off. See r a t ion a l met h od of es t ima t in g r u n off.
exit s . See en t r a n ces , exit s , a n d s egmen t s .
explos ive or dn an ce dis pos al (EOD), 4-17
ext er n al dis t an ce, 9-9
F
fabr ics , 9-77
field iden t ificat ion , 9-41
fill oper at ion , 3-20
fin e-gr ain ed s oils , 7-36. See als o s t r en gt h pr ofile, fin e-gr ain ed s oils .
flexible-pavemen t s t r u ct u r e, 9-69
bit u min ou s -pa vemen t mix, 9-71
bit u min ou s -pa vemen t t h ickn es s r equ ir emen t , 9-71
compa ct ion r equ ir emen t s , 9-71
mat er ials , 9-70
min imu m bas e-cou r s e t h ickn es s , 9-71
s elect mat er ials an d s u bbas e, 9-70
s u pply s ou r ces , 9-70
t ypical flexible-pavemen t s ect ion , 5-1
fligh t -wa y obs t r u ct ion s , 2-4
glide an gle, 2-4
flow. See dit ch es , t ypes of flow.
for ds , 6-107, See als o r oa d ma in t en a n ce, for ds a n d br idges .
appr oach es , 6-110
bot t om ma t er ia l, 6-108
ch an n el con dit ion , 6-110
cr os s s ect ion , 6-110
flood flow 6-110
h igh -wa t er det er min a t ion , 6-109
main t en an ce, 6-111
mar kin g. 6-111
r econ n a is s a n ce, 6-108
Index - 8
s t r eam velocit y, 6-110
for es t clear in g con s ider at ion s , 4-4
air field appr oach zon es , 4-6
ca mou fla ge, 4-4
dis pos al, 4-5
per ma fr os t , 4-4
s afet y, 4-4
t empor a r y dr a in a ge, 4-4
t imber s alvage, 4-4
wa s t e a r ea s , 4-5
bu r n in g, 4-5
bu r n in g pit s , 4-5
clear in g an d pilin g s t u mps , 4-6
du mps , 4-5
fir e con t r ol, 4-5
log piles , 4-6
off-s it e ar eas , 4-5
r evet men t s , 4-5
for es t t ypes , 4-1. See als o clima t e cla s s ifica t ion s of for es t s .
Fr en ch dr ain . See s u bs u r face dr ain age, t ech n iqu es , Fr en ch dr ain s .
fr os t
boils , 8-16
h eaves , 8-16
s pecial con s ider at ion s , 5-15
fr os t a ct ion pot en t ia l, 5-10
fr os t des ign for r oads , G-1
fr os t s u s cept ibilit y of s u bgr ade, 5-8
fu t u r e expan s ion , 2-5
G
gabion s , 6-119
in s t allat ion , 6-120
u s es , 6-122
geofabr ics , 9-77
geologic an d per mafr os t con dit ion s , 4-2
h ar dpan or r ock, 4-2
in u n da t ed, ma r s h y, a n d boggy a r ea s , 4-2
per ma fr os t , 4-2
geology, 2-2
r ock ou t cr oppin g, 2-2
s edimen t ar y r ocks , 2-2
geomet r ic des ign pr oces s , 9-1
geomet r ic for mu la s , B-1
geot ext iles , 9-77
glide an gle. See fligh t -way obs t r u ct ion s , glide an gle,
gr ade det er min at ion , 9-19
Index - 9
FM 5--430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
gr ade lin e, 5-4
gr ader . See clear in g, s t r ippin g, an d gr u bbin g; clear in g wit h equ ipmen t ,
gr a da t ion r equ ir emen t s , 9-29
gr a s s es . See ch a r a ct er is t ics of ga s s es .
gr at in g, 6-89
gr ou n d cover , 2-4
gu n it e lin in g, 6-115
H
h or izon t a l-cu r ve elemen t s . See cu r ves , h or izon t a l.
h ydr oph obic, 9-48
h ydr a u lic cr it er ia for cold clima t es . See cold climat es , h ydr au lic cr it er ia.
h ydr au lic gr adien t , 6-74
h ydr au lic r adiu s (R), 6-45
calcu lat in g, 6-46
h ydr au lics of cu lver t s . See cu lver t s , h ydr au lics .
h ydr au lic t ables an d cu r ves , C-l
h ydr ogr aph y con s t r u ct ion , 6-10
h ydr ologic t ables an d cu r ves , C-1
h ydr ology. See dr a in a ge, h ydr ology.
I
I var iable. See r a t ion a l met h od of es t ima t in g r u n off, for mu la va r ia bles , I va r ia ble.
ice con t r ol. See als o a ir field a n d h elipor t ma in t en a n ce, ice con t r ol a n d r oa d ma in t en a n ce,
win t er , s u r fa ce ice con t r ol,
abr as ives , 8-15
calciu m ch lor ide, 8-15
mech an ical r emoval, 8-15
s alt s , 8-15
ice r oad. See r oads , s n ow an d ice.
icin g, 6-105
gr ou n d, 6-106, 6-107
meas u r es again s t , 6-107
river, 6-106, 6-107
s pr in g, 6-107
t ypes , 6-105
in filt r a t ion . See dr a in a ge, h ydr ology, in filt r a t ion .
in t en s it y-du r a t ion cu r ves . See s t a n da r d r a in fa ll in t en s it y-du r a t ion cu r ves .
in t er cept ion . See dr a in a ge, h ydr ology, in t er cept ion a n d dr a in a ge, in t er cept ion .
Index-10
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
L
lag t ime, 6-9
la min a r flow. See dit ch es , t ypes of flow, la min a r .
lan d clear in g, 4-1
la n din g ma t s . See r oa ds , la n din g ma t s .
la you t t ech n iqu es , 9-15
len gt h of cu r ve (L), 9-9
level t er r ain
all-wh eeI dr ive veh icles , 7-12, 7-25
s elf-propelled veh icles , 7-12
t r acked veh icles , 7-12, 7-24
veh icles t owin g in oper able, power ed veh icles , 7-17, 7-18
veh icles t owin g ot h er veh icles , 7-14
load dis t r ibu t ion , 5-2
LOC. See pr econ s t r u ct ion ph a s e, loca t ion fa ct or s , lin es of commu n ica t ion (LOC).
M
ma ca da m, 5-14
applyin g s cr een in gs , 5-17
compact in g, 5-17
pr epar in g s u bgr ade, 5-17
s pecial pr ocedu r es for bas e, 5-17
s pr eadin g, 5-17
ma in t en a n ce
bit u min ou s s u r faces , 8-7
in s pect ion , 8-7
pat ch es , 8-7
main t en an ce of s h ou lder s , 8-7
t empor ar y r epair s , 8-7
cor al s u r faces , 8-8
cr at er r epair , 8-8
dr ain age, 8-2
cu lver t s , 8-3
dit ch es , 8-3
s h ou lder s , 8-3
s u r face, 8-3
gr avel s u r faces , 8-5
r epair of pot h oles , 8-6
t r ea t men t of cor r u ga t ion s , 8-6
u s e of calciu m ch lor ide, 8-7
in s pect ion s , 8-2
dr ain age, 8-2
s u r face, 8-2
ma t er ia ls , 8-2
n on paved s u r faces , 8-3
oiled s u r faces , 8-5
pr oces s ed mat er ial s u r faces , 8-7
r igid pavemen t s , 8-8
Index - 11
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
s t abilized s oil s u r faces , 8-8
pot h oles , 8-8
r avels , 8-8
main t en an ce an d r epair of s u r faces , 8-1, 9-58
act ivit ies , 8-1
bit u min ou s in s pect ion , 9-58
gu idelin es , 8-1
oper at ion s , 8-2
pat ch es , 9-58
s h ou lder s , 9-58
t empor ar y r epair s , 9-58
Man n in gs velocit y of flow, 6-42
ma ps
geologic, 7-29
s oils , 7-29
t opogr aph ic, 7-29
ma r gin a l ma t er ia l, 2-4
ma s s dia gr a m, 3-19
limit a t ion s , 3-28
pr oper t ies , 3-20, 3-21
ma ximu m h a u l dis t a n ce, 3-22
met r ic con ver s ion s , A-1
MI. See mobilit y in dex (MI).
middle or din at e, 9-9
mobilit y in dex (MI), 7-19
calcu lat in g, 7-20
mu d con t r ol. See a ir field a n d h elipor t ma in t en a n ce, mu d con t r ol.
mu lt iple s u r fa ce t r ea t men t . See s u r fa ce t r ea t men t , mu lt iple.
N
NATO Refer en ce Mobilit y Model (NRMM), 7-1, 7-26
NRMM. See NATO Refer en ce Mobilit y Model (NRMM).
n ode, 3-20
0
obs t acle cr os s in gs , 2-3
obs t acles , 7-10, 7-11
off-r oad s peed map, 7-31
Office of t h e Ch ief of En gin eer s , 2-7
on e-pas s per for man ce, 7-12
open ch an n els . See als o dit ch es , t ypes of flow, open ch an n el.
des ign equ at ion s , 6-42
Index - 12
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
con t in u it y, 6-42
Man n in gs velocit y of flow, 6-42
r ou gh n es s coefficien t (n ), 6-42
des ign fact or s , 6-38
cr os s s ect ion , 6-38
locat ion , 6-38
open s t or age ar ea, s pecial con s ider at ion s , 9-75
or gan ic-s oil ar eas , 7-10
P
pavin g, 6-115
peak flow, 6-10
per for man ce cat egor ies , 7-19
per mafr os t , s pecial con s ider at ion s , 5-15. See als o for es t clear in g con s ider at ion s ,
per ma fr os t a n d geologic a n d per ma fr os t con dit ion s .
plan k-t r ead r oad. See r oads , plan k-t r ead.
plan n in g con s ider at ion s , 1-1
plas t ic gr id. See s an d gr id, plas t ic gr ids .
pen din g, 6-84
advan t ages , 6-89
an alys is , 6-87
ar eas , 6-84
pot en t ial lan din g zon e, 7-32
pr ecipit a t ion . See dr a in a ge, h ydr ology, pr ecipit a t ion ,
pr econ s t r u ct ion ph as e, 2-1
loca t ion fa ct or s , 2-1
exis t in g facilit ies , 2-1
lin es of commu n ica t ion (LOC), 2-1
locat ion an d des ign , 2-1
min imu m r eh a bilit a t ion , 2-1
s oil ch ar act er is t ics , 2-2
s oil in ves t iga t ion pr ior t o con s t r u ct ion , 2-2
pr es wellin g, 5-7
pr ime coat , 9-49
bas e pr epar at ion , 9-49
mat er ials , 9-49
R
r a diu s of cu r va t u r e, 9-9
r at in g con e in dex (RCI), 7-2, 7-9
r a t ion a l met h od of es t ima t in g r u n off, 6-22
applicat ion , 6-28
as s u mpt ion s , 6-22
es t ima t in g flow t ime for mu lt iple cover , 6-28
es t imat in g flow t ime for s in gle cover , 6-26
Index - 13
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
for mu la, 6-22
for mu la var iables , 6-22
C var iable, 6-22
det er min in g TOC, 6-24
I var iable, 6-24
t ime of con cen t r a t ion , 6-24
RCI. See r a t in g con e in dex (RCI).
r econ n ais s an ce, 2-5
air , 2-8
air field, 2-14, 2-15
air , 2-15
gr ou n d, 2-17
air field-s it in g t emplat e, 2-15, 2-16
br iefin g, 2-6
en gin eer , 2-14
exis t in g r oads , 2-11
glide-an gle r equ ir emen t s , 2-15
gr ou n d, 2-8
gr ou n d r econ n ais s an ce r epor t , 2-19
u n developed air field s it e, 2-19
capt u r ed en emy air field, 2-21
locat ion , 2-11
map an d air s t u dies , 2-9
n ew air fields , 2-15
par t y, 2-5
per s on n el s u it able, 2-9
plan n in g, 2-6
pr elimin ar y s t u dy, 2-7
pr epar at ion , 4-2
r epor t in g, 2-8
r ou t e an d r oad, 2-11
s elect in g r u n way locat ion , 2-15
s t eps , 2-6
r efer en cin g poin t , 3-6
r emoldin g in dex (RI), 7-1
r epair of r u n ways , 8-19
r equ ir ed ar eas , 2-4
r evet men t s . See for es t clea r in g con s ider a t ion s , wa s t e a r ea s , r evet men t s ,
RI, See r emoldin g in dex (RI).
r ipper . See clear in g, s t r ippin g, an d gr u bbin g; clear in g wit h equ ipmen t ; r ipper .
r ipr a p
des ign , 6-118
placemen t , 6-116
pr ot ect ion , 6-116
s ize s elect ion , 6-116
r oad des ign , 9-1
geomet r ic pr oces s , 9-1
gr a de a n d a lign men t , 9-6
r oa d ma in t en a n ce, 8-9
for ds an d br idges , 8-16. See als o for ds an d br idges ,
Index - 14
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
pat r ols , 8-10
r epair cr ews , 8-10
win t er , 8-12
s n ow-r emoval equ ipmen t , 8-13, 8-14
s u r face ice con t r ol, 8-15
wit h t r affic, 8-11. See als o ba t on met h od.
r oad t ar s , 9-47
r oa ds
aggr egat e-s u r faced, 9-62
bas e cou r s e, 9-63
CBR r equ ir emen t s , 9-63
compact ion cr it er ia, 9-63
compa ct ion r equ ir emen t s , 9-64
des ign cu r ves , 9-65
des ign s t eps , 9-66
mat er ials , 9-62
s elect an d s u bbas e mat er ials , 9-63
Ar my t r a ck, 9-32
ch es palin g, 9-31
clas s es , 9-59
cor du r oy-s u r fa ced, 9-30
h eavy, 9-30
s t an dar d, 9-30
t ypes , 9-30
wit h s t r in ger s , 9-30
expedien t -s u r faced, 9-30
lan din g mat s , 9-32
plan k-t r ead, 9-32
s n ow an d ice, 9-35
u n s u r faced, 9-61
wir e-mes h , 9-35
Rome plow. See clea r in g, s t r ippin g, a n d gr u bbin g, clea r in g wit h equ ipmen t ; Rome plow.
r ou gh n es s , 6-77
r u bble, 5-15
r u n off. See dr a in a ge, h ydr ology, r u n off.
S
s afe-s lope r at ios , 2-2
s a lt s . See ice con t r ol, s a lt s .
s an d gr id, 9-36
in s t allat ion , 9-37
plas t ic gr ids , 9-36
s cou r , t ypes of, 6-73
s edimen t con t r ol, 6-54
s egmen t s . See en t r a n ces , exit s , a n d s egmen t s .
s elect mat er ials , 5-8, 5-9
s h ou lder s an d s imilar ar eas , 9-75
s h r in kage, 3-17
Index - 15
FM 5-430--00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
s in gle s u r fa ce t r ea t men t . See s u r fa ce t r ea t men t s , s in gle.
s it e s elect ion an d r econ n ais s an ce, 2-1
dr ain age, 2-2
loca t ion fa ct or s , 2-1
s lipperin es s , 7-2, 7-10
s lope, 7-10
s lope n egot iat ion s , 7-11, 7-12
all-wh eel-dr ive veh icles , 7-11
s elf-propelled veh icles , 7-11
t r acked veh icles , 7-11
veh icles t owin g in oper able, power ed veh icles , 7-18
veh icles t owin g ot h er veh icles , 7-15
veh icles t owin g t r ailer s , 7-14
s n ow an d ice r oad. See r oads , s n ow an d ice.
s n ow r emova l. See a ir field a n d h elipor t ma in t en a n ce, s n ow r emova l a n d r oa d ma in t en a n ce,
win t er , s n ow-r emova l equ ipmen t .
s oil ch ar act er is t ics . See dr ain age-s ys t em des ign , s oil ch ar act er is t ics .
s oil clas s ificat ion , 5-1, 7-29
s oil con dit ion s , mappin g man u ally, 7-30
s oil s t r en gt h , 7-2
s oil t opogr aph y, 7-29
s oil t r a ffica bilit y
t es t s et , 7-3, E-1
clas s ificat ion , 7-36, 7-37
s pecies of t r ees an d r oot s ys t ems , 4-3
s pr a yed a s ph a lt wit h cover ed-a ggr ega t e. See s u r fa ce t r ea t men t s , s pr a yed a ggr ega t e wit h .
s pr a yed a s ph a lt wit h s in gle a n d mu lt iple s u r fa ce t r ea t men t s . See s u r fa ce t r ea t men t s ,
s pr a yed a ggr ega t e wit h .
s pr a yed t r ea t men t s , 9-41
St . An t h on y Fa lls Hydr a u lic La bor a t or y, 6-125
s t abilized
ch emically, 5-7
mech an ically, 5-7
s t a t ion a dju s t men t s , 9-13
s t a t ion in g equ a t ion s , 9-13
s t akes . See con s t r u ct ion s t a kes .
s t a n da r d r a in fa ll in t en s it y-du r a t ion cu r ves , 6-9
s t an dar ds of t r afficabilit y, 2-11
s t ickin es s , 7-2, 7-10
s t illin g bas in s . See er os ion con t r ol, s t illin g bas in s .
s t or ms . See dr a in a ge, h ydr ology, s t or ms .
s t r en gt h pr ofile, 7-8
coar s e-gr ain ed s oils , 7-9
fin e-gr ain ed s oils , 7-8
r emoldable s an ds , 7-8
Index - 16
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
s t r ippin g, 9-48
s t r ippin g t es t , 9-48
s t r u ct u r al des ign , 9-27
ear t h , 9-28
gr avel, 9-29
pr oces s ed mat er ials , 9-30
s an d clay, 9-29
s t abilized s oil, 9-28
t r eat ed s u r face, 9-28
s u bba s e compa ct ion
n or mal cas es , 5-6
s pecial cas es , 5-6
s u bbas e cou r s e, 5-8
s u bbas e mat er ials , 5-9
s u bgr ades , 5-4
s u bgr ade s t abilizat ion , 5-7
s u bmer ged in let s . See cu lver t s , des ign , wit h s u bmer ged in let s ,
s u bs u r face dr ain age, 6-92
filt er des ign s t eps , 6-100
filt er ma t er ia l, 6-98
s elect ion , 6-100
pipe-layin g cr it er ia, 6-96
s ys t em in s t a lla t ion , 6-101
t ech n iqu es , 6-92
blin d dr a bs , 6-94
combin a t ion dr a in a ge s ys t ems , 6-95
deep dit ch es , 6-92
Fr en ch dr ain s , 6-94
n at u r al dr ain age ch an n els , 6-93
s u bs u r face pipe, 6-94
s u cces s ive ar eas , 6-33
es t ima t in g r u n off, 6-34
s u n lit s lopes , 2-4
s u per elevat ion , 9-25
s u r fa ce t r ea t men t s , 9-41
cover ed aggr egat e, 9-54
mu lt iple, 9-54
s in gle, 9-52
s pr ayed as ph alt wit h , 9-51
s u r veys . See con s t r u ct ion s u r veys .
s well t es t , 9-48
s wellin g, 5-7. See als o compact ion , s wellin g s oils ,
T
t ack coat , 9-50
t act ical con s ider at ion s , 2-5
Index - 17
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
ca mou fla ge, 2-5. See a ls o for es t clea r in g con s ider a t ion s , ca mou fla ge.
defen s e, 2-5
defilade, 2-5
t a n gen t s , 9-6
dis t an ce, 9-9
t er r acin g, 6-115
t h ickn es s r equ ir emen t s . See flexible-pa vemen t s t r u ct u r e, bit u min ou s -pa vemen t t h ickn es s
r equ ir emen t s ; u n s u r fa ced s oil t h ickn es s r equ ir emen t s ; a n d flexible-pa vemen t s t r u ct u r e,
min imu m ba s e-cou r s e t h ickn es s .
t imber cr u is in g, 4-4
lime of con cen t r at ion (TOC), 6-10. See als o r a t ion a l met h od of es t ima t in g r u n off, for mu la
va r ia bles , t ime of con cen t r a t ion .
TOC. See t ime of con cen t r a t ion (TOC) a n d r a t ion a l met h od of es t ima t in g r u n off, for mu la
va r ia bles , t ime of con cen t r a t ion ,
t opogr aph y, 2-2. See als o dr a in a ge-s ys t em des ign , t opogr a ph ica l in for ma t ion a n d s oils
t opogr a ph y.
map, 7-29
t r affic cat egor ies , 9-59
t r acked veh icles an d for klift s , 9-60
t r a ffica bilit y
bas ic fact or s , 7-2
ch ar act er is t ics of fin e-gr ain ed s oils an d r emoldable s an d in wet weat h er , 7-35
clas s ificat ion s of dr y-t o-mois t , coar s e-gr ain ed s oils , 7-38
es t ima t in g, 7-27
eva lu a t ion fa ct or s , 7-10
in s t r u men t s a n d t es t s , 7-3
ma ppin g ma n u a lly, 7-30
meas u r emen t s , 7-3, 7-5
ph ot omap, 7-28
pr ocedu r es in fin e-gr ain ed s oils an d r emoldable s an ds , 7-11
s t an dar ds , 2-11
t es t da t a for m, 7-7
wit h wea t h er , 7-2
t r a n s it ion poin t , 3-20
t r a n s pir a t ion , See dr a in a ge, h ydr ology, t r a n s pir a t ion ,
t r ee dia met er s a t br ea s t h eigh t (DBH), 4-4
t u ff, 5-15
t u r bu len t flow. See dit ch es , t ypes of flow, t u r bu len t .
t u r fin g, 6-115
U
Un ified Soil Clas s ificat ion Sys t em (USCS), 5-4,
u n s u bmer ged in let s . See cu lver t s , des ign , wit h u n s u bmer ged in let s .
u n s u r fa ced r oa ds . See r oa ds , u n s u r fa ced.
u n s u r faced-s oil t h ickn es s r equ ir emen t s , 9-62
Index - 18
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1
USCS. See Un ified Soil Clas s ificat ion Sys t em (USCS).
USCS s oil-t ype des cr ipt ion , 7-35
u t ilit ies , 2-4
UXO. See clear in g, s t r ippin g, an d gr u bbin g; r emovin g bu r ied explos ives ; u n exploded
or dn a n ce (UXO).
v
VCI. See veh icle con e in dex (VCI).
VCI det er min at ion for n ew or u n lis t ed veh icles , 7-19
veget at ion , 7-10
veh icle clas s es , 7-19
veh icle con e in dex (VCI), 7-2
calcu lat in g, 7-20, 7-26
velocit y r elat ion s h ips , 6-45
ver t ical align men t , 9-18
volu me
compact ed, 3-17
in -place, 3-17
loos e, 3-17
of flow 6-10
volu me-det er min a t ion met h ods , 3-13
aver age en d ar ea, 3-13
aver age dept h of cu t or fill, 3-13
grid, 3-15
pr is moldal for mu la, 3-13
V-t ype dit ch . See dit ch es , V-t ype.
w
was h boar din g, 8-4
wa t er s h eds . See dr ain age-s ys t em des ign , pr ocedu r es , delin eat in g wat er s h eds ,
weat h er con dit ion s , 7-27
wet s eas on , 7-29
wet -wea t h er t r a ffica bilit y ch a r a ct er is t ics , 7-35
wier n ot ch , 8-3
win dr owin g. See clear in g, s t r ippin g, an d gr u bbin g; clear in g wit h equ ipmen t , win dr owin g.
wir e-mes h r oa d. See r oa ds , wir e-mes h .
wit n es s in g poin t , 3-6
wor k, 3-23
wor ld is oh yet al map, 6-7
Index - 19
FM 5-430-00-1/AFJPAM 32-8013, VOL I
26 AUGUST 94
By Order of the Secretary of the Army:
Official:
MILTON H. HAMILTON
Administrative Assistant to the
Secretary of the Army
06955
GORDON R. SULLIVAN
General, United States Army
Chief of Staff
By Order of the Secretary Air Force:
MERRILL A. McPEAK
General United States Air Force
Chief of Staff
Official:
JAMES E. McCARTHY, Maj General, USAF
The Civil Engineers
DISTRIBUTION:
Active Army, USAR, and ARNG: To be distributed in accordance with DA Form
12-11E, requirements for FM 5-430-00-1, Vol I, Planning and Design of Roads,
Airfields, and Heliports in the Theater of Operations - Road Design (Qty rqr. block
no. 0759).
U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE:1994-528-027/20039

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Field Manual

2-6 Site Selection and Reconnaissance

Heigh t of t h e wa t er a bove t h e cu lver t

(Fill 1) = roadway elevation at the outer edge (EL

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Hor izon t a l len gt h of on e cu lver t , L.

(Fill 1) = roadway elevation at the outer edge (EL

In s ome ca s es , du e t o limit a t ion s in cu lver t

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