SUSTAINABLE ENERGY

RESEARCH GROUP

Hybrid Electric Vehicles:

Drivetrains and
Energy Sources

Dr Geoff Walker
Sustainable Energy Research Lab
School of Information Technology and Electrical
Engineering
University of Queensland
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP
Talk Outline
1. Passenger vehicles – the drivers for change
Global warming, peak oil, energy security, urban emissions.
2. Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs)
Basic topologies and some examples
3. Well to Wheel analysis of vehicle fuel options
Present Andrew Simpson’s W2W analysis
4. Fuel Cell Vehicles and Hydrogen,
Plug-in Hybrids (PHEVs) and Vehicle to Grid (V2G)
Which future options show the most promise?
5. UQ HEV experience – the UltraCommuter
Technical choices we made – and why.
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP
Talk Outline
1. Passenger vehicles – the drivers for change
Global warming, peak oil, energy security, urban emissions.
2. Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs)
Basic topologies and some examples
3. Well to Wheel analysis of vehicle fuel options
Present Andrew Simpson’s W2W analysis
4. Fuel Cell Vehicles and Hydrogen,
Plug-in Hybrids (PHEVs) and Vehicle to Grid (V2G)
Which future options show the most promise?
5. UQ HEV experience – the UltraCommuter
Technical choices we made – and why.
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP
Drivers for change in the
Australian Automobile Industry
• Reduce oil consumption – a finite resource
• Reduce oil imports to achieve increased energy security and
improved balance of trade
• Reduce greenhouse gas emissions
• Reduce urban pollutant emissions

• Many more sensible reasons could be given: these four are perhaps
the most topical and pressing.
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RESEARCH GROUP
Peak-Oil ?

• http://www.peakoil.net/uhdsg/
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RESEARCH GROUP

Aside – Some further viewing

THE END OF SUBURBIA:

Oil Depletion and the
Collapse of The American Dream
http://www.endofsuburbia.com/
http://www.ebono.org/
Also worth a good read:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubbert_peak
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RESEARCH GROUP

Aside – Some further viewing

ABC Four Corners “Peak Oil?”
First Broadcast: 10 July 2006.
The era of cheap oil may be over and a growing number of
analysts predict production is about to peak before
significantly falling behind demand. Jonathan Holmes
investigates.
http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/

An Inconvenient Truth
Feature film released (US) 24 May 2006
A documentary about global warming featuring Al Gore,
based largely on a multimedia presentation Gore has
taken around the world since his US presidential
campaign loss.
http://www.climatecrisis.net/
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RESEARCH GROUP
Alternatives to oil?
A Senate committee hearing on
“Australia’s future oil supply and
alternative transport fuels”
Interviewed
Dr Ali Samsam Bakhtiari
Born in Iran, educated in Switzerland, then
employed by the National Iranian Oil
Company from 1971 to present, in various
planning and technical expert roles. Now
consults internationally.

http://www.aph.gov.au/hansard/senate/commttee/S9515.pdf
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RESEARCH GROUP

• Senator JOYCE — [What about bio-fuels?]

• Dr Samsam Bakhtiari—I do not believe that there are
alternatives around. In my opinion there is no alternative to crude
oil. There is nothing that can replace it, and this is the problem the
world is facing today. There are no alternatives…
• Goes on to explain Gas to Liquids, Coal to liquids, Shale oil, tar
sands, bio-fuels, etc are
– Very energy intensive and (for bio-fuels) water and land
intensive. Crops are more valuable as food.
– Only marginally postpone the peak in Oil anyway
• Solar and Wind “could play a small role”
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RESEARCH GROUP
Gas To Liquid (GTL)
and Coal to Liquids
• SB: Today you have only 85,000 barrels per day of GTL capacity
in the world. (0.1% of world consumption)
– The latest GTL plant has just been started in Qatar and I do not
know how it is going to fare. It makes 34,000 barrels. It is an
enormous plant. I think it cost one and a half billion dollars at least.
• SB: The only coal to liquid plant today in the world is in Secunda
in South Africa. It makes 150,000 barrels per day of liquids. (<
0.2% of world consumption)
– It is a very messy affair and it is very inefficient energy wise.
– the Chinese are trying to make CTL—coal to liquid—of one million
barrels per day capacity. I think it is going to cost them $10 billion at
least. I cannot imagine how this site is going to be. I am waiting for
them to finish, but it will probably take them quite a long time to get
that one million barrels per day off the ground.
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RESEARCH GROUP
Ethanol, Biodiesel

• SB: You mentioned ethanol, biodiesel and all that. This is not the
future. This is not sustainable because in the future, if our
predictions are correct, the No. 1 priority […] is going to be food.
• So ethanol is a very, very wasteful system.
• And again, however much you want to make some ethanol, it will
still be a drop of water in the ocean.
• … for every litre of ethanol you will need between three and four
litres of water to produce it. The best way to go for these types of
fuel, and certainly the most efficient way, is sugarcane. That is what
the Brazilians are doing today. With sugarcane you need one
square kilometre of sugarcane to produce 3,800 barrels of ethanol
per year. It is not very easy and it is very inefficient.

• by my calculations if all 455,000 ha of Sugar cane grown in Aust

was turned into ethanol, we could have E50 petrol, (but all other
uses of oil still unmet!)
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP Reduction in Oil Imports
and Increased Energy Security
Australian Crude Oil and Condensate Production vs Consumption
Source: Oil and Gas resources of Australia 2003
http://www.ga.gov.au/image_cache/GA6111.pdf

1200 120%
Production
Consumption
1000 100%

Crude Oil and Condensate '000 bbl/d

Import (%)

800 80%

600 60%

400 40%

200 20%

0 0%
2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020
Year

Ref: Australian Energy News, 2002 Ref: http://www.ga.gov.au/image_cache/GA6111.pdf

Percentage of Australia's oil and petroleum products consumption

sourced from imports
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RESEARCH GROUP
Greenhouse gases (GHGs)
in Australia from Transport

• In 2000, 15% of Australia’s GHG emissions are from

transport sector [AGO, 2003]
• Road transport represents 90% of this total

http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/inventory/2003/facts/pubs/02.pdf
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RESEARCH GROUP
Pollutant Emissions in
Australia from Transport
• Fossil fuel combustion, particularly by motor vehicles,
has been identified as the largest single contributor to
urban air pollution.
Carbon Oxides of
Monoxide Hydrocarbons Nitrogen Particulates
(CO) (HC) (NOx) (PM)

70-95% 40-50% 70-80% 10-50%

Percentage Contribution of Motor Vehicles

to Air Emissions in Major Australian Cities
(Motor Vehicle Environment Committee, 1998)
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP
Talk Outline
1. Passenger vehicles – the drivers for change
Global warming, peak oil, energy security, urban emissions.
2. Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs)
Basic topologies and some examples
3. Well to Wheel analysis of vehicle fuel options
Present Andrew Simpson’s W2W analysis
4. Fuel Cell Vehicles and Hydrogen,
Plug-in Hybrids (PHEVs) and Vehicle to Grid (V2G)
Which future options show the most promise?
5. UQ HEV experience – the UltraCommuter
Technical choices we made – and why.
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP

Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) topologies

Conventional Parallel HEV Series HEV Battery EV

ICE (Mild Hybrid, BEV
ISAD)
• There are many variations on the basic series and
parallel topologies shown.
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RESEARCH GROUP

Conventional ICE vehicles

ICE • Conventional Internal Combustion Engine (ICE)
vehicles can operate from many fuels e.g. CNG,
LPG, H2, (bio)diesel, ethanol, blends.
Transmission
• This represents the current mass manufacturing
technology, so costs and risks are lower.
• Many efficiency gains have been made already
through technology improvements to the ICE and
Fuel
power-train, e.g.
– Adaptive Electronic fuel injection and ignition,
– Variable valve timing, etc.
• Many more efficiency gains are opportunities still
Conventional waiting to be fully exploited, e.g.
ICE – Variable valve lift (inlet valve throttling)
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RESEARCH GROUP

Technology
opportunities
for ICE
vehicles

Ref:
Sovran and Blaser (2003)
“A Contribution to Understanding
Automotive Fuel Economy and Its
Limits”
SAE paper # 2003-01-2070
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RESEARCH GROUP

Parallel HEVs
Electric
Motor ICE • Parallel HEVs add an electric motor to the existing
(mechanical) drivetrain. Power transfer from ICE
and electric motor are both mechanically coupled to
Electric
the road (in parallel).
converter • Incremental step from conventional ICE vehicle.
• Degree of hybridisation can vary from
Battery
– Low: Integrated Starter Alternator Damper (ISAD)
Fuel
• motor is sized for rapid re-start after Idle stop
– Moderate: Integrated Motion Assist (IMA)
• motor is sized for launch assist and regen braking,
and also for periods of high acceleration.
Parallel HEV A high degree of hybridisation is less common.
(Mild Hybrid, • Parallel hybrids can achieve a significant
ISAD) improvement with small motor and battery size, but
then have limited scope for further savings.
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP

Series HEVs
Electric
generator ICE
• Series HEVs have an electric only
drivetrain. Power is transferred from the
Electric
Motor
ICE electrically, via a generator.
Electric
converter
• Larger “transmission” losses (fuel → mech
→ elec → mech) is offset by ability to
Battery
operate ICE at peak efficiency point
Fuel
(including not at all).
• Physical layout more modular, more
flexible.
Series HEV • Energy source flexibility – e.g. Fuel cell or
gas turbine easily substituted as technology
matures.
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RESEARCH GROUP

Electric Vehicles – EVs

• EVs have an electric only drivetrain.
• No energy conversion (e.g. ICE), rather
Electric
Motor electrical energy stored directly in battery.
Electric
converter
• If original source of energy is converted
directly to electricity, this is the most
Battery efficient W2W
• Long range requires a large expensive
battery pack, but batteries are improving
rapidly, and cost is falling …
Battery EV • Charge overnight from grid – no new fuel
BEV infrastructure required.
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RESEARCH GROUP

Toyota Prius vs Corolla

• 06 Prius, $37,000 RRP • 06 Corolla, $21,700 RRP

• 1.5 4cyl petrol hybrid
• 4.4 L/100km, 106 g/km CO2
• 10.9 sec 0-100kph
• 1295 kg
NHW20R Liftback 5dr CVT 1sp 1.5i
• 1.8 4cyl petrol, auto
• 8.1 L/100km, 193 g/km CO2
• ≈11 sec 0-100kph
• 1148 kg
ZZE122R 5Y Ascent Hatchback 5dr Auto 4sp 1.8i

http://www.redbookasiapacific.com/au/vehicle/comparespecs.php?key2=TOYO06CT&key=TOYO06ET&new=1
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RESEARCH GROUP

vs. Yaris vs. Aurion

• 06 Yaris, $15,000 RRP • 06 Aurion, $35,000 RRP

• 1.3 4cyl petrol manual • 3.5 V6 petrol 6 sp auto
• 6.0 L/100km, 141 g/km CO2 • 9.9 L/100km, 233 g/km CO2
• ≈12 sec 0-100kph
• 7.4 sec 0-100kph
• 1045 kg
• 1590 kg
NCP90R YR Hatchback 3dr Man 5sp 1.3i

GSV40R AT-X Sedan 4dr SA 6sp 3.5i

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RESEARCH GROUP

Toyota Prius vs Fiat Punto

• 06 Prius, $37,000 RRP • 06 Fiat Punto, $22,900 RRP

• 1.5 4cyl petrol hybrid • 1.3 4cyl diesel 6 sp man
• 4.4 L/100km, 106 g/km CO2 • 4.6 L/100km, 122 g/km CO2
• 10.9 sec 0-100kph • 11.9 sec 0-100kph
• 1295 kg • 1145 kg

NHW20R Liftback 5dr CVT 1sp 1.5i Dynamic Hatchback 5dr Man 6sp 1.3DT

http://www.redbookasiapacific.com/au/vehicle/comparespecs.php?key2=TOYO06ET&key=FIAT06AC&new=1
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP

Prius Drivetrain
• 1.5 litre petrol ICE, 56kW
– Atkinson cycle (vs. Otto)
– 34% efficient at 10 kW
• Two 3ph permanent magnet
motors:
– MG1, 18kW
– MG2, 30kW
• A planetary gear which allows a
continuously variable drive ratio

Sources: http://www.cleangreencar.co.nz
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RESEARCH GROUP
Prius Inverter
and Battery
• Power electronic 3ph inverters
matched to motors
– 50kW total at 500V
– liquid cooled under bonnet
• NimH battery pack:
– nominal 274V, 6.5 Ah (1.8 kWh)
– 20kW rating at 50% SOC
– Operated between 40-80% SOC for
lifetime (0.7 kWh)
– Complete pack 54 kg including all
management, packaging
– Toyota data demonstrates
290,000km without degredation

Sources: http://www.cleangreencar.co.nz
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP

Toyota is committed to Hybrids

• Prius is a speciality hybrid – available as nothing but a
hybrid. However …
• Sixth generation Camry MY2007 will have three main
powertrain options:
• 2.4 L Four
• 3.5 L V6 (in Australia: Aurion)
• 2.4 L four hybrid with 34kW electric motor
• Celica & MR2 being withdrawn mid 2006, a hybrid
replacement will appear 2008.
• Hybrid Lexus SUV and luxury vehicles have been / will
be launched in 2006 and 2007
Sources: Automotive Engineering International, Feb 2006, p20,
http://www.pistonheads.com/news/default.asp?storyId=13143,
Personal communication with Mike Breen, PR, Toyota Aust.
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RESEARCH GROUP

Toyota is committed to Hybrids

Toyota Sees All-Hybrid Future
13 September 2005
At the Frankfurt IAA, Toyota Executive Vice President Kazuo Okamoto
said all of the company’s vehicles will eventually be based on hybrid
powertrains.
Toyota also indicated that it aims to increase hybrid production by 60%
in 2006 and will cut costs and prices to make them more affordable.
In the future, the cars you see from Toyota will be 100 percent hybrid.
We believe that in 10 years the world will be filled with hybrids.
Okamoto declined to provide a timeline. Toyota has stated that it plans
to sell 1 million hybrids a year by 2010.
Earlier, President Katsuaki Watanabe said he aims to halve the premium
in price of hybrids over conventional vehicles as soon as possible.

Source: http://www.greencarcongress.com/2005/09/toyota_sees_all.html
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RESEARCH GROUP

Example Electric Vehicle – GM EV1 (1996-9)

• Over 1100 built

• 2 seater
• Performance 0-60mph ≈8 sec
• Range
– 90-120km with gen 1 Lead acid
– 120-160km with gen 2 Lead acid
– 120-240km with NimH
• 23.3 kWh / 100km
– ($3.50 @ $0.15 / kWh)
• Leased only, then recalled …

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_EV1
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ACPropulsion TZero (1997)

RESEARCH GROUP

See http://www.acpropulsion.com/ for full range of activities

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RESEARCH GROUP

Out Accelerates Performance cars

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RESEARCH GROUP

Powered by 28 12V lead-acid batteries

• 336V string of 44Ah spiral wound cells, can deliver 600A
peak
• Each battery has dedicated monitoring, a DCDC
converter for balancing, and heating.
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RESEARCH GROUP
150kW (200HP) from 6000-12000 rpm
• 50kg 4 pole copper cage
induction motor
• 30kg converter delivers
3ph ac to motor, drawing
over 500A from 336Vdc
(nom) battery pack.
Doubles as 20kW battery
charger / grid interface
• Combined efficiency
peaks at over 90%.
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP
Talk Outline
1. Passenger vehicles – the drivers for change
Global warming, peak oil, energy security, urban emissions.
2. Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs)
Basic topologies and some examples
3. Well to Wheel analysis of vehicle fuel options
Present Andrew Simpson’s W2W analysis
4. Fuel Cell Vehicles and Hydrogen,
Plug-in Hybrids (PHEVs) and Vehicle to Grid (V2G)
Which future options show the most promise?
5. UQ HEV experience – the UltraCommuter
Technical choices we made – and why.
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP

Well to Wheel (W2W) analysis

• Study undertaken by Dr Andrew Simpson, former PhD
student:
“Full Cycle Assessment of Alternative Fuels for Light Duty Road Vehicles
in Australia”, presented at the 19th World Energy Congress, Sydney,
5-9 September 2004
• Compared W2W energy consumption and greenhouse
gas emissions.
• Also allowed examination of implications for feedstocks,
fuels and vehicles.
• Allowed our group to make better fuel and powertrain
choices for our own HEV project, the UltraCommuter

http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/congress/personbiography.asp?person=604
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP

Well to Tank stage

Important to define:
• What energy feedstock a fuel is produced from
• What chemical processing occurs in the WTT stage
• How a feedstock and fuel are transported and distributed
• How a fuel is stored onboard the vehicle

Well-to-tank results differ greatly for:

• different energy feedstocks (e.g. diesel from crude oil vs synthetic
diesel from natural gas)
• different methods of onboard fuel storage (e.g. gaseous
hydrogen vs liquid hydrogen)
• different geographical locations (e.g. Australia vs USA)
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RESEARCH GROUP

Tank to Wheel stage

Vehicle energy consumption is an important parameter in
the calculation of WTW results.

Vehicle energy consumption is highly sensitive to:

• choice of fuel and powertrain technology
• vehicle platform (mass and drag)
• performance requirements (which determine size and
mass of powertrain components)

ÎFuels and powertrain technologies should be compared

on the basis of equivalent platforms and equivalent
performance.
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RESEARCH GROUP

Candidate Fuels and Powertrain Technologies

Feedstocks Fuels Powertrain
Petrol Advanced
Coal ICE
Diesel Mechanical
drive

Oil Parallel
LPG hybrids
Methane Series
Gas
hybrids
Alcohols
Biomass Fuel cell Electrical
Biodiesel vehicles drive

Renewable Hydrogen Battery

electricity
EVs
Electricity
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RESEARCH GROUP

Methodology for Study

Well-to-Tank Stage (fuel production & distribution model):
• AGO/CSIRO data used to provide relevance to Australian context,
also cross-referenced against other studies

Tank-to-Wheel Stage (vehicle model):

• European Union & General Motors studies used to provide key
technology input data
• About the vehicle model:
– Uses a consistent driving pattern and vehicle platform
– Enforces strict criteria for equivalent performance in terms of
acceleration, top speed and driving range.
– Predicts fuel/energy consumption for different technologies
subject to these constraints
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP
Vehicle Platform:
2003 Holden VY Commodore
Platform constraints: Performance Requirements:
Configuration: 4 door sedan Top speed: 180kph
Size (L / W / H): 4868 / 1842 / 1440mm Acceleration (0-100kph): 9.0s
Curb mass: 1550kg Continuous gradability: 6.5% @ 100kph
Drag coefficient (CD): 0.32 Driving range: 500km
Fuel consumption: 11.0L/100km
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RESEARCH GROUP
Download PAMVEC
• http://www.itee.uq.edu.au/~serl/PAMVEC.html
 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP
PAMVEC Model
Vehicle Platform Engine / Fuel Cell Specific power Efficiency Pmax/Peff Optimal fraction Fuel storage Specific energy energy density
Glider mass (mglider) 1200 kg (W/kg) (%) (-) (%) (Wh/kg) (Wh/L)
Vehicle inertia factor (km) 1.1 ICV 642 22.5% 1.12 --- Gasoline/Petrol 10360 7010
Powertrain structural mass factor (kstruct) 1.15 PHEV 642 30.50% 1.07 --- Diesel 10360 7970
Aerodynamic drag area (CDA) 0.8 m2 SHEV 432 33.30% --- 50% LPG 5760 4550
FCEV 375 56.60% --- --- LNG 7400 3890
Rolling resistance coefficient (CRR) 0.01
FCHEV 375 55.60% --- 10% CNG 4320 1950
Cargo mass (2 person) 136 kg
Biodiesel 8860 7010
Accesory load 1000 W
Battery Specific power Specific energy Efficiency Energy density Ethanol 6280 4640
(W/kg) (Wh/kg) (%) (Wh/L) Methanol 5430 3980
Performance Targets PHEV 605 45 95% 87 Gaseous H2 (5ksi) 3700 760
Acceleration: 0 to 100 kph in 10 sec SHEV 605 45 95% 87 Gaseous H2 (10ksi) 3330 1190
Gradability: maintain 100 kph grade of 6.5% FCHEV 605 45 95% 87 Liquid H2 2570 1210
Top speed 180 kph BEV - VRLA 300 35 90% 92 Boro-hydride 1130 1070
Driving range 500 km BEV - NiMH 220 70 90% 165 Metal hydride HT 1000 1520
200 km for BEV BEV - Li-Ion 420 150 95% 310 Metal hydride LT 400 950

Regenerative Braking Fraction

Drive Cycle NEDC
Motor/Controller Specific power Efficiency N Pmax/Peff ICV 0%
Average speed 33.04 kph
(W/kg) (%) (-) (-) PHEV 50%
Velocity ratio 1.62
PHEV 1484 70% 3.21 --- SHEV 50%
Root-mean-cubed speed 53.52 kph
EVs 1027 86% 4.99 1.00 FCEV 0%
Characteristic acceleration 0.112 m/s2
FCHEV 50%
Transmission Specific power Efficiency No. of gears Time per shift N BEV 50%
Conversion factors (W/kg) (%) (-) (s) (-) Min. Degree of Hybridization
1 m/s = 3.6 kph ICV & PHEV 1300 87% 5 0.2 4.74 ICV ---
1 Wh = 3600 J EVs 1625 87% --- --- --- PHEV 15%
1 mile = 1.609 km SHEV 30%
1 gallon = 3.785412534 L FCEV ---
Petrol energy content = 3.22E+07 J/L FCHEV 30%
Petrol density = 0.749 kg/L BEV ---

Fuel Storage Vehicle Platform Performance Targets wheel power required Fuel Storage Engine Motor Battery Battery Curb Net Fuel Economy Energy
Power Power Power Storage Mass Efficiency Consumption
Fuel spec energy 10360 Wh/kg Glider mass 1200 kg Top Speed 180 kph 68274 W
RESULTS
Fuel energy density 7010 Wh/L Km 1.1 Acceleration: 0 to 100 kph in 10.0 sec 90456 W Mass Volume
Fuel energy storage 454079 Wh CdA 0.8 m2 Gradability: maintain 100 kph grade of 6.5% 44762 W
(kg) (L) (kW) (kW) (kW) (kWh) (kg) (%) (L/100km) (MPG) (Wh/km)
Fuel mass 43.83 kg Crr 0.01 Driving range 500 km
ICV 44 65 118 --- --- --- 1551 10.3% 10.15 23.2 908
Fuel volume 64.8 L Kregen 0% PHEV 30 45 85 19 27 2.0 1533 14.8% 7.06 33.3 631
Kstruct 1.15 Drive Cycle NEDC SHEV 34 51 94 113 40 3.0 1744 13.9% 7.98 29.5 714
Engine Powertrain mass 351 kg Average speed 33.04 kph FCEV 70 195 143 122 --- --- 1913 22.3% 5.18 45.4 464
specific power 642 W/kg Curb mass 1551 kg Root-mean-cubed speed 53.52 kph FCHEV 64 178 94 118 44 3.2 1831 23.9% 4.75 49.6 425
BEV 322 156 --- 114 135 48.3 1768 39.2% 2.84 82.8 254
efficiency 22.5% Cargo mass 136 kg Characteristic acceleration 0.112 m/s^2
Pmax/Peff 1.12 Total mass 1687 kg Fuel Consumption (L/100km) Fuel Economy (MPG gasoline equivalent)
power 117606 W Average wheel power 3096 W 93.7 Whpkm
mass 183.2 kg Transmission Average brake power 1907 W 57.7 Whpkm 12.0 90
spec power 1300 W/kg Average drive losses 748 W 22.6 Whpkm 80
Total Propulsion system efficiency 87% Accessory power 1000 W 30.3 Whpkm 10.0
70
Mass 351 kg No of gears 5 Average engine power 6751 W 204.3 Whpkm
8.0 60
Power 101447 W time per shift 0.2 s Average engine losses 23254 W 703.8 Whpkm

L/100km
Energy 88886 Wh N (overspeed ratio) 4.74 Average fuel flow 30006 W 908.2 Whpkm

MPGGE
50
6.0
Spec power 289 W/kg power 101447 W Fuel consumption 10.15 L/100km_eq 40
Spec energy 253 Wh/kg mass 78.0 kg Fuel economy 23.2 MPG_eq
4.0 30
N for shift calcs 2.63 Net powertrain efficiency 10.3%
Inter-gear ratio 1.48 20
2.0
No. of shifts 3.00 INPUTS 10
Shifting time 0.6 s OUTPUTS 0.0 0
N drive effective 5.6 ICV PHEV SHEV FCEV FCHEV BEV ICV PHEV SHEV FCEV FCHEV BEV
N accel effective 3.14
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RESEARCH GROUP

PAMVEC Model
INPUTS MODEL OUTPUTS

Performance Performance model &

targets component sizing strategy

Component sizes
Vehicle
platform

Mass balance Vehicle energy

consumption

Component
technologies
Total vehicle mass

Driving Vehicle energy

pattern consumption model
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP

Well-to-Tank (WTT) Stage

A total of 20 WTT pathways were considered for

12 fuels…
 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP Embodied Energy
for various fuels
350%
Coal-LH2

Grid-Elec
300%

Coal-GH2
Wood-EtOH

NG-LH2
250%

NG-Elec
Renew-LH2
Biodiesel
200%
Renew-GH2
NG-FTD NG-GH2
NG-MeOH

Biogas-CNG Sugar-EtOH
150%

Oil-Diesel
NG-LNG
Oil-ULP
Oil-LPG NG-CNG Renew-Elec

100%

Coal-based Oil-based Natural gas-based Renewable-

based
 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP Embodied Greenhouse gas
emissions for various fuels
350
Coal-LH2

Grid-Elec
300

Coal-GH2
250

NG-LH2
200

150
gCO2/MJ

Oil-Diesel NG-FTD WTT

NG-GH2 NG-Elec
Oil-ULP NG-MeOH Biodiesel TTW
100
Oil-LPG NG-LNG Sugar-EtOH
NG-CNG
Biogas-CNG
50
Renew-GH2
Wood-EtOH
Renew-LH2
Renew-Elec
0

-50

-100
Coal-based Oil-based Natural gas-based Renewable-based
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP

Tank-to-Wheel (TTW) Stage

Based on the Holden VY Commodore platform, a total of

15 TTW powertrains were considered for the 12 fuels…
 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP
Vehicle curb mass for
various fuel + powertrain combinations
2000

1900

1800

1700

1600
Curb mass (kg)

1500

1400

1300

1200

1100

1000
ULP MeOH EtOH LPG GH2 LH2 Biodiesel Diesel CNG LNG ULP MeOH GH2 LH2 Li-Ion
HEV HEV HEV HEV HEV HEV HEV HEV HEV HEV FCHEV FCHEV FCHEV FCHEV BEV
 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP
Vehicle energy consumption for
various fuel + powertrain combinations
6.0

5.0

4.0
L/100km petrol eq.

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0
ULP MeOH EtOH LPG GH2 LH2 HEV Biodiesel Diesel CNG LNG ULP MeOH GH2 LH2 Li-Ion
HEV HEV HEV HEV HEV HEV HEV HEV HEV FCHEV FCHEV FCHEV FCHEV BEV
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP

Well-to-Wheel (WTW) Results

For each fuel, the most-efficient powertrain technology

was selected and used to calculate WTW results for the
20 WTT pathways.
 MJ/km
C
oa
l-L
H
C 2-

0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
4.00
oa FC 4.50
l-G H
H EV
2-
FC
G H
rid EV
-E
le
c-
O BE
il- V
Coal-based

U
RESEARCH GROUP

LP
O -H
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY

il-
D EV
ie
O s el
il- -H
U EV
LP
-F
C
O H
il- EV
LP
N
Oil-based

G G
-L -H
H EV
2-
FC
N H
G EV
N -F
G TD
-M
eO -HE
H V
N -F
G C
-G H
H EV
2-
FC
N H
G EV
-L
N
G
N -H
G EV
-C
N
G
N -H
Natural gas-based

G EV
-E
R l ec
en
Well to Wheel

e -B
R w EV
en -E
ew l ec
-G -B
H
Energy Consumption

EV
Bi 2-
og FC
as H
R -C EV
en N
ew G
-L -H
H EV
Su 2-
FC
ga
r-E HE
tO V
H
Bi -H
od EV
W ie
se
oo l-H
Renewable-based

d- EV
Et
O
H
-H
EV
TTW
WTT
 gCO2/km
C
oa
l-L
H
C 2-

-100.0
-50.0
0.0
50.0
100.0
150.0
200.0
250.0
300.0
350.0
oa FC 400.0
l-G H
H EV
2-
FC
G H
rid EV
-E
le
c-
O BE
il- V
Coal-based

U
RESEARCH GROUP

LP
O -H
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY

il-
D EV
ie
O s el
il- -H
U EV
LP
-F
C
O H
il- EV
LP
N
Oil-based

G G
-L -H
H EV
2-
FC
N H
G EV
N -F
G TD
-M
eO -HE
H V
N -F
G C
-G H
H EV
2-
FC
N H
G EV
-L
N
G
N -H
G EV
-C
N
G
N -H
Natural gas-based

G EV
-E
R lec
en
Well to Wheel

e -B
R w EV
en -E
ew l ec
-G -B
H EV
Bi 2-
og FC
as H
R
Greenhouse gas emissions

-C EV
en N
ew G
-L -H
H EV
Su 2-
FC
ga
r-E HE
tO V
H
Bi -H
od EV
W ie
se
oo l-H
Renewable-based

d- EV
Et
O
H
-H
EV
TTW
WTT
 C
oa
l-L
H
2-
C

0%
50%
100%
150%
200%
FC 250%
oa
l-G H
EV
H
2-
FC
G H
rid EV
-E
l ec
-B
O EV
Coal-based

il-
U
LP
O -H
RESEARCH GROUP

il- EV
D
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY

ie
se
O l-H
il-
U EV
LP
-F
C
H
O EV
il-
Oil-based

LP
N G
G -H
-L EV
H
2-

Energy
FC
N H
G EV
-F
N T D
G -H
-M
eO EV
H
-F
N C
G H
-G EV
H
2-
FC
N H
G EV
-L
N
G
-H
Results

N
G EV
-C
N
G
Natural gas-based

-H
N
G EV
-E
R le
en c-
BE
ew V
R -E
en le
c-
Relative Well to Wheel

ew
-G BE
H V
2-
Bi FC
og H
Greenhouse

as EV
R - C
N
en G
ew -H
-L EV
H
2-
Su FC
ga H
r-E EV
tO
H
Bi -H
od EV
ie
W s
Renewable-based

el
oo -H
d- EV
Et
O
H
-H
EV
 C
oa
l-L
H
C 2-

0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
oa FC
l-G H
H EV
2-
C FC
oa H
l-L EV
iIo
n-
O BE
il- V
Coal-based

PU
LP
O -IC
RESEARCH GROUP

il-
PU V
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY

LP
-H
O EV
il-
E1
O 0-
H
il-
D EV
ie
se
l-H
O EV
Oil-based

il-
LP
N G
G -H
-L
N H EV
G 2-
-M F C
eO H
EV
H
-F
N C
G H

Energy
-D EV
ie
se
N l-H
G EV
-M
N 85
G -H
-G
H EV
2-
FC
N H
G EV
-C
N
G
N -H
G EV
-L
Natural gas-based

N
G
N -H
G
Greenhouse
-L EV
Normalised Results – Full Study

R iIo
n-
en
ew BE
- E V
R 85
en
ew -H
R -B EV
en io
ew D
-L -H
R H EV
en 2-
ew FC
-G H
H EV
R 2 -
en FC
ew H
-L EV
iIo
n-
BE
V
Renewable-based
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP
Observations

Hydrogen transport fuels can be produced from renewable sources with

potential for zero emissions, however:
• Hydrogen pathways have the highest primary energy requirements –
primary energy resources can be utilised more efficiently via other energy
carriers.
• Hydrogen transport fuels have potential to be the highest greenhouse
emitters when produced from fossil energy sources.
Electric vehicle pathways have lowest energy requirements
Carbon sequestration can alleviate greenhouse emissions but will add further
to the primary energy requirements
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP
Observations (cont’d)

Hydrogen presents a major storage challenge:

• Required fuel storage volumes are very large
• H2 vehicles should utilise most-efficient powertrain technologies to
minimise fuel storage volumes
• More-H2-dense storage technologies can alleviate volume issue, but tend
to further increase primary energy requirements
• Unless significant advances occur in H2 storage density and fuel cell
power density, H2 vehicles will continue to exhibit range limitations similar
to those of battery electric vehicles
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP
References

Beer, T., Grant, T., Morgan, G., Lapszewicz, J., Anyon, P., Edwards, J., Nelson, P., Watson, H. &
Williams, D. (2001) Comparison of Transport Fuels, Australian Greenhouse Office, Canberra.
European Commission Joint Research Centre (2003) Well-to-Wheels Analysis of Future Automotive
Fuels and Powertrains in the European Context, available at:
http://ies.jrc.cec.eu.int/Download/eh
General Motors Corporation (2001) Well-to-Wheels Analysis of Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas
Emissions of Advanced Fuel/Vehicle Systems – North American Analysis, Detroit.
Simpson, A. (2004) Full Cycle Assessment of Alternative Fuels for Light Duty Road Vehicles in
Australia, presented at the 19th World Energy Congress, Sydney, 5-9 September.
Simpson, A. & Walker, G. (2003) A Parametric Analysis Technique for Design of Fuel Cell and Hybrid-
Electric Vehicles, Technical Paper 2003-01-2300, SAE International, Warrendale.
TIAX LLC (2002) Advanced Hydrogen Storage: A Systems Perspective and Some Thoughts on
Fundamentals, presented at US Dept. of Energy Workshop of Hydrogen Storage, Argonne
National Laboratory, 14-15 August.
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP
Talk Outline
1. Passenger vehicles – the drivers for change
Global warming, peak oil, energy security, urban emissions.
2. Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs)
Basic topologies and some examples
3. Well to Wheel analysis of vehicle fuel options
Present Andrew Simpson’s W2W analysis
4. Fuel Cell Vehicles and Hydrogen,
Plug-in Hybrids (PHEVs) and Vehicle to Grid (V2G)
Which future options show the most promise?
5. UQ HEV experience – the UltraCommuter
Technical choices we made – and why.
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY

Hydrogen? Fuel Cells?

RESEARCH GROUP

• Hydrogen energy pathways have highest energy use;

electricity (EV) pathways have the lowest.
• Hydrogen energy pathways have highest greenhouse
emissions when produced from fossil fuel sources;
electricity (EV) pathways have the lowest (CNG close).
• Hydrogen storage volumes are very large; more dense
storage solutions tend to increase primary energy use,
range is similar to battery electric vehicles.

I foresee a likely progression from

• parallel hybrids → series hybrids
• Reliance on fuels → reliance on batteries charged from
grid electricity, sometimes with fuel “range extension”.
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP
Hybrids vs. EVs
Hybrids (HEVs)
• Minimised battery pack
+ Cheaper
+ Long range
+ Manageable lifetime
• ICE based drivetrain
– Incremental efficiency gain
– dependant on fuels
Electric Vehicles (BEVs)
• Large battery pack
– Expensive
– Limited range
– Uncertain life
• Pure electric drivetrain
+ Excellent energy efficiency
+ Independence from fuels

• Can we achieve the best of both worlds?

– Energy efficiency, fuel independence, and zero urban emissions
by using grid electricity
– Long range and minimised battery requirements of a HEV
→ Plug in Hybrid (PHEV)
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP

Plug-in Hybrids (PHEVs)

• Typical vehicle usage is for Urban commuting
– 80% of trips are less than 10km and over 90% are less than 20km
[1992 SEQ Household Travel Survey]
• So augment the Hybrid battery pack to allow electric only
operation for limited range sufficient for daily commute
(say 20km – PHEV20)
• Charge the battery from the electricity grid overnight – so
this energy does not come from fuels
• Use energy dense but expensive fuels to allow longer trips
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP
Plug in Hybrids (PHEV)

Parallel HEV Series HEV Plug-in HEV Battery EV

PHEV BEV
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP

Plug-in Prius
• EnergyCS
• Original Prius NimH pack
replaced with 127kg Lithium-
ion Batt pack
• 35-40Ah, 9kWhr
• 80-100km range at half the
fuel consumption (but add
some grid electricity)
• Uses off-the-shelf Valence
Technology Saphion U Li-ion
batteries.
Sources: http://www.calcars.org/priusplus.html
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP

Vehicle to Grid (V2G)

• PHEVs will mean we choose to plug in our hybrid or
electric vehicle to the grid
• Rather than just another load, can these vehicles be
harnessed as a resource?
• We have:
– Instantly controllable real and reactive power flow (10 – 20kW)
– Some energy storage (0.7 – 9 kWh)
– GPS, Bluetooth, etc. etc.
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP

V2G can offer grid services such as …

• Frequency
regulation:
Contingency
– 6 sec
– 60 sec
– 5 min
• Voltage
Regulation
• Recloser ride-
thru
• Perhaps in time
even peaking ACP_V2G_EVS18.pdf from http://www.acpropulsion.com
GUIDE TO ANCILLARY SERVICES IN THE NEM pdf
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP
Infrastructure Issues,
especially in CBD?
• 32A 415V 3ph service per
park
• Allows 23kW peak
• One floor = 160 cars = 3.7
MW!
• Dedicated 1MVA
padmount txfmrs?
• Dedicated cabling?
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP
Talk Outline
1. Passenger vehicles – the drivers for change
Global warming, peak oil, energy security, urban emissions.
2. Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs)
Basic topologies and some examples
3. Well to Wheel analysis of vehicle fuel options
Present Andrew Simpson’s W2W analysis
4. Fuel Cell Vehicles and Hydrogen,
Plug-in Hybrids (PHEVs) and Vehicle to Grid (V2G)
Which future options show the most promise?
5. UQ HEV experience – the UltraCommuter
Technical choices we made – and why.
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP

SunShark Team
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP

SunShark – 1999
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP

The UltraCommuter
2-seat sports coupe

Lightweight, aerodynamic body

Ultra light aluminium
Fully-featured interior chassis

Solar cells Li-Ion

batteries

Natural gas High-performance

range electric drivetrain
extender (wheel motors)

Low rolling resistance tyres

Performances
Acceleration: 0-100kph in 8 seconds
Top speed: 150kph (electronically limited)
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP

Exterior Design Concept

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP High performance
high efficiency
electric drive train
• Direct drive brushless DC wheel motors mounted in the
rear wheels,
– better than 90% efficient under most conditions
– Providing a total of 1000Nm to achieve 0.5g acceleration of 0-
100km in under 8 sec.
– Provides all rear braking force, allowing 100% regeneration
except for emergency braking (when front discs must also
assist).
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP

Wheel motor currently under test

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP
Wheel motor casings and …
internal rotors (no magnets)
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP

Ultracommuter Energy sources

• 75kg Lithium Ion battery pack will provide 180km range
and 60kW peak power.
• Car mounted solar power would offer 12,500km each
year from the sun
• Natural gas fuelled range extender will provide a 500km
range.
• Many other fuel sources were considered as part of a
well to wheel (W2W) study
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP
Solar Charging UltraCommuter
is Viable
• A 2.5m2 solar array on the UltraCommuter will collect enough
energy for 12,500km of travel, 87% of the annual travel needs of
the average QLD passenger vehicle.
• In summer, the average daily solar driving range (SDR) is 48km,
In winter, 24km
• The UltraCommuter’s battery pack allows for four consecutive
days of poor weather without resorting to grid charging.
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP
Daily solar driving range
distribution - Summer

UltraCommuter Daily SDR Distribution - Summer

90

80

70

60

Number of days
50

40

30

20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Daily SDR (km)
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP
Daily solar driving range
distribution - Summer

UltraCommuter Daily SDR Distribution - Summer

90
UltraCommuter Daily SDR Cumulative Probability Distribution - Summer
1 80

70
0.9
60
0.8

Number of days
50

0.7 40
Cumulative probability

30
0.6
20

0.5 10

0
0.4 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Daily SDR (km)

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Daily SDR (km)
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP

Hybrid sales growth in Aust Fleet

• Hybrid numbers are currently tiny:
– 1094 Priuses is only approx 0.2% of car sales
• Hybrid numbers are growing rapidly:
– Prius sales 2003, 2004, 2005
292, 1094, 1423+500 orders
– Prius 2006 allocation to Aust is approx 2000 and demand will
again out strip supply
• Soon mainstream vehicles such as the Camry will have
Hybrids options too.
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP
Registered passenger vehicles
in Australia …
• Over 10.3 million in 2003, up from
around 8.3 million in 1993.
(GRW – 24% in 10 years)
• 522 cars for every 1,000 people in 2003,
was 469 cars per 1,000 people in 1993.[1]
(GRW – 11% faster than pop in 10 years)
• A shift towards four wheel drive cars, which made up
17% of new vehicle sales in 2002, up from 8% in 1992.
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP

Aust Vehicle Fleet Turnover

• Total vehicle sales in 2005 – 988,269

– Up by 3.5% on 2004 – 955,224
• Passenger vehicle sales ‘05 – 608,804
– Consists of small, light, medium, large, sports, prestige, luxury,
people mover
• Sports Utility Vehicles ’05 – 180,292
• Light trucks ’05 – 167,878
• Heavy trucks ’05 – 31,295
Source: VFACTS Industry Summary - December 2005, autoweb.com.au
http://autoweb.drive.com.au/cms/A_105816/newsarticle.html 05/01/06
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP

Vehicle make up of Aust Fleet

• Top Vehicle makes (2005):
– Toyota 202,817 20.5%
– Holden 174,464 17.7%
– Ford 129,140 13.1%
• Some individual vehicles (2004):
– Ford Falcon 65,384
– Holden Commodore 79,170
– Toyota Camry 40,356
– Toyota Prius 1,094 0.18% of cars sold

Source: VFACTS Industry Summary - December 2005, autoweb.com.au

http://autoweb.drive.com.au/cms/A_105816/newsarticle.html 05/01/06
Source: VFACTs December 2004, extract published at
http://www.ls1.com.au/forum/showthread.php?mode=hybrid&t
http://www.ls1.com.au/forum/showthread.php?mode=hybrid&t=33928
=33928
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
RESEARCH GROUP

Probably don’t need this slide, but included for

completeness
• Each passenger vehicle travelled an average
14,200 kms in the year to 31 October 2002, up from
13,400 kms in 1998.[4] (GRW – 6% in 4 years)
• Average passenger vehicle fuel consumption has
remained around 11 to 12 litres per 100kms over
the 1998 to 2002 period
• more cars x more km x same fuel consumption
= much more fuel
Measures of Australia's Progress – The measures – Transport, at www.abs.gov.au
[1] Australian Bureau of Statistics 2003, Motor Vehicle Census, cat. no. 9309.0, ABS, Canberra
[4] Australian Bureau of Statistics 1991-2000, Survey of Motor Vehicle Use, cat. no. 9208.0, ABS, Canberra