The Learn ing Cyc le

The learning cycle follows a definite pattern that is modeled after the way Piaget and others have described
concept development. This instructional strategy (teaching model) consists of three distinct phases: (1) exploration
phase, (2) concept introduction phase (invention or term introduction) and (3) concept application phase (expansion,
discovery).

1. Exploration Phase- This is the first phase of the leaning cycle. During this phase, die teacher
plays an indirect role. The teacher is an observer who poses questions and offers assistance to students
and small groups of students. The student in this phase explores a concept through the use of materials.
2. Concept Introduction Phase- In this phase, the teacher assumes a more "traditional role". The
teacher gathers information from the students, with regard to their exploration experiences. The students
explain or define and the teacher introduces terms or labels. This part of the lesson is the vocabulary
building time. Materials such as textbooks, audio-visual aids and other written materials may be used to
introduce terminology and appropriate information.
3. Concept Application Phase- At this time, the teacher poses a new situation or problem which
can be solved on the basis of the previous exploration experience and the concept introduction. It is
critical that the teacher use any new terminology and insist that the students do the same. Like in the
exploration phase, the students engage in some type of activity and the teacher is an observer who poses
questions and assists individual students and small groups of students.

The learning cycle approach creates opportunities for students to manipulate materials, socially construct their
knowledge, and work in cooperative groups. These experiences can encourage assiniilati6-n-or may cause students to
question their current thinking about a specific concept (disequilibration.) To begin with the exploration phase provides
students with materials to manipulate, and creates opportunities to interact with peers. The physical experience helps
students build mental images of the new ideas or new terminology that is presented in the concept introduction phase.

As new ideas and/or terms are presented in the concept introduction phase, students have the opportunity to
interact with the new ideas and with their teacher and peers. This interaction may be enough to help the students
assimilate or accommodate specific ideas.

The concept application phase encourages additional physical and social interaction by providing students with an
opportunity to use these new ideas or terms in different situations. These experiences may aid students in finding answers
to questions that they have generated during the exploration and the concept introduction phases, providing additional
opportunities for self-regulation to occur.

With attention being directed to the learner, the fourth variable of concept formation (physical maturation) can
also be accommodated by the learning cycle. According to cognitive theorists, students can only internalize concepts for
which they are "mentally ready." Therefore, with careful selection of the concepts/topics for each lesson, the students can
be provided with the learning experiences that fit within their reasoning abilities.

Different Types of Learning Cycles

Anton Lawson (1988) has identified three different types of learning cycle lessons: (1) descriptive, (2) empirical-
inductive (abductive) and (3) hypothetical-deductive. The main difference between each of these lessons is the manner in
which students gather data and the types of reasoning patterns they use during lessons. According to Lawson, in
descriptive lessons students only describe what they observe. In empirical-inductive and the hypothetical-deductive
lessons, students not only describe what they observe but also attempt to generate hypotheses to explain their
observations. Plus, in hypothetical-deductive lessons students design and conduct experiments to test out their hypotheses.
Therefore, the empirical-inductive and the hypothetical deductive lessons require more complex reasoning than the
descriptive lessons.
 Descriptive learning cycles only require the use of basic process skills (observation, classification,
communication, measurement, inferences, & prediction) while the empirical- inductive and the hypothetical-deductive
learning cycles involve basic and integrated process skills (identifying variables, constructing tables and graphs,
describing relationships between variables, constructing hypotheses, analyzing investigations, defining variables
operationally, designing investigations, & experimenting). Because the integrated skills require more complex reasoning,
it appears that descriptive lessons are appropriate for students who are developing proficiency in the basic skills. Students
who have gained proficiency in the basic skills and are developing proficiency in the integrated skills would not only
benefit from descriptive lessons, but also from empirical-inductive and hypothetical deductive lessons.

Applying the Learning Cycle to Current Science Materials

Science education research indicates that the majority of schools in the United States are using textbooks to teach
science. Although most science textbook lessons are not organized to follow the learning cycle, with a few alterations
these lessons can be modified to fit this approach. Hands-on activities suggested by textbook authors often work well near
the beginning of the lesson to form the exploration phases, while enrichment activities are sometimes appropriate for the
concept application phase. The extent to which modifications are needed may vary depending upon the organization of the
science materials. One lesson (exploration, concept introduction, and concept application) can be completed in one class
session or may extend over several sessions, depending upon the nature of the science topic(s) or concept(s) being
presented.

Guidelines for Modifying Lessons into the Learning Cycle Format

1. Select the lesson you want to teach.

2. Refer to the Learning Cycle Check List to determine what components of the learning cycle are absent in the
lesson you are modifying.

3. Supplement the missing components by using appropriate resources (e.g. Activities and enrichment exercises
from textbooks, science source books for the exploration and concept application phases; audio-visual materials
and supplemental written materials for the concept introduction phase.)

4. Construct the lesson according to the learning cycle format.

5. Use the Learning Cycle Check List to evaluate you newly developed lesson.

Source: Barnum, C. R. (1989). An expanded view of the learning cycle: New ideas about an effective teaching strategy. Council for
Elementary Science International, Monograph and Occasional Paper Series #4.

LEARNING CYCLE CHECK LIST

YES NO
I Exploration Phase

A. The lesson contains an exploration phase that is activity-oriented. _____ _____

B. Ample time is provided for the exploration phase. _____ _____

C. The exploration activity provides student-student and student-teacher _____ _____

interaction.

II Concept Introduction Phase

A. The concept(s) and term(s) is/are an outgrowth of the exploration phase. _____ _____

B. The concept(s) is/are explained by the student or the term(s) is/are defined by _____ _____
 the student.

C. The concept(s) is/are named by the teacher or appropriate vocabulary is _____ _____
developed after explanation or definition by the students.

III. Concept Application Phase

A. The student extends the concept(s) to a new situation. _____ _____

B. Appropriate activities are used to apply the concept(s). _____ _____

C. The teacher and the students have opportunities to use new vocabulary. _____ _____

Learning Style Categories

Visual

People who have a visual learning style learn best if a major component of the material or lesson is something they can see
or watch. This learner works best with written material and instructions, diagrams, posters, and demonstrations. The
information which the visual learner takes in is translated into and stored as pictures or images in their brains. These
learners are usually neat and well organized. They may use statements with visual cues such as "I get the picture".
Unnecessary movement can be a distraction to a visual learner.

This learning style will work well for anyone wanting to do course work via distance education. Although technology is
now allowing for more auditory components, the written component in distance learning is still prevalent whether it be
through text books, web sites, conference boards or e-mail. Distance education allows the learners to control their learning
environment making it more conducive to their learning.

Careers which suit the visual learner would include executive positions where a vision of the future is important,
architects, engineers, and surgeons.

Auditory

People who have an auditory learning style learn best if there is an oral component to the material being learned. Verbal
instructions, taped lectures and face to face instruction work best. These learners filter the information they hear and store
the relevant data but don't necessarily form pictures around it. When problem solving, auditory learners prefer to "talk it
out". While talking they may use phrases which relate to how they learn such as "I hear you". Unnecessary noise can be a
distraction for the auditory learner.

Although this type of learner could have more difficulty with distance education than an auditory learner, it is still possible
to be successful. Some distance education courses have audio and/or video taped components. These learners could read
materials aloud or have it read to them. Also they can control their learning environment thereby avoiding unnecessary
distracting noises.

Because of their excellent listening skills, auditory learners would make excellent pathologists, disc jockeys, and
musicians.

Kinesthetic

People who have a kinesthetic or tactile learning style learn best when they can touch or feel what they are learning about.
The use of their body and feelings are very important to these learners so hands-on projects work best for them.
Kinesthetic learners do not always have a good time sense or sense of orderliness or neatness. They often live for the
moment and do not have a vision of the future. Kinesthetic learners will often speak of their learning in terms of feelings,
prefacing statements with "I feel". People with this learning style will have a tendency to move around while trying to solve
a problem.
These learners will have the most difficulty with the "typical" written distance education course. They need to look for
courses which are more project oriented where course content can be learned by doing it or using it. Learning in their own
space will allow for the desire for movement as there will be no expectation of sitting still for an extended period of time.

Career choices for people with this learning style should be anything which involves movement and their body
such as dancing, acting, construction, or athletics.

Creative learners combine feeling and watching during their learning experience. They combine concrete experiences
with reflective observation. People with this style are best at viewing concrete situations from many points of view.
Creative learners approach tasks imaginatively. They learn through discovery and experiment. They enjoy flexible, open-
ended tasks and dislike rules. Their approach to problem solving is to observe rather than take action. They enjoy
situations that call for generating new ideas and brainstorming. They have broad cultural interests and like to gather
information. They have an imaginative ability and sensitivity to feelings.

Theoretical learners combine thinking and watching during their learning experience. They combine abstract
conceptualization with reflective observation. People with this style are best at understanding a wide range of information
and putting it into concise logical form. Their approach to a problem solving is the scientific method and they find it more
important to have a theory of logical soundness than of practical value. Theoretical learners are objective and impersonal.
They rely on facts and information to make decisions and solve problems. Rational learners are logical and often
challenge or question a task. They enjoy prioritizing, analyzing, and arguing. They are more interested in abstract ideas
and concepts and less focused on people.

Assertive learners combine thinking and doing during their learning experience. They combine abstract
conceptualization with active experimentation. People with this style are best at finding practical uses for ideas and
theories. Pragmatic learners are practical and systematic. They approach tasks in an orderly, sequential manner. They like
rules and learn step by step. Their approach to problem solving is in their ability to make decisions based on finding
solutions to questions. They are focused on technical tasks and withdraw from personal and social issues.

Proactive learners combine feeling and doing during their learning experience. They combine concrete
experience with active experimentation. People with this learning style primarily learn from hands-on
experiences. They enjoy getting involved in new challenges and carrying out plans. Proactive learners are
subjective and focus on feelings and values. They are socially conscious and are concerned about what others
think. They seek harmony and base decisions on the effect on others. Proactive learners are skilled at
persuasion. Their approach to a problem solving is their gut feelings rather than logical analysis. They rely on
people for information rather than technical analysis.

Teaching Style Categories

Formal Authority

Teachers who have a formal authority teaching style tend to focus on content. This style is generally teacher-centred,
where the teacher feels responsible for providing and controlling the flow of the content and the student is expected to
receive the content.

One type of statement made by an instructor with this teaching style is "I am the flashlight for my students, I illuminate
the content and materials so that my students can see the importance of the material and appreciate the discipline.”
Teachers with this teaching style are not as concerned with building relationships with their students nor is it as important
that their students form relationships with other students. This type of teacher doesn't usually require much student
participation in class. "Sage on the stage" model.

Demonstrator or Personal Model

Teachers who have a demonstrator or personal model teaching style tend to run teacher-centred classes with an emphasis
on demonstration and modeling. This type of teacher acts as a role model by demonstrating skills and processes and then
as a coach/guide in helping students develops and apply these skills and knowledge.

A teacher with this type of teaching style might comment: "I show my students how to properly do a task or work through
a problem and then I'll help them master the task or problem solution. It's important that my students can independently
solve similar problems by using and adapting demonstrated methods."

Instructors with this teaching style are interested in encouraging student participation and adapting their presentation to
include various learning styles. Students are expected to take some responsibility for learning what they need to know and
for asking for help when they don't understand something.

Facilitator

Teachers who have a facilitator model teaching style tend to focus on activities. This teaching style emphasizes student-
centered learning and there is much more responsibility placed on the students to take the initiative for meeting the
demands of various learning tasks.

This type of teaching style works best for students who are comfortable with independent learning and who can actively
participate and collaborate with other students.

Teachers typically design group activities which necessitate active learning, student-to-student collaboration and problem
solving. This type of teacher will often try to design learning situations and activities that require student processing and
application of course content in creative and original ways

Delegator

Teachers who have a delegator teaching style tend to place much control and responsibility for learning on individuals or
groups of students.

This type of teacher will often give students a choice designing and implementing their own complex learning projects and
will act in a consultative role.

Students are often asked to work independently or in groups and must be able to maintain motivation and focus for
complex projects. Students working in this type of setting learn more than just course specific topics as they also must be
able to effectively work in group situations and manage various interpersonal roles.

Kolb's Learning Cycle

David Kolb studied learning and noticed that everyone in a learning situation goes through a cycle of four phases.
However, Kolb also noticed that each individual generally preferred two phases of this cycle.

The cycle of learning phases.

1. Having a concrete experience about an action/idea. (I am painting a kitchen wall.)

2. Observing it in a reflective, thoughtful way. (How does it look? Do I like it?)
3. Thinking about it in an abstract, theoretical way. (Could I have used a better method - paint brush vs. roller?)
4. Experimenting with the idea/action based on the original experience. (I try a different method.)

Where do you fit? Kolb gave names to different types of learners, based on their favourite phases in the learning cycle.

• Diverger:
Prefers phases: (1) having a concrete experience; and (2) reflecting on that experience. Divergers are imaginative
and interested in people and emotions.

• Assimilator:
Prefers phases: (2) reflecting on an experience; and (3) thinking about the experience in an abstract, theoretical
 way. Assimilators like to create theoretical models and tend to be less interested in people and practical
applications of knowledge.

• Converger:
Prefers phases: (3) thinking about the experience in an abstract, theoretical way; and (4) experimenting with the
idea/action. Convergers like to be practical and tend to be unemotional and prefer to deal with things rather than
people.

• Accommodator:
Prefers phases: (1) having a concrete experience; and (4) experimenting with the idea/action based on that
experience. Accommodators are good in adapting to new experiences and tend to be intuitive at solving problems.