Teaching children base-ten place-value system in multidigit number using currency

Rakh Shaikh 16 August 2011

1 Introduction
Traditional school systems in India and many other countries like United States teach children standard algorithm. Which are needed for multiIt encourage them digit number operations like addition and subtraction.

to memorize these algorithms rather than understanding principles behind these algorithms. Same is the case with base-ten place-value system of written multidigit numbers, children have inadequate understanding(Bednartz & Janvier, 1982; Beishuizen, 1993; Fuson, 1990, 1992a, 1992b;Koubaet et al, 1988; Murray & Olivier, 1989; Olivier,Murray, & Human,1990). multidigit number concepts and operations. Wearne, 1996). Through many research projects it's a well known fact that children struggle with Children's understanding of multidigit numbers and their computational skills are related (Hiebert &

1.1

Problem Statement

Children face problem in understanding place value of ones, tens, hundreds, etc. in multidigit numbers. Fuson et al. have shown how children consider multidigit number as single digit numbers and struggle to understand tens and hundreds as dierent units than ones.

1.2

Research Question

To investigate possible use of alternative instructional sequence with the use of currency in teaching base-ten place-value system in multidigit numbers.

1.3

Objectives

Keeping in mind the diculties children face with multidigit numbers, that too regarding place value, we have designed a lesson plan. And the aim of this study is to check the eectiveness of that lesson plan in teaching place value concept in multidigit numbers to children.

2 Literature Review
So far lot of research has been done in this area. These studies can be broadly divided into following categories

2.1

Children's multiunit conceptual structures for multidigit numbers

Understanding of multidigit number and constructing its meaning is a pro-

longed process, it starts when child enters school, elementary school mathematics taught in classrooms help child to develop multidigit conception. Interaction with teacher, language in classroom, problems solved help child in this process. Use of dierent support objects(base-ten block,Montessori cards etc) is very important, as child use these objects as a support for visualization in multidigit addition and subtraction at early stage of development(Hiebert et al, Fuson,Fraivillig & Burghardt,1992; Hierbert et al, 1997) Fuson et al(1990) explains developmental sequence of conceptual structure in detail, they have identied ve dierent correct conceptions of multidigit numbers that children use. They call it UDSSI model,

2.1.1

Unitary multidigit conception:

Quantities are not dierentiated into groupings. The number word and number marks are not dierentiated into parts. For example, in 15 dough nuts, 1 is not related to teen in fteen, and quantities are not meaningfully separated into 10 dough nuts and 5 dough nuts.

2.1.2

Decade-and-ones conception:

Children begin to separate the decades and the word part of numbers and try to relate each part separately to the quantities to which it refers. e.g. 50 to fty objects and 3 to three objects. Children try to link the decades and ones parts of a number Typical error by students: they write 503 as they hear fty three.

2.1.3

Sequence-tens-and-ones conception:

Children construct a sequence-tens-and-ones conception, in which each decade is structured into groups of tens. This requires skill of being able to count by tens.

2.1.4

Separate-tens-ones conception:

Child begins to think of two digit quantities as comprising two separate kinds of units- units of tens and units of one.

2.1.5

Integrated sequence-separate tens conception:

Child can switch between two units rapidly(i.e. units of tens and units ones).

2.1.6

Concatenated single-digit conception:

Even when children have one of the adequate multidigit conceptions and use this conception to add or subtract numbers meaningfully and accurately when these are presented in a word problem or horizontally, they may use single digit conception for the same computation presented vertically and make error. (Cobb & Wheatley, 1988; Davis, 1984)

2.2

Problems children's facing

European children face relatively more problem in learning multidigit number concepts and operations because of the language(English, Italian) they use. European number words require some decade conception, and the written marks require some conception of separate tens and ones(Fuson et al, 1997). I feel same problem exists in Indian vernacular languages like Devanagari and Marathi. Children speaking Chinese-based number words that are regular and name the tens have a much easier task(Miller,1990;Miller, Agnoli,& Zhu, 1989; Miller & Stigler, 1987). Even few languages in Indian too have regular number words like that of Chinese-based number words.

Fortunately same problem is not with the number of multiunit of hundreds or thousand, these numbers are ordinarily followed by the word hundred or

thousand (e.g., 7500 is said as seven thousand ve hundred). Some European languages such as Spanish do have some irregularities. These irregularities may make it more dicult for children to learn(Fuson et al, 1997). Four-digit numbers in English are sometimes read as 2-digit numbers, e.g., dates are always read in this way(1918 is read as nineteen eighteen). It may help in memorizing numbers but it do creates confusion in child's mind. `-' between two dates in time series (1857-1947) also contributes to confusion.

2.3

Invented strategies for multidigit operations

There are quite a number of evidences that children both in and out of school can construct methods for adding and subtracting multidigit numbers without explicit instruction in specic procedures (Carpenter & Fennema, 1992; Carraher, Carraher, & Schliemann, 1987; Cobb & Wheatley, 1988; Fuson & Burghardt, 1993; Hiebert & Wearne, 1996; Kamii, 1989; Labinowicz, 1985; Nunes, 1992; Olivier, Murray, & Human, 1990; Saxe, 1988) Children employ a number of strategies for solving multidigit problems at varying levels of sophistication. Many of these strategies are constructed by children individually or collectively, without direct instruction by the teacher (Fuson et al., 1997) Some of these invented strategies(For addition and subtraction) are as follows: Ex: Finding the sum 38 + 26

2.3.1

Sequential:

Thirty and twenty is fty and the eight makes fty-eight. Then six more is sixty-four.

2.3.2

Combining units separately:

Thirty and twenty is fty, and eight and six is fourteen. The ten from the fourteen makes sixty so it's sixty-four.

2.3.3

Compensating:

That's like forty and twenty-four, and that's sixty-four. (Similar strategies are used for subtractions) There are many other strategies also, like

2.3.4

Split strategies

Same as `Combining units separately'

2.3.5

Jump strategies

Counting up or down the tens and the units of the second integer from the rst un-split integer (38 + 26 = .; 38 + 20 = 58; 58 + 6 = 64)

2.3.6

Varying strategies

Involving the adaptation of the numbers and operations in the sum on the basis of one's understanding of the number relations and the properties of operations, like in the compensation (38 + 26 = .; 40 + 26-2 = 66-2 = 64). Invented strategies and standard algorithms dier from each other in few aspects, standard algorithms are evolved over centuries for ecient and accurate calculations. But this very aspect is missing in school books, whereas invented strategies are directly derived from underlying multidigit concepts. Research shows that students those who use strategies before they learned standard algorithms demonstrate better knowledge of base-ten number concepts and were more successful in extending their knowledge to new situations than were students who rst learned standard algorithms(Carpenter T. et al, 1998). I feel in above all cases enough freedom is given children to use multiple approach/strategies , case is not same in Indian scenario, it is not known or I haven't come across any research on whether the same strategies are used or not, or some other strategies used.

3 Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD):

In our instructional sequence we have used currency and support objects to teach place-value. There is debate on whether we should instruct children in understanding place value of numbers or we should let them discover on their own. There are researchers like Kamii (2000, 2004), those who do not recommend use of currency notes, base-10 blocks, or unix cubes in teaching

tens and ones. Their reasoning behind it is that children need to abstract
units of tens out of the ones that are in their head, rather than the object in the external world. To explain the use of currency note in this study Vygotsky's idea of ZPD can be very useful. ZPD is Vygotsky's very famous and very beautiful concept, which is the gap between what a learner has actually learned and what he/she can learn

if expert help is provided. In other words it is the gap between two levels, one is at which learner is right now and other one is the level to which learner can move if educational support is provided (Mcleod, 2010). Up to certain extent it is clear that children have concept of ones in their head, what they need to understand is concept of tens and hundreds. Secondly children can count and write multidigit numbers, only have problem in interpretation of place value of digits. So we can see there is this this This expert support can gap between two levels; one is at which children are and other is at which children can move if expert support is provided. objects. be provided through instructor with the aid of currency notes and support Instructor can probe children when necessary and help them in moving to higher level of abstraction where they can understand concept of place value in multidigit numbers.

4 Methodology
4.1 Sample
These students were Eight fth grade students were taken for the study.

chosen by their class teacher. All the students were from same tribal school in Borgaon, which is a small village in Khalapur tehsil and Raigad district. Medium of instruction in this school is Marathi. Among eight students three were girls and ve were boys. Parents of most of the students work in farms around the village. Children were familiar with money and some times do small transactions of 10-20 rupees. None of them have handled more than hundred rupees.

4.2

Research Design

Research design chosen for this study was one group pre-post test design. Children were selected and a pretest was conducted with them, test was designed to check children's understanding of base-ten place-value system. Students ability of identication, addition, conversion of dierent units (ones, tens, and hundreds) was checked. Along with this children's ability to deal with money, involving ones, tens, and hundreds units, was also checked with this pre-test. After pre-test all the children were taught place-value concept with the help of money. Many studies have shown that children are comfortable in solving problems with the help of money and support objects. But struggle to solve similar problems with numbers only. Whole idea of instructional

sequence designed for this study was to bridge this gap. support objects to teach place-value concept.

Use money and

There were ten sessions taken, approximately each one of 45 minutes. Rough breakup of topics for the lessons was like thistwo lessons for introduction of money, counting of money, making combination of money. Two sessions for introduction of chunking into tens and its link with standard rules for place value. Two sessions practicing chunking with support object but with higher number. One session for correlating support objects with concept of 'ekak', 'dashak', and 'shatak'. One session for real life problems related to place-value. Two sessions were for pre-post test. Detailed description of these sessions are as follows:
First few lessons were used to make children comfortable with money, for this purpose fake currency notes were used. They were asked to count given bunch of notes, with only instruction given that they should do it in systematical manner. They were suppose to count money and then write it in a format similar to bank's money deposition slip. In later lessons task was opposite to rst one, they were asked to draw certain amount of money from box, and same as before they were suppose to write it in bank slip form. In third phase they were given some number and asked to write down all the possible combination of notes which can give that amount. As students became comfortable with notes and writing amount in bank slip format, they were given some real life problems. This problem involved calculation of total amount of money needed to buy certain things which are available in their village. For example, nding out money needed to buy 5 chocolates, 7 notebooks, 1 pen, and 5 biscuit packets. Base-ten place-value system was introduced with the help of match sticks and currency notes. Children were given one rupee coins and asked to count. The only instruction given was to nd out an eective way of counting, and also showing it to instructor. Many children came up with idea of chunking coins in group of tens. Then this idea was shared with all the students asking students to describe its benets. Same thing was done with ten rupees notes. For teaching counting and chunking of more than hundred numbers match sticks were used. Along with it rubber band were given to club match sticks together. Students counted sticks by grouping them together, rst single sticks into group of ten and then bundles of ten sticks grouping together to form hundreds. With this activity they were simultaneously asked to write their counting. In this way units like, ones (ekak), tens (dashak), and hundreds (shatak)were introduced. In next activity children were shown dierent bundles of hundred, tens, or loose sticks and asked to write how many hundreds, tens, or ones were shown

to them. In an opposite activity students were asked to give the number of hundreds, tens bundle or loose sticks that number Will contain. For example, 478 will contain, 4 bundle of hundreds, 7 bundle of tens and 8 sticks. After completion of lessons one post-test was conducted similar to pretest, followed by personal interviews of each student.

4.3

Data Analysis

4.3.1

Quantitative: pre-post test results

Analysis.png

Figure 1: Analysis of pre-post test To study the eectiveness of alternate instructional sequence used in this experiment one pre-test and similar post-test was performed.

As I have

already mentioned, questions were mainly designed to check the student's understanding of place-value concept. Three questions checked students ability to identify place value, for example, mark the tens place in following number 306, here children were suppose to mark zero. Three questions were to check students ability to convert one unit into other, for example, 5 hundreds means how many tens or how many ones? And answer would be 50tens or 500 ones. Four other questions were to check students ability to add dierent units, for example, 5 hundreds + 7 tens= ? Answer would be 57. And two questions were to check students ability to deal with money, for example, count currency notes in following box, some picutres of notes were given in that box and they were suppose to count it.And in second question there were suppose to nd out how much money shopkeeper will give in return after buying certain things shown in picture. Results of pre-post test are

Figure 2: No of students who answered correctly Vs Concepts

shown in gure 1, and gure 2. Pre-test results show that children were comfortable with money related problems. But they do not had understanding of the place-value concept. This nding is in accordance with the ndings made by dierent researcher around the world. If we have a close look at gure 1 (where Y- correct understanding of PV, N- incorrect understanding of PV, Y/N- partial understanding of PV), we can see that improvements in understanding of children are not as sharp as gure 2 is showing. It shows that children were familiar with place-value concept but understanding was partial. Unlike pre-test, post-test shows improvement in children's understanding of base-ten place-value system. In post test also, if we look at gure 1, we can see that there are incidents where there is improvement in understanding but that's not complete. Also we can see that all the children have not attained same level of understanding.

4.3.2

Qualitative: observations from interviews

Pre-test and post-test was followed by personal interviews, response given by students in interview to the similar questions asked in pre-post test was

remarkably dierent. It indicates that either children were not able to interpret questions in written format, or they were not comfortable with written test format. But when similar questions were asked in interview children were responsive, it might be possible that they understood question well when asked orally.

For example, for question 3 shatak = ? dashak,

few students wrote 300 and when similar question was asked in interview they answered correctly. Or in other case, for question 3 shatak + 8 ekak + 1 dashak = ?, one student answered 3081, but he answered similar questions in an interview correctly.
There are few interesting cases observed, few students have circled to digit 1, when they were asked to show ones (ekak). Both of them have answered other questions in that category properly, but when digit 1 was present in questioned number and they were suppose to identify 'ekak', they chose digit 1 which was at 'shatak' position. It seems that this term 'ekak' for ones and 'ek' for digit 1 is creating problems. In another case one student has marked positions of 'ekak', 'dashak', and 'shatak' in opposite direction. Conventionally positions are marked from right to left but this students has marked it from left to right. Its not that he is doing it arbitrarily, rather he has some logic in his mind, because he is consistent in his answer, but only thing is his logic is incorrect. I believe our conventional system just teaches them rules without explaining principle behind it. Children try to memories these rules and this what causes such problems.

Children are not comfortable with horizontal sums, they prefer vertical sums. It is very clear from few cases where child is able solve sum when presented in vertical format but was not able to solve similar problem in horizontal format, this is the opposite case of ndings of Cobb et al (1988) and Davis (1984), in their cases children had problem with vertical sums and in our case we found children have problem with horizontal sums. In our case for sums in horizontal format children wrote numbers adjacent to each other(3 dashak + 7 ekak = 307) or just added numbers without looking at units with them (3 dashak + 7 ekak = 10). It might be
due to ease which vertical format of presentation of sum provide. Or it might be that we don't teach sums in horizontal format in our schools. When it comes to problems based on money transactions, children were able to solve small problems involving transaction up to hundred rupees. But not comfortable with transaction of more than hundred rupees. As these children come from tribal village, they rarely do transactions of more than hundred rupees. They do some buying from their village grocery store

10

but not of more than hundred rupees. Secondly children were not able to apply school knowledge in real life problem, rather they were only solving problems which they actually perform in real life.

5 Conclusion and reections

It is well know fact that children struggle with base-ten place-value system. Which indicates that traditional system of teaching is not eective and it is need of time that alternative ways of teaching place value should be explored. This study is one attempt to check eectiveness of an alternate instructional sequence for teaching place value. As observation and pre-post test result shows improvement in understanding of place value concept, it can be used as an alternate instructional sequence for teaching same concept. Also further possibilities in same line can be explored. As these children were from grade fth place-value concept was introduced to them. But they don't had understanding of place-value concepts. They knew few rules without its understanding. I would say this instructional sequence helped children in understanding place-value concept and principle behind the rules. Its not that at the end of lessons children had complete understanding of place-value concept, but they did got the idea that dierent places in multidigit numbers represents dierent units and they come from chunking of previous unit.

After instruction they un-

derstood that ekak, dashak and shatak are not equal to each other there is some dierence in them. Before intervention they were calling them ekak, dashak, and shatak, but they had understanding that there is no dierence in their value.
Apart from this I have observed that children use there logic in making a mental rule and then use this same rule in solving similar problems. Its good, because that is how hypothesis are made and tested. But this tendency of children causes problems when algorithms and rules are taught, children try to understand it on their own, depending on their experience make some rules and use them in solving similar problems. On the other hand if children are allowed to explore algorithms on their own and standard algorithms are introduced only when children will need them, they will have better understanding of rules and algorithms.

11

6 References
Fuson, K. C., Wearne, D., Hiebert, J., Murray, H., Human, P., Olivier, A., Carpenter, T., & Fennema, E. (1997). Children's conceptual structures for multidigit numbers and methods of multidigit addition and subtraction.

Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 28, 130-162.

Fuson, K. C. (l992b). Research on whole number addition and subtraction. Handbook of research on mathematics teaching and learning, In D. A. Grouws (Ed.), Reston, Verginia: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, (pp. 243-275). Hiebert,J., & Wearne,D. (1996). Instruction, understanding, and skill in multidigit addition and subtraction. Cognition and Instruction, 14, 251-284. Mcleod, S. (2010). Zone of Proximal Development. Simple Psychology an e-Archive for Academic Article for Psychology Students. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/Zone-of-Proximal-Development.html, on 2 may 2011. Thomas P. Carpenter, Megan L. Franke, Victoria R. Jacobs, Elizabeth Fennema, Susan B. Empson, (Jan., 1998). A Longitudinal Study of Invention and Understanding in Children's Multidigit Addition and Subtraction.

Journal for Research in Mathematics Education Vol. 29, No. 1 , pp. 3-20
Torbeyns, J., Vanderveken, L., Verschael, L. & Ghesquiere, P. (2006). Adaptive expertise in the number domain 20-100. International Group for

the Psychology of Mathematics Education, Vol. 5, pp. 289-296.

12