Workshop Technology & Practice

FME 244
March June 2010

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Contents
COURSE OUTLINE .......................................................................................................................................... 1 Manufacturing Process Classifications.......................................................................................................... 1 Work/Industrial Safety .................................................................................................................................. 2 Objectives of Work Safety......................................................................................................................... 2 Accidents ................................................................................................................................................... 2 Common causes of accidents ................................................................................................................ 2 Good Housekeeping .............................................................................................................................. 3 Things to be observed for good housekeeping:................................................................................ 3 General Safety Precautions....................................................................................................................... 3 Safety Guards ........................................................................................................................................ 4 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Fixed guards: ............................................................................................................................. 4 Automatic guards: ..................................................................................................................... 4 Interlocking guards: .................................................................................................................. 4 Trip guards: ............................................................................................................................... 4 Distance guards: ........................................................................................................................ 4

PLANT LAYOUT .......................................................................................................................................... 4 Objectives of Plant Layout .................................................................................................................... 4 Advantages of Good Plant Layout ......................................................................................................... 5 Types of Plant Layouts: ......................................................................................................................... 5 1. 2. 3. 4. Fixed Position or Static Product Layout: ................................................................................... 5 Process or Functional Layout: ................................................................................................... 5 Product or Line Layout: ............................................................................................................. 6 Combination or Shop Layout: ................................................................................................... 6

DRIVING OF MACHINES................................................................................................................................. 7 1. 2. 3. 4. Gear Drives ........................................................................................................................................ 7 Belt Drives ......................................................................................................................................... 7 Chain Drives ...................................................................................................................................... 8 Flexible Shafts ................................................................................................................................... 8

WEAR and LUBRICATION .............................................................................................................................. 8 Page Friction ...................................................................................................................................................... 8 Types of Friction .................................................................................................................................... 8

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Approaches to Friction Reduction ........................................................................................................ 9 a) b) Devices ...................................................................................................................................... 9 Lubricants .................................................................................................................................. 9 Key Functions of Lubricants: ......................................................................................................... 9 Types of Lubricants ....................................................................................................................... 9 HAND TOOLS ............................................................................................................................................... 10

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Friday 19 March

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COURSE OUTLINE
1. Power, Safety and Care a. Safety in the workshop b. Driving of machines c. Wear and lubrication 2. Introduction to hand tools a. Use and care of hammers, hand drills, chisels, hacksaws, files and other tools 3. Introduction to metal cutting and workshop tools a. Lathes, milling and drilling machines b. Shaper and planing machines c. Cutting techniques d. Measuring and use of gauges 4. Introduction to heat processes a. Forging, rolling and extension b. Riveting c. Soldering, welding and brazing 5. Introduction to NDT techniques a. Techniques for surface defects b. Techniques for interior defects 6. Introduction to metal behaviour a. Cutting and machining of steel, aluminium alloys and copper alloys 7. Introduction to fasteners a. Classification of nuts, bolts and screws

This course is a study of manufacturing processes of engineering materials (metals [ferrous and nonferrous], ceramics and polymers) * ferrous metals have iron as the main constituent e.g. iron, steel

Manufacturing Process Classifications

1. Primary shaping processes (bulk forming processes) Casting Squeezing Drawing Rolling Forging Extruding Spinning Bending Shearing

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2. Machining processes (using machine tools) Turning Hobbing Slotting Boring Drilling Sawing/Cutting Planing Broaching Threading Milling Knuling 3. Surface Finishing Processes Sand blasting Polishing Painting Electroplating Galvanising 4. Joining Processes Welding Sintering Pressing Riveting Brazing Adhesives Soldering Screwing 5. Processes affecting change in properties: These properties impart certain specific properties to the metal part for specific conditions of use: a. Heat treatment (annealing, normalising, hardening, tempering) b. Hot working of metals c. Cold working of metals d. Shot peaning

Work/Industrial Safety
Include all the procedures, measures and/or regulations put in place in an industry or workplace to avoid hazardous accidents, fatal injury, diseases and infections

Objectives of Work Safety

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. To increase production better standards of living Reduce the cost of production Conserve and make the best use of available labour Reduce needless suffering and human wastage Have better relations in the industry Have better morale of employees

Accidents
An accident is a mishap which causes injury to the person or damage to the machine, tools or equipment which results in the loss of production. Accidents may be minor, serious or fatal Common causes of accidents Poor housekeeping Lack of skill/knowledge Loose clothing

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Congestion Carelessness of workers Improper or defective tools Poor working conditions (lighting and ventilation) Unguarded machinery Poor maintenance of machines Overloading of machines Operating machines at unsafe speeds Bad layout, planning, processes, etc Violation of safety rules and non-observance of safety regulations

Good Housekeeping Housekeeping implies an orderly arrangement of operators, tools, equipment, storage facilities and supplies. Things to be observed for good housekeeping: 1. The workplace should be kept clean and free form oil, grease or water 2. Workbenches and machines should be kept clean 3. Tools and measuring instruments should be kept at their proper places 4. All scrap should be kept at the scrap boxes or other designated areas at all times 5. There should be sufficient space for the worker to move around 6. The material handling should be kept at a minimum 7. Materials should not be stored on pathways/gangways 8. There should be suitable and sufficient lighting on every part of the workplace and pathway 9. Adequate ventilation should be provided for 10. Noise levels should be kept at a minimum (where applicable)

General Safety Precautions

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Always wear proper clothes and shoes Before operating a machine, it should be cleaned and oiled if necessary Machines should have effective an properly working guards Heavy work should not be lifted by hands Before operating a machine, the work and tool should be well clamped Machines should be operated by skilled workmen Machines should not be left unattended Operators should not lead on or towards the machine When a machine is running, operators should not indulge in mischief with others Safety gear (goggles, shields, helmets, boots, etc) should be worn when necessary All warnings, precautions and other safety measures should be observed promptly

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Safety Guards They are used to guard moving parts of a machine to maintain safety. The type of guard is selected with regard to the nature of the machine, purpose and mode of operation. Main types include: 1. Fixed guards: They are commonly used in workshops to prevent access to the dangerous parts of a machine from all directions and for all operations. They are of robust construction and tightly secured to the machine. They may be made from sheet metal (sheet steel, cast iron, etc.) 2. Automatic guards: They are operated by the moving parts of the machine in which it is fitted. It is linked such that the part will automatically bring the guard in protective position before the machine starts operating. It is suitable for making medium to heavy duty presses. An example is in elevators. 3. Interlocking guards: They are an integral part of the machine and are used when fixed guards are impractical. Before starting the machine, they are closed to prevent access to the dangerous parts and kept closed until the machine is stopped. Examples are in cars. 4. Trip guards: They are provided with a tripping device or safety switch inside the guard which enables quick stopping of the machine as soon as one approaches within the reach of the dangerous parts, for example railway crossings 5. Distance guards: This is a fencing made of grills, bars or rails placed at a suitable height and distance from the machine such that one cannot reach the dangerous part, e.g. x-ray machines.
Friday 26 March
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PLANT LAYOUT
Refers to the principle arrangement of buildings, machinery, equipment, work plans and other facilities of production to accomplish the most efficient use of men, machines and materials Objectives of Plant Layout 1. Economical and effective use of available space 2. Minimal investment in machines 3. Minimal handling and transportation of materials 4. Easy, simple and effective supervision 5. Smooth and rapid flow of material 6. Optimum utilization of men and machines 7. Easy maintenance of equipment and control of production 8. Provision of adequate safety, health and comfortable working conditions 9. Flexibility of rearrangement of production plans 10. Provision for future expansion

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Advantages of Good Plant Layout 1. Provides better health and safety for employees 2. Improves morale of workers 3. Avoids production delays 4. Requires less supervision 5. Reduces indirect cost of labour 6. Minimizes material handling 7. Provides quick and easy adjustment and change 8. Increases overall plant efficiency Types of Plant Layouts: 1. Fixed Position or Static Product Layout: It is used when the product is very large, the quantity is small and operation requires assembly with hand tools, and the cost of moving the product is higher than that of moving the components. Examples are in ship building, aircrafts, etc. Advantages: Movement of materials, men and tooling is reduced to a minimum It is flexible to change in the product design and related processes There is responsibility of work for it utilises skilled workers

Disadvantages: Initial movement of machines and workmen can be expensive and time consuming Highly skilled workmen are required

2. Process or Functional Layout: All similar machines or operations are grouped in one area or department. Commonly found in workshops including a job order type of work and in plants where a limited number of unlike products is produced Advantages: Better and efficient utilization of machines hence low machine investment Continuity of production is easy in case of breakdown of machine, shortage of materials or absenteeism of workers Changes in variety of products, sequence of operations and volume of production can easily be accomplished Provides opportunity for specialization in one type of process or machine Better supervision and quality of work

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Disadvantages: Materials handling and transportation costs are high Production control is difficult Manufacturing time is increased due to large amount of work in progress Requires large storage space Large in-process inventory of materials

3. Product or Line Layout: In this layout, the machines and other manufacturing facilities are located in order of the sequence required to manufacture the product. It is only useful in the manufacture of large quantities of a given product, and found in assembly processes, e.g. automobiles Advantages: Materials handling is low hence less damage Work-in-progress inventory is low Production control is better due to less paperwork and easy supervision Manufacturing time is less Manufacturing costs are low for high production Machines can be operated by less skilled workmen

Disadvantages: Initial capital investment on machines is high Manufacturing costs high for limited production Layout less flexible to changes in variety and design A breakdown of one machine can affect whole production

4. Combination or Shop Layout: A set of machines or equipment are grouped together in the section so that each set of machines or equipment is used to perform similar operations to produce a family of components. The flow of products follows the product layout sequence Shop Layout is the arrangement of manufacturing processes or equipment in conjunction with other plant services to achieve economical use of shop space. It is aimed at facilitating the processing the product in the most efficient and economical manner in the minimum possible time. Some of the shops in a typical mechanical workshop are: the smithy or forging shop, the welding shop, the fitting shop, the sheet metal shop, the machine shop and the foundry shop Page

DRIVING OF MACHINES
Prime movers involved in the driving of machines include motors (A.C. and D.C.), engines (petrol, diesel, steam, etc), wind and water. Power transmission is done by shafts, gear drives, belt drives, chain drives, hydraulics, etc.

1. Gear Drives
a. Spur gear: They have teeth inclined to the axis of rotation and are used to transmit motion from one shaft to another parallel shaft b. Helical gear: They have teeth inclined to the axis of rotation. They are used for the same application as spur gears. They are less noisy than spur gears and can be used to transmit motion between non parallel shafts

c. Bevel gears: They have their teeth formed as conical surfaces and are used mostly for transmitting motion between intersecting shafts. They can be straight bevel gears or hypoid gears in which the shafts are offset or non-intersecting d. Worm and Worm gears: The worm resembles a screw which meshes with a worm gear or worm wheel. The direction of rotation of the worm depends on the direction of rotation of the worm gear and whether the teeth are cut left or right. They are used when the speed ratio of the two shafts is high above 3

2. Belt Drives
They are flexible machine elements, used in conveying systems and the transmission of power over comparatively long distances. Due to their elasticity, they also play an important role in absorbing shock loads and in damping out and in isolating the effects of vibration hence long life of machines a. Flat Belt Drives: Made of composites with good reinforcements. Suitable for high speeds b. Round Belt or Rope Drives: Round in cross section c. V-Belt Drives: They have more compact drive than flat belts

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d. Timing Belts: These are belts which have axial cogs mounted in the underside of the belt which mesh with axial groves on the pulley. They permit no slipping and hence are used for accurate timing, and are not friction drives like the other types of belt drives

3. Chain Drives
The most common type is the roller chain. They also belong to the family of flexible machine elements. Their basic features are a constant ratio and long life. * Other flexible machine elements include wire rope: Wire rope is of two kinds regular lay and long lay. Standard wire ropes are made of a hemp core which supports and lubricates the strands around it. When the rope is subjected to heat, a steel core is used. Regular lay wires are twisted in one direction to form the strands which are then twisted in the opposite direction to form the rope. With long lay, the wire in the strands and rope are twisted in the same direction

4. Flexible Shafts
They are made by winding several layers of wire round a central core. They are of two types: a. Power drive shaft for transmission of power in a single direction b. Remote control or manual control shaft for transmission of power in either direction * Other non-flexible machine elements used for transmission of rotary energy include clutches, brakes, couplings and flywheels
Friday 9 April
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WEAR and LUBRICATION

Friction
Friction is the force resisting the relative motion between surfaces, fluid layers or material elements in contact Types of Friction 1. Dry Friction between 2 solid surfaces. Can either be static friction (two bodies in contact but not moving) or kinetic/dynamic/sliding friction (bodies moving relative to each other) 2. Lubricated Friction between two solid surfaces separated by a fluid layer 3. Fluid Friction between fluid layers 4. Skin Friction force resisting motion of a solid body through a fluid 5. Internal Friction force resisting motion between the elements that make up a solid material while it undergoes deformation

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* Friction between moving members has detrimental effects on the machine, tooling and final product which may include wear and tear, poor surface finish, etc. Approaches to Friction Reduction a) Devices They include wheels, ball bearings, roller bearings, air cushions and other types of fluid bearings. These devices are placed between the two surfaces b) Lubricants A lubricant is a substance (often a liquid) introduced between two moving surfaces to reduce friction between them Key Functions of Lubricants: I. Keeping moving parts apart: keeping the parts apart has the benefit of reducing friction, reducing surface fatigue, heat generation, operating noise and vibration II. Reduce friction: the lubricants-to-surface friction is less than the surface-to-surface in a system without lubrication. Lubrication reduces the overall system friction leading to improved system efficiency III. Transfer of heat: both gas and liquid lubricants can transfer heat from points of contact (liquids transfer more heat owing to their higher heat capacity) IV. Carry away contaminants and debris: lubricant circulation systems have the benefits of carrying away internally generated debris and external contaminants that get into the system to a filter where they can be removed V. Transmit power: lubricants known as hydraulic fluid are used as working fluids in hydrostatic power transmission VI. Protection against wear: they contain anti-wear and extreme pressure additives to boost their performance against wear and fatigue VII. Prevent corrosion: due to additives which prevent corrosion and rust VIII. Seal for gases: lubricants occupy the clearance between moving parts through capillary, thus sealing the clearance. This phenomenon is used to seal pistons and shafts Types of Lubricants I. Gaseous lubricants e.g. air, technical gases, steam, liquid, metal vapours II. Liquid lubricants e.g. lanolin, water, mineral oils, vegetable (natural) oils, synthetic oils, other liquids III. Solid lubricants used for application at excess of 350C. They include Teflon and PFTE (e.g. used in cooking utensils). Non-metals (graphite, hexagonal boron nitride, molybdenum disulphate and tungsten disulphate), metal alloys (cadmium and gold are used for plating surfaces which give them good corrosion resistance and sliding properties; lead, tin, zinc alloys used because of their sliding benefits) IV. Super-imposing of micro-scale vibration on one of the parts

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HAND TOOLS
Hand tools include holding tools (vices), striking tools (hammers), cutting tools, drilling tools, measuring, marking and testing tools

Vices
The jaws, plates, screw and handle are case hardened.

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