MAE 471: Fall 2007

Fall 2007 Technical Report
David Walton
WVU Challenge X Team

Copyright © 2007 SAE International

ABSTRACT HYBRID VEHICLES

Explain the basic design and purpose of hybrid  ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
vehicles.     Discuss   in   detail   the   objectives   of 
hybrid   vehicles   and   the   advantages   or  Development   of   hybrid   technologies   has 
disadvantages of hybrid systems.  Examine the  become   a   very   important   concern   in   the 
different   types   of   energy   storage,   prime  automobile   industry.     Manufacturers   have 
movers, and fuels available to use.   Describe  known   for   decades   that   automobiles   are   a 
the   design   of the  WVU  Challenge   X Equinox  leading   factor   of   pollution   and   waste.     No 
and its strengths and weaknesses. readily available solutions have existed and to 
remedy   this   situation   hybrid   cars   are   being 
developed.     The   gas­electric   hybrid   is   the 
popular focus and hopes to be a good solution 
INTRODUCTION to reducing emissions and creating better gas 
mileage.  
“Any vehicle is hybrid when it combines two or 
more   sources   of   power   that   can   directly   or  As   the   price   of   oil   continues   to   rise,   many 
indirectly provide propulsion power.” (1)  Hybrid  consumers are investigating hybrid vehicles to 
vehicles   have   been   in   research   and  try   and   save   a   few   dollars   on   gas.     Fuel 
development for a number of years but are still  efficiency is the primary consumer concern but 
striving   to   make   it   into   mainstream  after   investigating   fuel   economy   studies, 
transportation.     Many   of   the   current  hybrids   don’t   stand   out   as   expected.   (2) 
technologies   are   holding   development   back  Hybrids   are   the   most   gasoline   efficient   cars 
and need to be further advanced so that hybrid  and are claimed to get “48 to 60 mpg,” which is 
systems   can   reach   their   full   potential.     The  about “20% to 35% better than a fuel efficient 
current   arsenal   of   hybrids   are   vital   stepping  gasoline   powered   vehicle.”     However,   most 
stones   into   developing   cleaner   and   more  hybrids were said to have about 10% less fuel 
efficient modes of transportation.   efficiency   than   claimed,   and   one   study 
compared the price of a Honda Civic with its 
hybrid counterpart, showing that even after ten 
years   the   fuel   savings   do   not   add   up   to   the  incentive   is   a   great   approach   in   trying   to 
price difference.   commercialize hybrids, but is not an advantage 
directly associated with hybrid technologies. 
Fuel efficiency  should  not be  the only aspect 
considered,   because   reduced   emissions   are   A final hybrid advantage is the noise reduction 
another   major   concern   for   hybrid   vehicles.  offered.     Hybrid   vehicles   run   off   the   electric 
Better fuel efficiency comes hand in hand with  motor   in   slow   stop   and   go   traffic,   thereby 
reduced emissions, so even if a hybrid doesn’t  greatly   reducing   the   noise   level   normally 
save   the   consumer   a   noticeable   amount   of  created by internal combustion engines.(2) 
money it still helps the environment by reducing 
emissions 25% to 35 %.(3)     If deciding whether or not to purchase a hybrid 
resides   solely   on   the   environmental   aspect, 
PROS  then the choice is clear, however other issues 
need to be considered.
Hybrid vehicles  appear  to be the best choice 
for a consumer but there are draw backs.  On  CONS
the   positive   side,   hybrids   perform   better   than 
standard   cars   in   fuel   efficiency,   reduced  Hybrid   technology   is   new   in   the   automobile 
emissions, tax incentives, and noise pollution.   industry   and   new   technology   always   has 
uncertainties.  Consumers are always cautious 
Fuel   efficiency   and   reduced   emissions   have  about purchasing new technologies, so when it 
already   been   discussed   but   one   more  comes   to   buying   a   technologically   new 
interesting piece of information is that the”US is  automobile,   consumers   are   even   more 
home   to   only   two   percent   of   the   world’s   oil  hesitant.     Hybrid   vehicles   are   very   complex 
supply,   but   as   a   nation   we   use   nearly   25  systems   and   complexity   adds   problems. 
percent   of   the   global   supply.”(2)   This   shows  Consumer   concerns   about   the   reliability   of 
that   an   enormous   change   in   the   use   of   oil  hybrids are a leading factor in the lack of hybrid 
needs to be implemented, especially in the US.  appeal.(2)     Hybrid   vehicles   have   not   been  
To   start   this   change,   hybrid   cars   get   at   least  “proven” and because of that, many motorists 
15%   better   gas   mileage   and   use   the   energy  are reluctant to be the guinea pig. 
saving electric motor during slow stop and go 
traffic.     Hybrid   vehicles   reduce   emissions   by  Hybrids have been labeled as the environment 
using   an   electric   motor   and   through   the  friendly and fuel efficient alternative to typical 
alternate fuel sources available.  Alternate fuels  automobiles but oil and gas are still consumed 
range from Bio­diesel to low­sulfur fuel (which  in   hybrids.     The   amount   of   fluids   is   certainly 
will   be   discussed   later)   and   both   significantly  less   but   consumers   must   still   pay   the 
reduce emissions when compared to standard  outrageous   cost   of   gasoline.     Despite   the 
fuel types. “earth   friendly”   title   hybrids   have   been   given 
there are still pollutions emitted.  As hybrid cars 
  “Starting   in   2002,   the   federal   government  become   more   popular,   methods   for   recycling 
offered   a   tax   incentive   of   up   to   $2,000   for  and   disposing   of   the   metal   hydride   batteries 
owners  of   hybrid   vehicles.”(2)     Offering   a   tax  and electric motors must be developed.(2)  
When   considering   the   negative   aspects   of  threshold is bypassed the internal combustion 
hybrid   systems   the   stereotypical   American  engine   turns   on   and   loses   all   gas   saving 
needs to be thought of.  Hybrid cars are more  advantages.     The   other   leading   driving 
expensive,   do   not   provide   adequate   horse  application   for   fuel   economy   is   regenerative 
power, and are unreliable.(3)  When presenting  braking. (4)
these   three   factors   to   a   typical   American 
motorist, most will shake there head and look  REGENERATIVE BRAKING
the   other   way.     Most   of   the   aforementioned 
Regenerative   braking   is   a   vital   process 
concerns   are   being   taken   into   consideration 
involved   with   hybrid   technology.     In   a   typical 
and will hopefully be remedied soon. 
motor vehicle the braking system wastes up to 
DRIVING APPLICATIONS  30% of the “car’s generated power” through the 
dissipated   heat   energy   of   the   brake   pads.(5) 
Fuel   economy   is   determined   by   the   way   a  Instead of using the conventional friction based 
vehicle is driven, and in certain driving modes  braking system, regenerative braking employs 
gasoline   can   be   conserved.     Hybrid   cars   are  the electric motor to serve as a generator.  The 
designed   to   be   more   fuel   efficient,   but   if   not  electric motor is essentially kicked into reverse, 
driven properly they are no better than regular  slowing   down   the   car   and   generating   power 
vehicles.     Any   vehicle’s   fuel   efficiency   is  that can be stored for later use.  The generator 
sacrificed when the driver accelerates to rapidly  stores   the   energy   into   the   cars   batteries   or 
or   drives   erratically.     If   driven   appropriately,  capacitors and uses it later during conventional 
hybrid cars can improve gasoline consumption  city speeds. (5)  
10% to 15% during city driving.  “In theory if we 
all drove hybrids, U.S. gas consumption would  ARCHITECTURE 
drop 10%.”(4)
Several   drivetrain   structures   are   available   for 
Highway driving and heavy acceleration do not  use in hybrid vehicles.   Each offer there own 
greatly benefit gasoline consumption, whether  advantages   and   disadvantages   and   will   be 
it   is   in   a   hybrid   or   conventional   vehicle.  explored thoroughly. 
Highway driving does afford the motorist some 
PARALLEL HYBRID
savings because both the internal combustion 
engine   and   the   electric   motor   help   run   the  Parallel hybrid systems are the most commonly 
vehicle.  The savings will not be significant but  produced  and  function  much  like   they  sound. 
it   is   certainly   there.     When   a   motorist  Parallel   hybrids   have   both   an   internal 
accelerates heavily there are no advantages to  combustion   engine   and   an   electric   motor 
driving a hybrid vehicle. (4) connected   to   a   transmission.     “Most   designs 
combine   a   large   electrical   generator   and   a 
The leading fuel saver for hybrid cars is in low 
motor into one unit, which replaces the starter 
speed, stop and go traffic.  Keeping the vehicle 
and alternator.”(6)  The hybrid stores energy in 
under   15   mph   means   the   electric   motor   is 
a   battery   pack   that   powers   accessories   like: 
supplying all of the power.   After the 15 mph 
power   steering,   and   air   conditioning. 
Performance   efficiencies   can   be   gained   by  when   the   brake   is   released.     Similar   to   the 
running these accessories at a constant speed,  parallel hybrid, an electrical system operates all 
instead   of   relying   on   how   fast   the   engine   is  accessories.   The BAS fits in the same space 
running. (6) as   a   conventional   engine   and   provides   20% 
more fuel efficiency. (8)
SERIES HYBRID
ENERGY STORAGE
In a series hybrid the wheels are driven by an 
electric   generator   that   is   powered   by   the  BATTERIES
internal   combustion   engine.     “The   generator 
both charges a battery and powers an electric  Hybrid   electric   vehicles   have   various   ways   to 
motor   that   moves   the   vehicle.”   (6)     No  store the energy needed, and batteries are the 
mechanical   link   is   present   between   the  original   storage   device.     “Most   propulsion 
combustion engine and the wheels, making the  batteries   for   full   hybrid   vehicles   are   made   of 
engine run at a “constant and efficient rate.” (6)  nickel­metal hydride (NiMH), rather than lead. 
One weakness of the series drivetrain is over  A NiMH battery can hold twice as much energy 
long­distance   driving   where   the   electrical  as a lead battery, has a longer life cycle, and 
transmission   is   not   as   efficient   as   a  requires no maintenance. And its materials are 
conventional transmission. less toxic than those in a regular car battery.” 
(9)   Despite the improvements of nickel­metal 
THROUGH­THE­ROAD hydride batteries, ultracapacitors are the more 
popular solution.
A   through­the­road   parallel   indicates   that   the 
alternator/motor is not directly connected to the  ULTRACAPACITORS
internal   combustion   engine,   but   is   instead 
linked with the secondary transfer case.   This  Ultracapacitors   can   be   the   principal   energy 
means   that   as   the   vehicle   accelerates   the  storage for assistance during acceleration and 
motor­drive is engaged and during braking the  hill   climbing,   and   for   recuperation   of   braking 
regeneration   can   activate.     A   simpler  energy. An ultracapacitor used in combination 
explanation   is   that  “through­the­road   refers   to  with a battery merges the power performance 
the coupling of electric and engine drive: one  of   the   battery   with   the   incredible   energy 
axle is driven by the engine and the other axle  storage of the ultracapacitor. It can expand the 
is   driven   by   the   electric   or   hydraulic   drive.”  life   of   a   battery,   reduce   replacement   and 
These   forces   meet   on   the   road,   hence   the  maintenance costs, and make use of a smaller 
name  “through­the­road.” (7) battery.   Ultracapacitors   can   also   increase   the 
accessible   energy   by   providing   high   peak 
BELT ALTERNATOR STARTER power   whenever   necessary.   The   combination 
of   ultracapacitors   and   batteries   requires   the 
The   belt   alternator   starter   (BAS)   is   a   mild  addition   of   electronic   devices,   which   can 
hybrid  introduced  by General  Motors   in   2007.  increase overall cost.
The   system   functions   by   shutting   down   the 
engine at stops and instantly turning back on  FLYWHEEL
“A flywheel is a cylinder that spins at very high  from fossil fuels but most hydrogen production 
speeds, storing kinetic (movement) energy.”(9)  today   comes   from   reforming   the   steam   of 
An   electric   motor   can   be   combined   with   a  natural gas.  This presents a problem still being 
flywheel to store energy as it accelerates it or  worked  on.     When   the  challenges  facing  fuel 
to   produce   energy   from   that   stored   in   the  cells   are   cured   the   world   may   see   a   clean, 
flywheel.     Flywheels   today   have   carbon­fiber  renewable source of energy. (6)  
rotors sealed in a vacuum chamber to nearly 
eliminate   all   energy   losses.   Flywheels   are  WVU CHALLENGE X
slated to replace lead acid batteries as storage 
The   West   Virginia   University   Challenge   X 
devices because of the low maintenance and 
program has been developing a hybrid electric 
high durability. (9)
Equinox.   The drivetrain is a through­the­road 
PRIME MOVERS AND FUELS parallel   hybrid   configuration.     This   being   the 
most   popular   system   is   a   good   choice   to 
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES maintain   simplicity   and   obtain   good 
performance.     A   collection   of   115   Maxwell 
The   classic   internal   combustion   engine  ultracapicitors provides as the energy storage 
functions by the combustion of a fuel and an  device   in   the   vehicle.     This   appears   an 
oxidizer   in   a   combustion   chamber.     This  adequate set up, however no data is available 
creates   hot   gases   at   high   pressures   and  to   verify.     A   diesel   engine   crank   shaft   is   the 
temperatures that expand.  The expanding hot  primary   combustion   engine   and   a   High 
gases provide the power by forcing the pistons  Performance   Golf   Cart   motor   served   as   the 
to move and thus creating energy.  Combustion  generator.   The spring 2007 report states that 
engines have been around for over 100 years  problems   were   encountered   then   with   the 
and are simply out dated pieces of machinery.  generator, and problems are once again being 
Standard   automobiles   have   provided  faced   by   the   team.     This   suggests   a   poor 
transportation reliably for a long time, they just  choice for the motor.   The rest of the vehicle 
produce to much pollution. (6) design specifications appear acceptable. 

FUEL CELLS  Conclusion

Hydrogen   is   the   most   basic   and   abundant  Hybrid   technologies   need   to   be   nurtured   in 
element in the cosmos.   Fuel cells function by  order   to   save   our   planet   from   pollution   and 
combining   hydrogen   and   oxygen   to   produce  depletion of fossil fuels.  Hybrids are not only a 
energy.     When   these   two   elements   are  smart investment but a necessary one.  Hybrid 
electrochemically   combined   no   pollution   or  vehicles   are   still   at  the   beginning   of   their   life 
combustion is produced.  The major set back of  cycle,   but   given   time   and   opportunity   hybrid 
fuel cells is that technologies are not ready to  cars   will   play   a   vital   role   in   the   future   of   the 
handle the storage, creation, or transportation  automobile industry.
of them.  Hydrogen does not occur naturally in 
nature so it must be created but herein lies the 
problem.  Fuel cells are a way of breaking free 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS DEFINITIONS, ACRONYMS, 
ABBREVIATIONS
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an optional section. Here   is   the   Definitions   section.     This   is   an 
optional section. 
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(9)  http://www.nrel.gov/vehiclesandfuels/energystorage/batteries.html