An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara 2 marks See the figure given below and answer the question carefully-

1. Identify this image. This is an image of pillar of a temple. 2. How many human figures you are able to see? Four 3. Which deity is represented in this picture? Virupaksha Write a note on the royal centre of the Vijayanagara Empire. The royal centre was located in the south-western part of the settlement. It included 60 temples. According to historians the patronage of temples was important for rulers, because they were trying to establish their authority through association with the divinities housed in the shrines. Archaeologists have identified about thirty buildings as palaces and with large structures meant for rituals. Describe the main architectural buildings of Hampi. Based on the form of the buildings as well as their functions some of structures have been assigned some names. The kings palace is the largest of the enclosures but was not used as royal residence. It has two platforms-(I) audience hall and (II) mahanavami dibba. The mahanavami dibba is a massive platforms rising from a base of about 11,000 sq. ft to a height of 40 ft. There is evidence that it supported a wooden structure. The base of platform is covered with relief carvings. Write a note on the trade on horse during the Vijayanagara rule. OR Who were kudirai chettis?

Cavalry was very important part of warfare during this time. The import of horses from Arabia and Central Asia was very important for the kings. This trade was initially controlled by Arab traders. Local merchants who were involved in the horse trade were known as kudirai chettis or horse merchants What were the sources used by Colin Mackenzie in order to gather information about Hampi? Colin Mackenzie gathered the information from variety of sources. At first he tried to get information from the priest of Virupaksha temple. The information, thus collected was corroborated with the architectural and literary sources. Who was the founder of the empire? Who inspired them to lay foundation of the empire? Two brothers Harihar and Bukka laid the foundation of the Vijayanagara Empire in the year 1336. Saint Vidyaranya inspired them to establish the empire. What were the efforts Krishna Deva Raya made to increase his military strength? The efforts taken by KDR were as follows: Warfare requires effective cavalry and in order to be invincible in the region it requires constant flow of the Arabian horses to the empire. It was also needed that the rival kingdoms should not be able to get these horses from the traders. Initially Arab traders controlled Horse trade. Local communities of merchants known as kudirai chettis or horse merchants also participated in these exchanges. Discuss the factors responsible for the conflict between the kingdoms of South India. The main cause of the struggle was the fertile delta of Krishna and Tungabhadra, and the resources like spices, which were the chief commodity of lucrative trade. Who has discovered the site of Hampi? Colin Mackenzie was the antiquarian who has discovered the site of Hampi. Who brought the Vijayanagara Empire to light? The Vijayanagara Empire was brought to light by an engineer and antiquarian named Colonel Colin Mackenzie in 1800 AD. He was an employee of the English East India Company. He conducted his research first based on the memories of priests of the Virupaksha temple and the shrine of Pampadevi. Who founded the Vijayanagara Empire? According to tradition and epigraphic evidence two brothers, Harihara and Bukka, founded the Vijayanagara Empire in 1336 on the inspiration from their Guru Vidhyaranya. This empire included different people who spoke different languages and followed different religious traditions. How was the horse trading done during the Vijayanagara rule? Cavalry was a very important part of warfare during this time. The import of horses from Arabia and Central Asia was very important for rival kings of India. Horse trade was initially controlled by Arab traders. Local merchants who were involved in the horse trade were known as kudirai chettis or horse merchants. From 1498 other actors such as Portuguese, appeared on the scene.

Name the first dynasty of the Vijayanagara Empire and how did it decline? The first dynasty of the Vijayanagara Empire was the Sangama dynasty founded by Harihara and Bukka and derived its name from their father's name 'Sangam' who ruled the empire till 1485. They were supplanted by the Saluvas, the military commanders who remained in power till 1503. When was the Vijayanagara Empire founded? Vijayanagara or city of victory was the name of both a city and an empire. The empire was founded in the fourteenth century by Harihara and Bukka for insistence of Hinduism on inspiration of Vidhyaranya. The Empire stretched from the river Krishna in the north to the extreme south of the peninsula. From where is the name Hampi derived? Hampi is another name for Vijayanagara Empire. The name Hampi is derived from the local mother goddess, Pampadevi. This is how the local people remember the Vijayanagara Empire. The remains of Vijayanagara Empire have been found at the modern Hampi in Karnataka. Who was Colin Mackenzie? Colin Mackenzie was born in 1754 and became an engineer, surveyor and cartographer. In 1815 he was appointed as the first Surveyor General of India and remained in the post till his death in 1821. In order to understand Indias past to make governance of the colony easier, he surveyed many historic sites. He was of the view that regional custom and traditions will benefit the EEIC in its administration. What is Karnataka samrajyamu? Karnataka samrajyamu was the name used by the contemporaries to describe the Vijayanagara Empire and it is quite true with finding of the evidences of Empire in Karnataka at Hampi. Historians, however, use the term Vijayanagara Empire. Name the rulers with whom the Vijayanagara kings competed. On the northern frontiers, the Vijayanagara kings competed with contemporary rulers such as the Sultans of the Deccan and the Gajapati rulers of Orissa for control of the fertile river valleys and the resources that were brought by overseas trade. The glory of Vijayanagara Empire started to shatter with its defeat in the Battle of Talikota against confederacy of Muslim rulers of south India. What were the main features of the markets in the Vijayanagara Empire? OR Write a note on the markets of Vijayanagara Empire. Markets in the Vijayanagara Empire were known for its spices, textiles and other precious stones. Trade was a status symbol for cities in the empire and boasted of a wealthy population that was in need of high-value exotic goods such as precious stones and jewellery. The revenue that came from the trade was used for the development of the State. Who replaced the Saluva dynasty? The first dynasty of Vijayanagara Empire was replaced by the Saluva dynasty and its end was same as the end of Sangama dynasty. The Saluva dynasty was replaced by the Tuluva dynasty. Krishnadeva Raya belonged to the Tuluva dynasty.

What was the condition of the Vijayanagara kingdom after the death of Krishnadeva Raya? After the death of Krishnadeva Raya in 1529, his successors faced problems created by rebellious nayakas or military chiefs. By 1542 the control of the empire came under another ruling lineage, the Aravidu, which continued till the end of the seventeenth century and in 1565 Vijayanagara Empire vanished as it was defeated in the Battle of Rakshasi-Tangadi. Why the agricultural lands were incorporated within the fortified area? During the medieval period, the main objective of the sieges was to starve the defenders into submission. These sieges could continue for months and sometimes even years. Rulers were ready to face it with proper arrangements by building large granaries within fortified areas. The rulers of Vijayanagara adopted a more expensive and elaborate method of protecting the agricultural belt itself by incorporating cultivation land in the fort. Who were the nayakas in the Vijayanagara Empire? In the Vijayanagara Empire the nayakas were military chiefs and exercised power and controlled forts and had armed supporters. Theses chiefs often moved from one place to another and were accompanied by peasants looking for fertile land in order to settle. The nayakas spoke Telugu or Kannada. Many nayakas were under the control of the kings of Vijayanagara but often rebelled and faced military action by the kings. Write a note on the travellers who visited the Vijayanagara Empire. Several travellers visited the city of Vijayanagara and let their travel accounts. Notable among them are Italian trader Nicolo de Conti, an ambassador named Abdur Razzaq sent by the ruler of Persia and a merchant named Afanasii Nikitin from Russia. All of them visited the city in the fifteenth century. And Portuguese travellers like Duarte barbosa, Domingo Paes and Fernao visited the city in the sixteenth century. Why do we find temples in the royal centre? What is the difference between the temples and other buildings of the royal centre? Kings of Vijayanagara constructed many temples and also contributed in the extension of the temple and also developed several new features in the temple architecture. They patronized temple and had constructed so many temples because by this they wanted to legitimize and assert their authority. The difference between temples and secular buildings was that temple were constructed entirely masonry way whereas materials used in the secular building was perishable. What was the significance of Mahanavmi dibba? Mahanavmi dibba was one of the hall in the royal center. It was very high, and it is proposed that this hall is used to stage dramas during Mahanavmi festival. The king displays their power and prestige on the occassion. What was the imporatance of the halls in temples? Explain. The importance of the hall in the temple is as follows: The halls in the temple were used for a variety of purposes. Some were spaces in which the images of Gods were placed to witness special programmes of music, dance, drama, etc. Others were used to celebrate the marriages of deities, and yet others were meant for the deities to swing in. Special images, distinct from those kept in the small central shrine, were used on these occasions. In another shrine, the Vitthala temple is also interesting. Here, the principal deity was Vitthala, a form of Vishnu generally worshipped in Maharashtra.

Discuss the various steps involved in the mapping of the site at Hampi. The first step was to divide the entire area into a set of 25 squares, each designated by a letter of the alphabet. Then, each of the small squares was subdivided into a set of even smaller squares. Each of these smaller squares was further subdivided into yet smaller units. These detailed surveys have been extremely painstaking, and have recovered and documented traces of thousands of structures from tiny shrines and residences to elaborate temples. 5 marks How far the buildings are useful in knowing the past? Buildings provide the following details Buildings that survive tell us about the way spaces were organised and used, how they were built, with what materials and techniques. We can assess the defence requirements and military preparedness of a city by studying its fortifications. Buildings also tell us about the spread of ideas and cultural influences if we compare them with buildings in other places. They convey ideas which the builders or their patrons wished to project. Discuss the relationship between rulers and deities. The relationship between the deities and rulers is imaginary in nature which is depending upon variety of sources. The relationship between deity and rulers is as follows: The Vijayanagara kings claimed to rule on behalf of the God Virupaksha. All royal orders were signed Shri Virupaksha, usually in the Kannada script. Rulers also indicated their close links with the gods by using the title Hindu Suratrana. This was a Sanskritisation of the Arabic term Sultan, meaning king, so it literally meant Hindu Sultan. Even as they drew on earlier traditions, the rulers of Vijayanagara innovated and developed these. Royal portrait sculptures were displayed in temples, and the kings visits to temples were treated as important state occasions on which he was accompanied by the important nayakas of the empire. What are the histories related with the sacred region? What is the significance of the region in present days? The various stories related to the sacred region areas follows: These hills of northern region sheltered the monkey kingdom of Vali and Sugriva mentioned in the Ramayana. Other traditions suggest that Pampadevi, the local mother goddess, did penance in these hills in order to marry Virupaksha, the guardian deity of the kingdom, also recognised as a form of Shiva. In the contemporary period, the marriage of deities is celebrated annually in the Virupaksha temple. Discuss the significance of Mahanavmi festival in Vijayanagara Empire. The Mahanavmi festival was celebrated with much zeal in Vijayanagara Empire the reasons for this zeal are as follows: The Vijayanagara kings displayed their prestige, power and suzerainty on this occasion.

The ceremonies performed on the occasion-included worship of the image, worship of the state horse, and the sacrifice of buffaloes and other animals. Dances, wrestling matches, and processions of caparisoned horses, elephants and chariots and soldiers, as well as ritual presentations before the king and his guests by the chief nayakas and subordinate kings marked the occasion. These ceremonies were imbued with deep symbolic meanings. On the last day of the festival the king inspected his army and the armies of the nayakas in a grand ceremony in an open field. On this occasion the nayakas brought rich gifts for the king as well as the stipulated tribute. What does the account of Abdur Razzaq say about the great fortress walls of the Vijayanagara Empire? Abdur Razzaq was an ambassador sent by the ruler of Persia to Calicut in the fifteenth century was impressed by the fortifications and mentioned seven lines of the forts. He says that the forts were encircled not only the city but also its agricultural hinterlands and forests The outer most walls linked the hills surrounding the city. The masonry construction was slightly tapered. No mortar or cementing agent was employed anywhere in the construction. The stone blocks were wedge shaped, which held them in place The inner portion of the walls was of earth packed with rubble. Square or rectangular bastions projected outwards. What were the mutual benefits derived by the Portuguese and Vijayanagara by the trade alliance? The benefits derived by both were as follows: European markets had great demand for the spices and trade was considered as the benchmark for the status. Their superior military technology, especially the use of muskets, enabled them to become important players in the tangled politics of the period. V.N ruler KDR has entered into agreement with Portugese that they will supply the Arabian horses and gunpowder/ muskets to V.N Empire only. Vijayanagara was also noted for its markets dealing in spices, textiles and precious stones. Trade was often regarded as a status symbol for such cities, which boasted of a wealthy population that demanded high-value exotic goods, especially precious stones and jewellery. The revenue derived from trade in turn contributed significantly to the prosperity of the state. What do you mean by amaranayakas? Discuss the duties they had to perform in the Vijayanagara administration? Amaranayakas were the military commanders who were given territories in lieu of their salaries. The duties performed by them were as follows: Economic- They collected taxes and other dues from peasants, crafts persons and traders in the area. Political: These contingents provided the Vijayanagara kings with an effective fighting force with which they brought the entire southern peninsula under their control.

 Personal: They retained part of the revenue for personal use and for maintaining a stipulated contingent of horses and elephants. Social: Some of the revenue was also used for the maintenance of temples and irrigation works. Who led the army into battle at Rakshasi-Tangadi or the battle of Talikota? The military ambitions of the rulers of Vijayanagara and the Deccan Sultanates resulted in shifting alignments. Eventually it resulted in an alliance of the Sultanates against Vijayanagara. In 1565, the battle of Talikota started and the army was led by Rama Raya, the chief minister of Vijayanagara. The army of Vijayanagara was defeated by the combined armies of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar and Golconda. The victorious armies sacked the city of Vijayanagara. The city was abandoned within a few years. After the defeat, the Aravidu dynasty shifted its focus to the east and ruled from Penukonda and later from Chandragiri near Tirupati. Who were the nayakas in the Vijayanagara Empire? In the Vijayanagara Empire, the nayakas were military chiefs who exercised power and controlled forts and had armed supporters. These chiefs often moved from one place to another and many a times were accompanied by peasants looking for fertile land in order to settle. The nayakas spoke Telugu or Kannada. Many nayakas were under the control of the kings of Vijayanagara but often rebelled and faced military action by the kings. The amara-nayaka system was the great invention of the Vijayanagara which was like the iqta system of Delhi sultanate. They were military heads, tax collectors and tribute payers. It was the trouble created by hereditary nayakas which was one of the cause of weakening and declining of the Vijayanagara Empire. Write a short note on the Vijayanagara Empire under the rule of Krishnadeva Raya. Krishnadeva Raya belonged to the Tuluva dynasty. His rule was characterised by fullexpansion and consolidation. He brought under his control the land between the Tungabhadra and Krishna rivers called - the Raichur doab in the year 1512. He defeated Pratap Rudra of Gajapati dynasty, the ruler of Orissa in 1514 and the Sultan of Bijapur in 1520. His rule is credited with building of fine temples and attractive gopurams to some important south Indian temples e.g. the gopuram of the Brihadishvara Temple. He also founded the suburban township near Vijayanagara called Nagalapuram named after his mother. Write a short note on the relationship between the Sultans and the Rayas. The Sultans were the reason for destruction of the city of Vijayanagara in the battle of Talikota in 1565. But the relationship between the Sultans and the Rayas was not always hostile inspite of religious differences. For example, Krishnadeva Raya supported some claimants to power in the Sultanates and took pride in the title establisher of the Yavana kingdom. Similarly, the Sultan of Bijapur intervened in an attempt to resolve the succession disputes in Vijayanagara following the death of Krishnadeva Raya. According to historians, the Vijayanagara kings were keen to ensure the stability of Sultanates and vice versa. But due to the adventurous policy of Rama Raya and his attempt to play off one sultan against another, the Sultans came together and defeated him decisively. Write a note on the travellers who visited the Vijayanagara Empire. Several travellers visited the city of Vijayanagara and left their travel accounts. Notable among them are Italian trader Nicolo de Conti, an ambassador named Abdur Razzaq sent by the ruler of Persiaand a merchant named Afanasii Nikitin from Russia. All of

them visited the city in the fifteenth century. And Portuguese travellers like Duarte Barbosa, Domingo Paes and Fernao Nuniz visited the city in the sixteenth century. Freddrick Caesar was a traveller who visited the Vijayanagara Empire soon after the Battle of Talikota and gave the description of all the prevailing scenario in his account. What were the main features of the water resources that the Vijayanagara Empire had. Vijayanagara was located in the natural basin formed by the river Tungabhadra which flows in the north-easterly direction and the landscape that surrounded the city with granite hills. Many embankments were built along these streams to create reservoirs of different sizes. Since Vijayanagara was one of the most arid zones of the peninsula, perfect arrangements were made to store rainwater to be used in the city. Kamalapuram tank is the best example for such a tank built in the early years of the fifteenth century. Water from this tank was used not only for irrigating fields but was also conducted through a channel to the royal centre. According to the historians, the Hiriya canal was one of the most prominent waterworks. This canal drew water from a dam built across the Tungabhadra and irrigated the cultivated fields that separated the sacred centre from the urban core. This canal was built by kings of the Sangama dynasty. Write a note on the features of the fortification in the Vijayanagara Empire. The important feature of the Vijayanagara fortification was its incorporation of the agricultural tracts, because the rulers were well prepared to face the sieges and its consequences. A second line of fortification went around the inner core of the urban complex, and a third line surrounded the royal centre, within which each set of major building was surrounded by its own high walls. The fort was entered through well-guarded gates leading to the major roads. Gateways were with defined architectural features. The arch on the gateway leading into the fortified settlement as well as the dome over the gate is regarded as typical features of the architecture introduced by the Turkish Sultans. 8 marks Paes gives a vivid description of the bazaar: Going forward, you have a broad and beautiful street In this street live many merchants, and there you will find all sorts of rubies, and diamonds, and emeralds and pearls, and seed-pearls, and cloths, and every other sort of thing there is on earth and that you may wish to buy. Then you have there every evening a fair where they sell many common horses and nags, and also many citrons, and limes, and oranges, and grapes, and every other kind of garden stuff, and wood; you have all in this street. More generally, he described the city as being the best provided city in the world Who was Domingo Paes? During whose rule he came to India?

Domingo Paes was a Portuguese traveller who came during the reign of Krishna Deva Raya. What was the importance of these bazaars? The Vijayanagara Empire possessed an urban quality, which is not witnessed in any other South Indian state of the time. The capital city integrated within its precincts markets, palaces, temples, mosques etc. It was in the bazaars where business was carried on by the merchants. They dealt in spices, textiles and precious stones. They paid rents to the towns, which contributed significantly to the prosperity of the state. There were separate markets for particular commodities. Markets for agricultural and non-agricultural products were separate. Local communities of merchants were known as kudirai chettis or horse merchants. Discuss the details of the market as given by Paes. Paes described that, one can find all kind of precious gems in the markets of Vijayanagara. Markets of Vijayanagara are well equipped with all kind of items of the world. What does Nuniz describe about the Vijayanagara markets? Nuniz mentioned that markets were flooded with all kind of fruits. Meat was also sold in the markets. Why was the city of Vijayanagara described as being the best provided city in the world by Paes? Domingo Paes described the city of Vijayanagara as being the best provided city in the world due to the following reasons: The markets of Vijayanagara were stocked with all kinds of cereals, pulses, spices horse gram and fruits. All these provisions were available in abundance. Meat of all kind was abundantly available and was sold in the markets of Vijayanagara. The empires capital city thrived as a business centre that included a burgeoning market in large quantities of precious gems and gold. Prolific temple-building provided employment to thousands of masons, sculptors and other skilled artisans. About a tank constructed by Krishnadeva Raya, Paes wrote: The king made a tank at the mouth of two hills so that all the water which comes from either one side or the other collects there; and, besides this, water comes to it from more than three leagues (approximately 15 kilometers) by pipes... The tank has three large pillars handsomely carved with figures; these connect above with certain pipes by which they get water when they have to irrigate their gardens and rice-fields. In the tank I saw so many people at work that there must have been fifteen or twenty thousand men, looking like ants What was the most striking feature of the location of the Vijayanagara empire? The most striking feature about the location of Vijayanagara was the natural basin formed by the river Tungabhadra, which flowed in a north-easterly direction. The surrounding landscape was characterised by stunning granite hills that seemed to form a girdle around the city. A number of streams flowed down to the river from these rocky outcrops. Why were embankments built along the streams in Vijayanagara empire?

Embankments were built across big rivers and streams to create reservoirs of varying sizes. Since Vijayanagara was one of the most arid zones of the peninsula, elaborate arrangements had to be made to store rainwater and conduct it to the city. Water stored in these tanks was utilised not only for the irrigation of fields but was also supplied to capital city for fruit gardens and Kings Palace. The most important of such tank was built in the early years of the fifteenth century and is now called Kamalapuram tank. Mention the most prominent waterworks built by the kings of the Sangama dynasty. From the earliest times, the Vijayanagara kings were concerned to construct and operate effective and reliable water supply systems to satisfy the urban area of Vijayanagara. The kings of the Sangama dynasty exploited the hydrological environment to its maximum advantage, irrigating agricultural land inside the city, directing water into urban areas for domestic use and building an impressive system of baths and channels to service the Royal Centre. One of the most prominent waterworks built by them is to be seen among the ruins of Vijayanagara is the Hiriya canal. This canal drew water from a dam across the Tungabhadra and irrigated the cultivated valley that separated the sacred centre from the urban core. Krishnadeva Raya (ruled 1509-29), the most famous ruler of Vijayanagara, composed a work on statecraft in Telugu known as the Amuktamalyada. About the traders he wrote: A king should improve the harbours of his country and so encourage its commerce that horses, elephants, precious gems, sandalwood, pearls and other articles are freely imported He should arrange that the foreign sailors who land in his country on account of storms, illness and exhaustion are looked after in a suitable manner Make the merchants of distant foreign countriesbe attached to yourself by providing them with daily audience Then those articles will never go to your enemies. List two foreign travellers who gave information regarding the foreign trade in Vijayanagara Empire. Domingo Paes and Fernao Nuniz, who visited Vijayanagara Empire in the first half and then later half of the sixteenth century respectively, describe in glowing terms the foreign trade in India. Both were Portuguese travellers. How was horse trade carried out in the Vijayanagara Empire? Why was it important? Domingo Paes and Fernao Nuniz gave a vivid account of horse trade. This trade was initially controlled by Arabs. Local communities of merchants known as kudirai chettis or horse merchants also participated in these exchanges. From 1498, Portuguese appeared on the scene and maintained complete control over it. Horses were brought from Arabia, Syria and Turkey to the West coast post. Warfare during these times depended upon effective cavalry. Thus, importation of horses was of great military importance for the southern states as good horses were not bred in India. Besides, Vijayanagars conflict with the northern Deccan Muslim states restricted the supply of horses from north India that were imported from Central Asia. Krishnadeva Raya belonged to which dynasty? Krishnadeva Raya belonged to the Tuluva dynasty. Portuguese traveller Domingo Paes visited Vijayanagara during his rule.

Write the name of the source? Who was the author of the text? The source of this text is Amuktamalyada a treatise on statecraft written by Kirshna Deva Raya. What suggestions were given in this paragraphs to the king and why? Make the merchants of distant foreign countries who import elephants and good horses be attached to yourself by providing them with daily audience, presents and allowing decent profits. Then those articles will never go to your enemies. In which language this text was written? The text was written in Telugu language. 10 marks How and by whom were the ruins of Hampi brought to light? The ruins at Hampi were brought to light in 1800 by an engineer and antiquarian named Colonel Colin Mackenzie. Born in 1754, Colin Mackenzie became famous as an engineer, surveyor and cartographer. In 1815, he was appointed the first Surveyor General of India. He held this post till his death in 1821. He regarded local histories and surveys of historic sites to be important because East India Company could gain much of the information on many of the institutions, laws and customs whose influence still prevailed among the various tribes of Natives. Travelling through the Deccan, noting monuments, copying inscriptions and collecting manuscripts, Mackenzie visited Vijayanagara in 1800. As an employee of the English East India Company, he prepared the first survey map of the site. Much of the initial information he received was based on the memories of priests of the Virupaksha temple and the shrine of Pampadevi. Subsequently from 1856, photographers began to record the monuments, which enabled scholars to study them. As early as 1836, epigraphists began collecting several dozen inscriptions found at this and other temples at Hampi. In an effort to reconstruct the history of the city and the empire, historians collated information from these sources with accounts of foreign travellers and other literature written in Telugu, Kannada, Tamil and Sanskrit. Large part of Mackenzies collection of documents, manuscripts, artifacts and artworks is now in the British Museum and the Oriental and India Office Collections of the British Library; though some part of it remains in the Government Oriental Manuscripts Library in Chennai. What was the role and function of nayakas in the Vijayanagara Empire? The amara-nayaka system was the major innovation of the Vijayanagara Empire. Most probably many features of this system were derived from the iqta system of Delhi Sultanate. Nayakas of Vijayanagara were warriors holding an office bestowed on them by the central government on the condition of rendering military service. The nayakas had political aspirations which at times conflicted with the aims of the rulers. They were the agents of the rayas. They were given territories called amaram to govern by the rayas. These nayakas possessed revenue and administrative rights over these territories. They collected taxes and other dues from peasants, craftsmen and traders in the area. They used part of the revenue for personal use. Some of the revenue was also used for the maintenance of temples and irrigation works. They deposited the rest with the state treasury. Amara-nayaka was a designation conferred on a military officer or chief who had under his control a specified number of troops. They were required to maintain elephants, horses and soldiers in certain numbers, which were included in the royal army during

wars. Part of the revenue collected by them was used in maintaining a stipulated contingent of horses and elephants. They sent tribute to the king annually and personally appeared in the royal court with gifts to express their loyalty. Kings occasionally asserted their control over them by transferring them from one place to another. In course of time, nayakas began to assert their military, administrative and economic powers, which later became a major cause of the decline of the Vijayanagara empire. Explain the temple architecture of Vijayanagara empire with special reference to Virupaksha temple. During this period, certain new features were evident in the temple architecture.These included structures of enormous size that must have been built to mark the imperial authority. One of the best examples is raya gopurams or royal gateways that often dwarfed the towers on the central shrines. These gopurams signalled the presence of the temple from a great distance. These towering gateways also reminded about the power of the king who could command the resources, techniques and skills that was required to construct them. Another distinctive feature of the temple architecture was mandapas or pavilions and long, pillared corridors that often ran around the shrines within the temple complex. One of the best examples is the Virupaksha temple. The Virupaksha temple was built over centuries. Inscriptions reveal that this shrine dated to the 9-10th centuries. On the occasion of his coronation, Krishnadeva Raya built the elaborate hall in front of the main shrine. The hall was adorned with delicately carved pillars. Eastern gopuram was also built by him. The idol of Virupaksha is seen in the form of Linga inside the sanctum. The halls in the temple were used for varied purposes. In some spaces, images of gods were placed to witness special programmes of music, dance, drama etc. In some spaces, marriages of the deities were conducted. While some spaces were meant for the deities to swing in. On such occasions, small images other than those kept in the central shrine were used. Write an elaborate note on the amara-nayaka system of the Vijayanagara Empire. The amara-nayaka system was a major political innovation of the Vijayanagara Empire. According to historians, many features of the system were derived from the iqta system of the Delhi Sultanate. The amara-nayakas were military commanders in the empire. They were given territories to govern by the raya. Their duty was to collect taxes and other dues from peasants, craftspersons and traders in the territory. They kept a part of the collected revenue fro personal use and for maintaining a stipulated contingent of horses and elephants. These contingents provided the Vijayanagara kings with an effective fighting force with which they were able to bring the entire southern peninsula under their control. Some of the revenue was also used for the maintenance of the temples and irrigation works. The amara-nayakas sent tribute annually to the king and personally appeared in the royal court with gifts in order to show their loyalty. They were transferred occasionally by the kings from one place to another. But in course of time they established independent kingdoms. This was also one reason for the decline of the Vijayanagara kingdom.