4.

FERROUS METALS

Ferrous metals are those containing iron (Fe) and carbon 4.1. Influence of carbon Ferrous metals contain carbon with different percentages of the same. The carbon content has significant influence on the mechanical properties of the metal: (Ductility, Malleability, Hardness, Weldability and Tensile Strength) 4.2. Production of iron All ferrous metals are made by heating a mixture of iron ore and coke (source of carbon) at about 1100oC. Ferrous oxide (iron ore) + Carbon Iron + Carbon monoxide The iron that you get here has a carbon content of 4+% or higher and is referred to as pig iron which is industrially useless. To obtain a useful product the pig iron is usually re-melted with addition of scrap metals and the carbon content is also reduced to obtain other ferrous metals such as: o Wrought iron o Cast iron o Steel Reading assignment: Wrought irons and find out their different applications. 4.3. Cast irons Characteristics Cast iron is made by re-melting pig iron together with iron scrap material. Cast iron still contains high carbon content (3-4%) - Relatively corrosion resistant (hence good for use as manhole covers) Is suitable for casting and can be applied: o for ornamental purposes and manhole covers o However, it has a low ductility (brittle) hence it cannot be worked (i.e. rolled or forged etc). o Hardly used for structural applications as it is brittle in tension but performs well in compression.

4.4. Steel 4.4.1. General To produce steel the pig iron is heated and oxygen is introduced to oxidise the carbon Pig iron + Oxygen Iron + Carbon monoxide Depending on the amount of oxygen applied we have:

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1. Low carbon steels (up to 0.15%): are soft, suitable for iron wire and tin 2. Mild steels (0.15 0.25%): Very important for structural applications because they are strong, ductile, malleable and weldable Mild steel can be used for structural applications such as in making: o Structural members (beams, composite structures) o Reinforced concrete o Prestressed concrete 3. Medium carbon steel (0.20 0.50%): general engineering purposes 4. High carbon steel (0.50 1.50%): high tensile strength, hard, less ductile. In general too brittle for structural applications. Used for tools and machinery Disadvantages: Not corrosion resistant Its properties depend on the prevailing temperature.

To achieve only the suitable properties of steel we have: 1. Alloy steels. 2. Heat treatments for steel to alter their properties 3. Finishes that can be applied on ferrous metals including steel 4.5. Alloy steels Alloy steels are ones that contain > 5% of alloying elements such as chromium or nickel. To give them special properties such as: - High strength (compressive and tensile) - Heat resistance - And of course corrosion resistance The most common type of alloy steel is stainless steel. General Properties: - Do not normally rust (or, more precisely, they hardly rust but may rust under very severe conditions) - What makes them stainless: Chromium which forms an invisible corrosionresistant film when exposed to air - Are commonly very strong - Costly Applications: - Tubes (e.g. plumbing) - Sheet roofing - Fixings (nuts and bolts and other fixings for precast concrete etc)

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4.6. Heat treatments for steel to alter its properties The mechanical properties of steel can be modified by subjecting them to one or more temperature cycles which alter shape and size of the grains. Hardening: Heat steel above a critical temperature (600oC) and cooling it rapidly. In general the higher the temperature and the more rapid the cooling, the harder but less ductile the steel - Tempering: Is carried out on hardened steel whereby you Reheat hardened steel to a temperature below the hardening temperature and let cool at any rate. Result: increased ductility Reading assignment 2: Annealing, normalizing and case hardening -

4.7. Finishes on ferrous metals Steel members often require applied finishes for protection or appearance Painting Enamel: where a layer of molten glass is applied onto the surface of the steel the coating is tough, corrosion resistant Plastic coating: PVC, acrylic, epoxy. Painted or dipped Metal coatings using different metals that are more reactive than steel-such as zinc or other metals that are not prone to corrosion such as lead, cadmium, tin, or aluminium.

Methods of applying finishes: o Electroplating,Hot-dipping and Sheradizing 5. NON-FERROUS METALS More costly than ferrous metals but possesses some properties that are superior to those from ferrous metals such as Properties: Resistance to corrosion Ease of fabrication (moulded into desired shape) High electrical and thermal conductivity Light weight High strength Attractive colours Non-Ferrous Metals: Most common non-ferrous metals: Copper, Brass and Aluminium (i) Copper (Cu)

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Appearance: - Salmon-red but turns green patina with time. Properties: Very resistant to corrosive agents Very high thermal and electrical conductivity (Second only to silver) Available in the following forms: rods, wire, tube, sheets, foil

Working copper: - Can be hot rolled, forged and extruded (forced) - Can be joined with other alloys by e.g. welding, brazing or soldering Applications: Plumbing, roof coverings, electrical conductors (ii) Brass = Alloy of copper + zinc Appearance: - golden colour Properties: - Non-rusting - Method of forming depends on zinc content -the higher the zinc content the more brittle it becomes: Applications: - Mainly for hinges, screws, fixings, ornaments

(iii) Aluminium Properties: - Third most common element, hence its price tends to be stable - Easy to form into shape - High strength-weight ratio (i.e. it is light but strong) - Corrosion resistant - Low density (1/3 of that of steel) - Coefficient of thermal expansion twice that for steel: [24x10-6 K-1]. Applications - Gutters and pipes and very often for facades (due to its light-weight and durable) - Insulation: foil (less than 0.15 mm) provides high reflection of heat and low emissivity - For structural applications, aluminium alloy can be produced (mainly with magnesium, manganese, and silicon). o High tensile strength (similar to steel), o But low elastic modulus (1/3 of that of steel). o Hence huge deflections under load

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LECTURE 6-CORROSION OF METALS Ferrous metals that have been processed are unstable. Ferrous oxide (iron ore) + Carbon Iron + Carbon monoxide

5.1. Corrosion of ferrous metals A galvanic cell that consists of: o Two metals that have a difference in their electrical potential o Electrolyte (Water + Salt) o Electronic connection In the electrolyte the ferrous ions from anode and hydroxyl ions form a corrosion product Anodic reaction; Fe Fe2+ + 2eIron metal is dissolved to give iron ions and electrons Cathodic reaction; 2H++ 2e- H2 Hydrogen ions react with ions from dissolved iron metal to give Hydrogen gas Electrolyte reaction: Fe+2 + 2(OH-) Fe (OH) 2 Iron metal reacts with hydroxyl ions to give ferrous hydroxide (corrosion products) which occupies a larger volume than the steel. For corrosion of steel in concrete the increase in volume results in cracking of concrete and reduction in diameter of steel results in loss of strength of the structure Cost of repairing corrosion is high estimated at 3-5% of GDP of industrialized countries. 5.2. Prevention of corrosion Protective coatings Most widely used product The main function is to isolate metals from environmental corrosion such as preventing water and oxygen from entering concrete Examples are metallic coating such as chromium and organic coating such as paints Corrosion inhibitors CIV 1006S -11/08/2011 5

Use chemical inhibitors to decrease rate of corrosion process Corrosion inhibitor is a chemical substance that when added in small concentration to an environment decreases rate of corrosion Adsorb to metallic surface and forming a protective film Cathodic protection Apply a cathodic current onto a metal (introduction of a more reactive metal and use galvanic cell- sacrificial anode)

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