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Nicol Prism Polarimeter

Signature Unsigned Location Date Late 1800s Dimensions
Extended Length Height Base Length

English 12.5in 8.0in 12.0in

Metric 318mm 203mm 305mm

One of the earliest known polarizer types was the calcite Nicol prism, invented in 1828. This polariscope originally contained two Nicol prisms, one for generating an incident polarization onto a sample and a Description second for analyzing the state of polarization transmitted by the sample. This type of polariscope was invented in the mid 1800s and was common well into the 20th century for analyzing crystal structure and other applications.

Basic Principle
The basic principle behind Nicol Prism is based on its unique behaviour on the event of incidence of light rays on its surface. When an ordinary ray of light is passed through a calcite crystal, it is broken up into two rays:

An Ordinary ray which is polarized and has its vibrations perpendicular to the principle section of the crystal and An extra-ordinary ray which is polarized and whose vibration is parallel to the principle section of the prism.If by some optical means, one of the two rays eliminates, the ray emerging through the crystal will be Plane polarized. In Nicol Prism, ordinary ray is eliminated and Extra-ordinary ray, which is plane polarized, is transmitted through the prism.

Construction
A calcite crystals length is three times its breadth. Let ADFGBC be such a crystal having ABCD as a principle section of the crystal with BAD = 700.

The end faces of the crystal are cut in such a way that they make angles of 680 and 1120 in the principle section instead of 710 and 1090. The crystal is then cut into two pieces from one blunt corner to the other along two pieces from one blunt corner to the other along a plane perpendicular to the extra ordinary rays. 1. Refractive index of Calcite for O ray, 2. Refractive index of Canada balsam, 3. Refractive index Calcite of E ray, Thus we see that the Canada Balsam is optically denser than calcite for E ray and rarer for O ray. Finally the crystal is enclosed in a tube blackened inside.

Unpolarised light incidence

When a ray SM of unpolarised light parallel to the face AD is incident on the face AB of the prism, it splits up into two refracted rays, the ordinary ray and the extra ordinary. Both of the O and E ray are plane polarized the vibrations of O ray being perpendicular to the principal section of the crystal; while that of E ray being in the principal section. The ordinary ray in going from calcite to Canada Balsam travels from optically denser medium to a rarer medium.

As the length of calcite crystal is large, the angle of incidence at Calcite Balsam surface for the ordinary ray is greater than the critical angle. Therefore when O ray is incident on Calcite Balsam surfaces it is totally reflected and is finally absorbed by the side AD which is blackened. The extra ordinary ray travels from an optically rare medium to a denser medium, therefore it is not affected by the Calcite Balsam surface and it is therefore transmitted through the prism. This E ray is plane polarized and had vibration, in the principal section parallel to the shorter diagonal of the end face of the crystal. Thus by Nicol prism we are able to get a single beam of place polarized light. Thus Nicol prism can be used as a polarizer.

Limitations
When the angle of incidence at the crystal surface is increased, the angle of incidence at Calcite Balsam surface decreases. When the angle S0MS becomes greater than 14o, the angle of incidence of Calcite Balsam surface becomes less than the critical angle. In this position ordinary ray is also transmitted through the prism along with extraordinary ray so light emerging from Nicol prism will not be plane polarized. When angle of incidence at crystal surface is decreased, the extraordinary ray makes less angle with the optic axis, as a result its refractive index increase, because the refractive index of calcite crystal for E ray is different in different directions through the crystal being maximum when the E ray travels at right angles to the optic axis and minimum when E ray travels along with O ray and no light emerges from the prism

Nicol prism as analyzer

Consider two Nicol prisms arranged coaxially one after another. When a beam of unpolarized light is incident on the first prism P, the emergent beam is plane polarized with its vibrations in principal section of first prism. This prism is called polarizer. When principal section of both prisms are parallel then intensity of emergent light is maximum. But when the principal sections are at right angles to each other the, intensity of emergent light is minimum i.e., there no light it transmitted through the second prism. Here first prism produced plane polarized light and 2nd prism detects and analyses it.

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Polarizatio n by reflection was discovered in 1808 by Etienne Malus (17751812). Malus, who had been doing experiment al work on double refraction while working on a theory of the effect, observed the light of the setting sun, reflected from the windows of a nearby window, through a crystal of Iceland Spar. As he rotated the crystal, the two images of the sun became alternately stronger and weaker, though there was never

complete extinction. Almost at once he repeated the experiment under controlled conditions, and found that the angles at which complete extinction of the reflected ray was obtained for water and glass. A Polarimeter is a device for studying a transparent sample between crossed polarizing devices. JeanBaptiste Biot (17741862) developed the polarimeter at the right, which was made by Soliel/Dub oscq of Paris ca. 1850. The polarizer on the

right-hand side uses a single plate of glass, while the analyzer on the left uses a pile of glass plates. The sample is held between these two devices. This apparatus is at Dartmouth College.

The Polariscope at the left is in the Millington/Barnard Collection at the University Museum of the University of Mississippi. It is unmarked, and of the basic (and least expensive) type, using polarization by reflection for both the polarizer and the analyzer.

The handsome polarimeter at the left is in the collection at the Smithsonian Institution. The sample is placed on the top of the cubical wooden box. The incoming light is polarized either by the diagonal glass plate or one inside the box. The analyzer is of glass plates inside the wooden drum. At the right is a pair of polarizing glass plates which I found in the apparatus demonstratio n room at Glasgow University during a 1978 visit. As I picked it up, I had the thought that Lord Kelvin had used it in his lectures a century earlier. At times it is necessary to have a wide field of view for samples held

between crossed polarizing devices. Before the introduction of sheet polarizers, the practical solution to the problem of producing a linearly Seven devices polarized beam of large diameter was the use of polarization by reflection, of this type are with a Nicol prism used as an analyzer. shown; these are sometimes named after Edward Pickering (18461919), who introduced laboratory work in physics to Harvard University. The example at the Judson Collection is by Stoelting of Chicago, and cost $7.50 in 1912. The arm on the device was intended to carry Smithsonian Institution a magnifying lens. The polariscopes with the notches taken out of the corners of their upright wooden plates were made by Queen of Philadelphia, and cost from $20.00 to $45.00 in 1887. The remaining device is probably also by Queen, and cost in the $6.00 to $15.00 range. Queen also sold sets of samples to be used with the device.

Hampden-Sydney College Institution

Smithsonian

Miami University College

Allegheny

Franklin and Marshall College Collection, San Antonio The small polarimeter at the right was made by Alfred L. Robbins-Martin Co. of Chicago. The base is only 32 cm long. The glass plate from which the polarized light is reflected is back-painted in black; the diffusing glass is missing. The small-diameter Nicol prism was in working condition when it was tested agains sunlight reflecting from a waxed wooden floor. The device is in the Greenslade Collection.

Judson

This Pickering-type polarimeter is in the Greenslade Collection. The name of the Ziegler Electric Company of Boston is stamped into its side. However, it has the same form, including the ornamentation on the upright brace, as the polarimeter listed in the 1916 catalogue of the L.E. Knott Apparatus Company of Boston, who listed it at $8.00. However, the Knott example does have a graduated scale for the rotation of the Nicol prism. This one, lacking the scale, is properly a polariscope.

The apparatus at the right was purchased by the United States Military Academy in 1829, probably from Lerebours of Paris, and was used for the determination of Brewster's angle for liquid or solid samples. A beam of unpolarized light from a small diameter source is defined by a hole in the bracket at the end of the pivoted arm, and the reflected light is viewed through the eyepiece, which contains a calcite crystal. The calcite analyzer produces two images of the hole in the bracket, and at Brewster's angle for the sample one of these disappears. The reflecting surface is set parallel to and along the 90 line of the divided circles by the adjusting screws. The eyepiece can be moved outward to examine the light reflected from liquids in the square pan next to the solid surface. This apparatus is now at the Smithsonian Institution.

The polarization apparatus at the left is a Dartmouth College, and was made by Widdefield and Co. of Boston. This is the only piece of apparatus I have seen by this maker. At the bottom is a rectangle of black glass to produce light polarized by reflection.

. This optical analyzer by J. Duboscq of Paris is in the Garland Collection of Classical Physics apparatus at Vanderbilt University. It is listed in the 1885 Duboscq catalogue as Apparatus for the Repetition of Malus's Experiments by Projection, and cost 150 francs. The apparatus is incomplete, but its use may be inferred from the cut below from the catalogue.

This a generalized apparatus for studying polarization phenomena in the Garland Collection of Historical Physics Apparatus at Vanderbilt University. It is listed in the 1885 Duboscq catalogue as "Apparatus of Jules Duboscq, for showing all of the phenomena of linear, circular, elliptical, chromatic and rotary polarization, and investigating crystals with one optical axis and with two optical axes." Many other parts are stored in the box on which the apparatus stands. If you wanted to buy one piece of apparatus to demonstrate and investigate polarization phenomena, this was the one!

The polarimeter at the right is in the Millington/Barnard Collection at the University of Mississippi. It was probably bought during the second half of the 1850s from Lerebours et Secretan of Paris by Prof. Frederick Barnard. It is listed in the 1853 L&S catalogue as Arago's polariscope and was designed to demonstrate the laws of light polarized by reflection and refraction. The cost was 100 francs, or about $20. Arago was Dominique Franois Jean Arago (1786-1853), the French astronomer and physicist who also introduced J.L.M. Daguerre's invention of photography to the Academy in 1831. This instrument, also in the University Museum of the University of Mississippi, is listed in the 1853 L&S catalogue as Biot's polariscope, and cost 340 francs (about $65) with all of its attachments and samples. Jean-Bapatiste Biot, who is best known today for the Biot-Savart law relating currents and magnetic fields, is the inventor of tourmaline tongs that are used to study polarization effects in small, thin samples.

This is an elbow polariscope fitting for a Leybold's Universal Projection Lantern. It includes a series of polarization samples including a butterfly, a parrot, a chameleon, a tulip and a forget-me-not. In the catalogue of E. Leybold's Nachfolger published ca 1920, the apparatus in the box adds up to $79.00. This instrument is in the Jack Judson Collection at the Magic Lantern Collection in San Antonio, Texas. The collection also includes the Universal Projection Lantern with which it was designed to operate.

This is a polarized light attachement for an optical disk. The Central Scientific catalogue notes that the polarizer (on the left) is a pile of transparent glass plates 6x10 cm. The analyzer is a rectangular glass plate which is mounted to rotate on the optical axis of the apparatus. The ground glass screen is used for the projection of the image, and

the samples are placed in the holder in the middle. The cost was $17.50. This apparatus is in the Judson Collection in San Antonio, Texas; Kenyon College has another example

Verbal Communication
Communication is at the heart of any relationship, be it familial, business, romantic, or friendly. While there has been significant advances in how we understand body language and other forms of communication, verbal communication continues to be the most important aspect of our interaction with other people. Its important to understand both the benefits and shortcomings of this most basic communication.
Advantages Of Verbal Commnication

In a world flooded with E-mail and other text-based communication, verbal communication has several advantages over other forms of communication. For example, we can slow down and present points one-by-one and make sure that each point is clearly communicated and understood before moving on to the next point. This can greatly increase both the speed and accuracy of communication. Verbal communication is far more precise than non-verbal cues. No matter how clear we believe we are being, different gestures have different interpretations between different cultures and even between two members of the same culture. One famous example is Richard Nixons use of the victory finger salute in Australia, as he was unaware that the gesture was a vulgarity there. However, verbal communication is most effective when combined with other forms of communication like body language and gestures to help cue the intensity of the verbiage. Verbal communication is also the most effective way of explaining intangible concepts, as problem areas can be readily addressed and explained. Verbal communication also does not use natural resources in the way that technological methods or printing can.
Disadvantages Of Verbal Communication

Of course, this does not mean that verbal communication is the best option in every circumstance. From a legal point of view, verbal communication is sometimes problematic because there is a much smaller chance of an objective record. Verbal communication can also be quickly forgotten, especially if there are multiple points to consider. Additionally, there is always the possibility of miscommunications leading to angry responses or quick escalation of a situation that could be less intense in written form.
Four Purposes Of Communication

There are four basic purposes for communication. Almost all of these purposes are better served through verbal communication than other options like E-Mail or print. First, communication can be used to convey information. Of all the purposes of communication, this is the one that can be adequately accomplished through text-based media as well as verbally. Many businesses use E-mail or interoffice memos in this way. It is used simply to pass information such as meeting times or new policies from administration to employees.

Second, communication can be used to ask for help. Asking verbally for help has been shown to trigger natural empathy in the listener more than text-based communication. Often seeing the person asking for help increases the likelihood that a request will be granted. Like other verbal communication, verbal requests also mean that a request can be stated clearly and any miscommunication can be immediately rectified. The third purposes of communication is to influence a listener or audience. This is the type of communication used by politicians. While this includes non-verbal cues like appearance and dress, the most important aspect is what words and syntax they choose to use. This is the most important component of influencing an audience. The fourth and final form is entertainment. Once again there is a clear advantage to verbal communication over text-based communications. For example, most of the top comedians in the country make their living in live shows where they can readily interact with an audience rather than in text-based communication like books or websites.
Clarification And Understanding

There are over three thousand languages and dialects that are in use in the world. This variety means that communication can be a difficult problem to overcome. Even within the same language, people have different conceptions of the same word. Words do not have a meaning of their own, but are like placeholders or envelopes into which each individual puts their own particular meaning. Verbal communication allows for the most immediate feedback and clarification of words. Frequently, the same word has different meanings for different people depending on their own history, upbringing or social status. Direct verbal communication allows for clarification of these misunderstandings as quickly as possible.

Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication is any kind of communication not involving words. When the term is used, most people think of facial expressions and gestures, but while these are important elements of nonverbal communication, they are not the only ones. Nonverbal communication can include vocal sounds that are not words such as grunts, sighs, and whimpers. Even when actual words are being used, there are nonverbal sound elements such as voice tone, pacing of speech and so forth. Nonverbal communication can be incorporated in a persons dress. In our society, a person wearing a police uniform is already communicating an important message before they say a word. Another example is a mans business suit, which is perceived by some as communicating an air of efficiency and professionalism. While each of these cues conveys a message, so does its absence. In some settings, failing to express a nonverbal cue also communicates meaning. A policeman out of uniform is called plainclothes and is seen as deliberately trying to conceal his role. To some, this may make him seem smart or efficient, while others may consider him sneaky or untrustworthy. In the same way, a businessman who does not wear a suit is conveying an air of casualness which some would consider slightly less professional. In the modern world, dressing down implies a relaxation of professional standards that is much more than just a change of clothes. Many cues are based on learned cultural standards, but there are some elements of nonverbal communication that are universal. Paul Eckmans landmark research on facial expressions in the 1960s found that the expressions for emotions such as anger, fear, sadness and surprise are the same across all cultural barriers. The setting where communication takes place also lends a meaning to words apart from their literal definition, and constitutes nonverbal communication. For instance, the word tradition means one thing when it is spoken in City Hall, and quite another when it is spoken in a church. The sign of a cross takes on great cultural meaning when used in a religious context, but on a road sign it just means that an intersection is coming up. Some nonverbal communication accompanies words and modifies their meanings. For instance, our speed of speaking and the pauses we place between our words form a nonverbal element to our speech. A slight pause before a word can imply uncertainty or be interpreted as a request for confirmation from the listener, whereas a lack of pauses can be taken as a sign of confidence or the encouragement of a fast reply from the listener. If someone asks you a question in a hurried manner, you will probably get the feeling that they want a similarly quick reply. The use of personal space constitutes a form of nonverbal communication. If someone leans toward their listener as they speak, it implies that they are communicating something personal or secret. Depending on the social nuances of the situation, this may be taken as a sign of friendship or an unwanted invasion of space.

The use of touching as an element of communication is called haptic communication, and its meanings are very culture-dependent. In American society, a handshake, a pat on the shoulder or a high five have certain definite meanings understood by practically everybody. In other societies, these might be enigmatic acts or an embarrassing invasion of personal space. The use of the eyes as an element of nonverbal communication is an area of study in itself, and is called oculesics. Researchers have divided eye movements into separate elements such as the number and length of eye contacts, blink rate, dilation of the pupils and so forth. Here again, the interpretation of these cues is highly dependent on the culture of the participants. A prolonged stare may establish a bond of trust, or destroy it. It may elicit a reply from the person being stared at, or it may make them become uncommunicative from embarrassment. This is how most of our communication takes place. When we consider the amount of nonverbal communication that passes between us and compare it with the mere words we say, it is obvious that the nonverbal part is by far the largest.

German From Gert-Joachim Post-World War II to the Present

Democracy Day Glaessner

When the former allies of World War II divided Germany into two provisional states, no one would have predicted that this would last for nearly half a century. Nor could anyone have predicted that sixty years later, Germany would have shaken off its Nazi past so thoroughly as to emerge as a key player in Western politics.Gert-Joachim Glaessner explains this historic transformation and provides an in-depth introduction to the German political system, its foundations and developments since 1949. Themes covered include the development of the FDR and GDR during the Cold War, the politics of Westernization, the controversies of West Germany's role in NATO and European integration. The author also examines parliamentary institutions, the role of the German Chancellor, party structure and organized interest groups. The book includes reference material from key documents, such as the German Constitution.Demonstrating how Germany went from political pariah to a model of modern liberal democracy, Glaessner offers a concise overview of the German political system in the post-war period.

About the author

Gert-Joachim Glaessner is Professor of German Politics at Humboldt University, Berlin.

Contents
1.1949 and 1989 - New Democratic Beginnings and ContinuityPost-war Germany and the Foundation of two German StatesThe Federal Republic and the GDR as Political and Societal AntipodesThe Second Foundation of the Federal Republic2.Constitutionalism and Constitutional Politics in GermanyThe Basic Law of 1949Constitutional Basics of the Federal Republic's Political OrderBasic Rights and the System of Values (Werteordnung) of the Basic LawThe 'Free Democratic Basic Order'Guiding Principles of the System of GovernmentDemocracy and the Basic Law3.The Constitution of the United GermanyThe Quest for Reunification in the Basic LawConstitutional Reform or Continuation of the Basic Law?Constitutional Provisions of the

Unification TreatyConstitutional Amendments after Unification4.West and East: Germany in EuropeThe Question of SovereigntyThe Politics of IntegrationDeutschlandpolitik and OstpolitikThe Aims of DeutschlandpolitikThe Path to German UnityThe New Germany and the European Order5.The System of GovernmentThe Federal StructureThe Constitutional BodiesThe Central Role of ParliamentThe Executive and Public AdministrationThe Constitutional and Political Role of the German ChancellorChecks and Balances: The Federal Constitutional CourtExternal Actors: Organised Interest GroupsExternal Actors: The Media6.Elections, Coalitions, and Coalition GovernmentsThe Electoral SystemFederal Elections 1949 2002Coalitions and Coalition GovernmentsChancellor Democracy and Party Government - from Adenauer to Schrder7.The German Party SystemThe Constitutional Role of Parties in the Basic LawThe Party System of the 'Old' Federal RepublicA Brief Portrait of the Major German Parties The Christian DemocratsThe Social DemocratsThe LiberalsThe GreensThe Establishment of a New Democratic Party System in East Germany (1989-1990)The German Party System After Unification8.The Power Structure of the GDRDictatorship of the Proletariat or Socialist Democracy?The Creation of a Socialist System in East GermanyOvercoming

StalinismTechnocratic Reforms in the 1960sThe Honecker EraThe Collapse of the Old RegimeThe End of the State Party SEDStructural Defects of the Communist System9.The German Revolution of 1989 and German UnificationHave the Events of 1989 been a Revolution?Collapse and a New Beginning - the Citizens' Movements and Democratic TransitionDual Rule: The Old Regime and the New Political ForcesThe First Democratic Elections in East GermanyThe Controversy About a New Constitution for the GDRThe Treaties of German UnificationHow to Unite Two Different Social and Political Systems?10.Political Culture United?Political Culture in West-GermanyThe Socialist Political Culture of the GDRThe Political Culture of RevoltPolitical Culture in United GermanyDocumentsThe Basic Law of the Federal Republic (Excerpts)Treaty of 31 August 1990 between the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic on the Establishment of German Unity - Unification Treaty (Excerpts)Treaty of 12 September 1990 on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany (2 plus 4 Treaty)