1

Definition:
Soil organic matter consists of a whole series of products which
range from undecayed plant and animal tissues through ephemeral products
of decomposition to fairly stable amorphous brown to black material bearing
no trace of the anatomical structure of the material from which it was
derived and it is the latter material that is normally defined as ‘humus’.
Humus:
According to Buckman and Brady,
Humus is a complex and rather resistant mixture of
brown or dark brown amorphous and colloidal organic substances modified
from the original tissues or synthesized by the various soil organisms.
Non- humified & humified organic matter:
Soil organic matter consists of two major types of compounds,
unhumified substances and the humified remains of plant and animal tissues.
The non-humified organic matter is composed of compounds
released during decomposition in the original or slightly modified form.
Although numerous organic compounds are present in the plant tissue, only
a few exist in soils in detectable amounts after their release in soils. They are
primarily-
i. carbohydrate
ii. amino acids and proteins
iii. lipids
iv. nucleic acids
v. lignin and
vi. organic acids
Humified organic matter or humic matter is a group of compounds
that includes humic acids, fulvic acids, hymotomelanic acid and humans.
This humified soil organic fraction is also known as ‘humus’ or currently as
‘humic compounds’. Today humic compounds are defined as amorphous,
colloidal poly dispersed substances with yellow to brown –black color and
high molecular weights.
Sources of organic matter:
1. The original/primary source of the soil organic matter is plant
tissue.
Under natural conditions, the tops & roots of tress, shrubs,
grasses ad other native plants annually supply large quantities
of organic residues. Even with harvested crops, one tenth to one
third of the plat tops commonly fall to the soil and remain there
or are incorporated into the soil.
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But these organic materials are decomposed and digested by

soil organisms; they become part of the underlying soil by
infiltration or by actual physical incorporation. Accordingly, the
residues of higher plants provide food for soil organism, which
in turn create stable compounds that help maintain the soil
organic levels.
2. The secondary sources of organic matter are animals.
As they attack the original plant tissues, they contribute waste
products and leave their own bodies as their life cycles are
consummated. Certain forms of animal life, especially the
earthworms, termites, and ants also play an important role in
the translocation of soil and plant residues.
3. Another source of organic matter is soil organisms. It is of
ecological significance.
Types of materials present in organic matter:
There are three types of material in soil organic matter. These
are:
1. Fresh or undecomposed material
Materials in which the anatomical structure of the
plant substances is still visible.

2. Partially decomposed materials:

Soft green portions are decomposed in this stage.
This decomposition depends upon the composition of the tissues.
3. Completely decomposed material:
In this stage, the materials are completely
decomposed, and are called ‘humus’.
The whole of the organic residue is not decomposed all at
once or as a whole. Some of the constituents are decomposed very rapidly
some less readily, and others very slowly. The speed with which the organic
residues are decomposed depends on the nature and abundance of various
constituents that make up the residues, and the environmental condition, viz,
moisture supply, aeration, temperature and soil reaction, under which the
microorganisms carry out their activities. As the original material is
decomposed new ones are simultaneously synthesized in the forms of
microbial bodies and tissues.
It is evident that soil organic matter consists of plant,
animal and microbial residues of various stages of decomposition and
contains, at any given time,
i. original residues,
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ii. Various products of their decomposition, both simple and

complex; and
iii. Newly synthesized microbial bodies, both dead and alive.
Composition of plant tissues:
On a volume basis, the moisture content of plant residues is
high; varying from 60 to 90% and the rest 10 to 40% is solid matter.
On a weight basis, 75% is H2O & 25% is solid matter, there are
11% C, 10% O, 2% H & the rest 2% is others (N, P, K, Mg, As, etc. i.e.,
ash).
On an elemental basis (number of atoms of the elements),
hydrogen predominates. In representative plant residues, there are 8
hydrogen atoms for every 3.7 carbon atoms and 2.5 oxygen atoms (H: C:
O=8:3.7:2.5). These three elements dominate the bulk of organic tissue in
the soil.
Even though other elements are present only in small quantities,
they play vital role in plant nutrition and in meeting microorganism body
requirements.
The actual organic compounds in plant tissue are many and
varied and they can be grouped into a small number of classes.
Representative percentages as well as ranges are shown in the following
figure:

Water
75%
Dry matter
25%

Carbon42%
45% cellulose
Hydrogen 8%
5%su
2% fat
8%pr 8%ash
18%cellulose

Figure: Typical composition of representative green-plant material

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The carbohydrates, which range in complexity from simple sugars and

starches to cellulose, are usually the most prominent of the organic
compounds found in plants.
Fats and oils, which are somewhat more complex than carbohydrates
and less, so than lignins, are found primarily in seeds & leaf coatings.
Proteins contain- in addition to carbon, oxygen and hydrogen – about
16% nitrogen and smaller amounts of other essential elements such as sulfur,
manganese, copper and iron. Proteins are primary sources of these essential
elements. Simple proteins decompose easily while the complex crude
proteins are more resistant to breakdown and release their nitrogen.
Lignins which are complex compounds with multiple type or phenol
structures are components of plant cell walls. The content of lignin increases
as plants mature and is especially high in woody tissues. Lignins and
polyphenols are notoriously resistant to decomposition.
Rate of decomposition:
Organic compounds may be limited in terms of ease of
decomposition as follows:
1. Sugars, starches and simple proteins
Rapid
2. Crude proteins decomposition
3. Hemicelluloses
4. Cellulose
5. Fats, Waxes & so forth Very slow
6. Lignin and phenolic compounds. decomposition
Some general terms:
*Glucose
Glucose is the smallest unit of polysaccharide. It is an important
monosaccharide. The molecular sign of glucose is C6H12O6; it has one
aldehyde radical (-CHO), four secondary (-CHOH) & one primary
(-CH2OH) alcohol radical. Another name of glucose is ‘dextrose’.
There are two configurations:
i. D-glucose & ii. L-glucose
CHO CHO

(CHOH) 3 (CHOH)3

H-C-OH HO-C-H

CH2OH CH2OH

D-Glucose L-Glucose
 5

There are 2 stereo isomers of glucose:

i. α- D- glucose ii. β- D- glucose

H OH

H- C-OH

OH-C-H
O
H- C-OH

CH2OH

α- D- glucose
CHO

(CHOH) 3

H-C-OH

CH2OH
D-glucose

H OH

H- C-OH
- β-D-glucose
OH-C-H
O
H- C-OH

CH2OH
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7
8
 9

The organic compounds (non- humified):

 10

The plant tissue is composed of C, H, O, N, S, P and a

number of other elements. The organic part of the plant tissue is composed
of numerous organic compounds, but only a few are present in detectable
amounts in soils after decomposition. They are primarily
i. Carbohydrates
ii. Amino acids & proteins
iii. Lipids
iv. Nucleic acids
v. Lignins
vi. Humus
• Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are, by definition, poly hydroxy aldehydes,
ketons or substances that yield one of these compounds on hydrolysis.
Glucose (C6H12O6) and fructose are examples of an aldose and
a kelose, respectively.

H O

H- C-OH

OH-C-H
O
H- C-OH

CH2OH
Glucose (aldose)

H OH
 11

H- C=O

OH-C-H
O
H- C-OH

CH2OH

Fructose (Kelose)
The term carbohydrate indicates that these compounds
could be represented by hydrates of carbon: Cx(H2O)y. But several
compounds exist with properties of carbohydrates which do not have the
required ratio of hydrogen to oxygen 0f 2:1; e.g. the sugar deoxyribose
(C5H10O4), which is a constituent of DNA, a component of every plant cell.
Some of the carbohydrates may also contain N and S, and their formulas do
not agree with Cx(H2O)y.
Approximately 5 to 16% of the soil organic matter is in
the form of carbohydrates.
Sources:
• Soil carbohydrates are derived from plant residues and from the
remains of microorganisms and animals.
• A major portion of the soil organic matter is derived from the added
and residual vegetative material.
• Animals contribute a smaller portion of soil carbohydrates.
• Minerals contribute indirectly to soil carbohydrates.
• Soil bacteria are capable of producing polysaccharides containing all
sugars found in soils except arabinose and galactose.
Classification:
Carbohydrates can be divided into three groups:
i. Monosaccharide
ii. Oligosaccharides
iii. Polysaccharides
The properties of these carbohydrates change significantly with
increasing molecular complexity.
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Monosaccharides are simple sugars that can’t be hydrolyzed into

smaller molecules under reasoning mild conditions. According to the
number of carbon atoms, monosaccharide may be trioses (C3H6O3),
testroses, and so on up to octoses or nonoses.
Hexoses-(glucose, galactose, mannose, fructose)
Pentoses-(arabinose, xylose, ribose, fucose, rhammose).
Oligosaccharides are compound sugars that, upon hydrolysis, yield
two to six molecules of simple sugars.
Disaccharides for example, hydrolyzes into two
monosaccharide and upon hydrolysis, pentosaccharides yield five
monosaccharide. Disaccharide (sucrose, cellobiose, gentibiose).
Polysaccharides are group of compounds that yield many
different monosaccharides upon hydrolysis. They include cellulose
and hemicelluloses.
Polysaccharides are very complex in structure and have
high molecular weights. They are sometimes designated into:
i. Homopolysaccharides
ii. Hetaropolysaccharides
• Amino acids & proteins
Amino acids are the fundamental structural units of
protein. The nitrogen in amino acids, occurs as an amino (-NH2) group, is
attached to the C chain. The acid part consists of a terminal C linked to an O
atom and an OH group, often written as –COOH which is called carboxyl
group. These are the reasons for the name amino acids. The general formula
of amino acids may be written as,
NH2

R-CH-COOH
Proteins are complex combinations of amino acids. 21
amino acids are usually found as protein constituents. The protein is formed
by the linkage of many amino acids through the amino & carboxyl group.
H O H H O

H2N-C-C-OH+H-N-C-C-OH

Glycerin amino acid

HO H HO
H2N-C-C-N-C-C-OH +H2O
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H H

(Peptide bond)

Both amino acids and proteins are major sources of nitrogen compounds in
soils. They are more difficult to breakdown than carbohydrates because of
their size and complexity in molecular structure.

They are amphoretic in nature, and consequently react with acids and bases.
At the isoelectric point, amino acids behave as zwilter ions; in other words,
behave as cations & anions (Tan 1993). In acid soils, the amino acids are
positively charged and behave as cations; whereas in basic soils they are
negatively charged and behave as anions.

O O

R-CH-C-O-H R-CH-C-Oˉ

NH2 NH3

In acid medium: O O

R-CH-C-Oˉ + H+ R-CH-C-OH

NH3 NH3

In basic medium: O O

R-CH-C-Oˉ + OHˉ R-CH-C-Oˉ +H2O

NH3 NH2
Decomposition of amino acids & proteins:
The main reaction process for the decomposition of three
compounds is hydrolysis. Hydrolysis of proteins, brought about by
proteinases and peptides, of soil microorganisms, results in cleavage of
peptide bonds, releasing in this way produces the amino acids. The latter
compounds are broken down further into NH3 by the enzymes called amino
acid dehydrogenases and oxidases.
Schematically the main pathway of decomposition can be
represented as follows:
Proteins—Peptides---amino acids---NH3
The decomposition reaction of proteins as described
above is frequently called deamination or putrefication (Gartner, 1949;
 14

Stevenson, 1986). Deamination reactions can take place in aerobic or

anaerobic conditions, and are, therefore called oxidative and non-oxidative
deamination respectively.
The reaction for oxidative deamination can be written as:
R-CH-COOH-O2---R-COOH+CO2+NH3

NH2
Anaerobic deamination may result in
i. Deamination or reduction, and ii. decarboxylation, which can be
written as follows:
Deamination or reduction:
R-CH-COOH+H2-------R-CH2-COOH+ NH3

NH2
Decarboxylation:
R-CH-COOH-------R-CH2-NH2 +CO2

NH2
(Amino acid) (Amine)
• Lipids:
Lipids are heterogeneous compounds of fatty acids, waxes,
and oils. The term lipid does not imply a particular chemical structure, as
with amino acids. The name is used to describe substances that are soluble in
fat solvents, such as ether, chloroform, or benzene.
Lipids are usually classified into three groups:
1. Simple lipids: These include natural lipids, fats, oils and
waxes.
2. Compound lipids: Phosphatides, glycolipids, sulfolipids and
terpenoid lipids, including carotenoids, belong to this group.
3. Derived lipids: these are lipids derived from hydrolysis of
simple & compound lipids. They include fatty acids, alcohols and sterols.
The fatty acids can be unsaturated fatty acids (e.g. oleic acid
C18H34O12) palm oil or coconut oil is rich in palmitic acids. Cholesterol is an
example of a sterol, which upon UV radiation will form vitamin D.
The basic component of lipids is glycerol, C3H8O3 or other
alcohols; glycerol is a trihydroxy alcohol with the following structure:

H2C-OH
 15

HC-OH

H2C-OH

Lipids have limited solubility in water and exhibit a

hydrophobic character. Many of the lipids in plant and animals are associate
with proteins and carbohydrates (e.g. glycolipids)
• Nucleic acids
Each plant and animal cell contains a discrete rounded or
spherical body, called the nucleus, which contains nucleic acids. Nucleic
acids, first isolated in 1869 by F. Miescher, are polymers with high
molecular weights. Their repeating unit is a mononucleotide, rather than an
amino acid.
Two types of nucleic acids are generally recognized:
i. deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), a constituent of cell nuclei; and
ii. Ribonucleic acid (RNA) located in the nucleolus and in the
cytoplasmic membrane, called endoplasmic reticulum.

• Lignin
Lignin is a system of thermoplastic highly aromatic polymers,
derived from coniferyl alcohol or guaiacyl propane monomers.
Plant lignin can be divided into three types of basic monomers:
i. Lignin from softwood- coniferyl alcohol, derived mostly from
softwood or coniferyl plants.
ii. Lignin from hardwood- sinapyl alcohol, derived from hard
wood.
iii. Lignin from grasses, bamboo or palm. Or grass lignin-
coumaryl alcohol, derived from grasses and bamboos.
These basic monomers form large, complex polymer
(polymeric molecules). A hypothesis of a more systematic
arrangement of the basic monomers into lignin is presented by
Tan (1993). Many of the C atoms are connected to the
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OH Radicals (phenolic hydroxyl groups) in which the behavior

of the H is much the same as that in the carboxyl groups of
organic acids. An example of a systematic linkage of softwood
lignin monomers to form polymeric lignin is shown in the
following figure:

Such a combination can also take place with the other types of
monomers, whereas the linkages can continue in many
directions.
The ultimate source for formation of lignin is carbohydrates or
intermediate products of photosynthesis related to
carbohydrates. In the growth of woody plants, carbohydrates
are synthesized first. The formation of lignin then begins, and
the spaces existing between the cellulose fibers are gradually
filled with lignified carbohydrates. This process is called
lignification and serves several functions:
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a. it elements and anchors the fibers together

b. It increases the resistance of the fibers against physical and
chemical breakdown.
c. It increases rigidity and strength of cell walls.
It is believed that after lignification, the lignified tissue
then no longer plays an active role in the life of plants, but serves only as a
supporting structure.
The bulk of the lignin occurs in the secondary cell walls
where it is associated with cellulose & hemi cellulose in stems. The quantity
of lignin increases with plant age & stem content. it is very important
constituent of woody tissue and it contains the major portion of the methoxyl
content of the wood. A large amount of lignin is also detected in the vascular
bundles of plant issues.
Lignin is insoluble in water, in most organic solvents
and in strong sulphuric acid. It hydrolyzes into simple products, as do the
complex carbohydrates and proteins.
Non-lignified plant parts contain more moisture, & are
soft & break more easily.
Lignin is considered an important source for the
formation of soil humus, or humic matter. The high resistance of lignin to
microbial decomposition is perhaps why it accumulates in soil. It is believed
that, depending on the conditions, this could result in the formation of peat,
which in time, can be converted into lignite, leonardite, coal and ultimately
oil (fossil fuel) deposits.
Humified organic matter:
Humified organic matter or humic matter is a group of
compounds that includes humic acids, fulvic acids, hymotomelanic acids,
and humans. This humified soil organic fraction is also known as humus, or
currently as humic compounds. Today humic compounds are defined as
amorphous, colloidal poly dispersed substances with yellow to brown black
color and relatively high molecular weights.
According to Buckman & Brady,

‘ Humus is a complex and rather resistant mixture of

brown to dark brown amorphous and colloidal organic substances modified
from the original tissues or synthesized by the various soil organisms’

The term ‘humic acid’ originated with Berzelius in 1830,

who classified the soil humic fraction into
1. humic acid, the fraction soluble in bases;
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2. Crenic and apocrenic acid, the fraction soluble in water; and

3. Humin, the insoluble and inert part.
Humic acid was also referred to as humic acid, whereas
humin was also called ulmin by Mulder in 1840.
In 1912, Oden proposed the use of the name fulvic acid
replacing the terms crenic and apocrenic acids.
• Although humus is heterogeneous it possesses properties that
distinguish it sharply from original parent tissues of anatomical
structure of the material from which it was derived.
Types of humic matter:
Humic compounds or humic matter exists not only in
soils, but also in streams, lakes, rivers, oceans and their sediments. They can
also occur in lignite or leonardite, coal and other geologic deposits. These
deposits are the sources for the production of commercial humates
(Labortini et al. 1991; Burdick, 1965) that are used as soil amendments.
Consequently, three categories of humic matter can be distinguished.
a. Terrestrial or terrigenous humic matter:
This is humic matter in soils that comprises mainly
lignoprotein (lignin +protein) complexes humic and fulvic acids are major
constituents.
From the type of the lignin monomers, the group can
perhaps be studied into:
i. Softwood terrestrial humic matter, which is structurally
characterized by coniferyl alcohol.
ii. Hardwood terrestrial humic matter, which is composed of
sinapyl alcohol monomers.
iii. Grass or bamboo terrestrial humic matter, which consists
of coumaryl alcohol monomers.
b. Aquatic Humic matter:
This is humic matter in streams, lakes and oceans, and
their sediments and is composed mostly of fulvic acids. Humic
acid is only a minor constituent. It consists of carbohydrate-
protein complexes. The group can be subdivided into:
i. Allochthonous aquatic humic matter:
 This humic matter is brought from the outside in
water.
 The humic matter is formed in soils and other
formation, is leached or eroded into rivers, lakes and
oceans.
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 Although physical and chemical changes may be

induced by the aquatic environment. The nature of the
humic matter is still related to soil humic matter,
which consists of lignoprotein complexes.
ii. Autochthonous aquatic humic matter:
 This humic matter is formed from cellular
constituents of indigenous aquatic organisms.
 In marine sediments, this kind of humic matter
consists of carbohydrate-protein complexes (Jackson,
1975; degrees & Mopper, 1975)
 The source is organic debris from plankton, seaweed
and kelp.
 # Allochthonous- not produced in H2O,
Autochthonous- produced in H2O, native humic
substance.
C. Geologic Humic matter:
This is humic matter in lignite or leonardite and
other geologic deposits. It is composed mostly of humic acids. Because of
the organic process, most if not all, of the fulvic acids have apparently
polymerized into humic acids.
Fraction of organic matter:
Soil organic matter may be subdivided into three
components that are readily dispersed and separated from the mineral
particles, and that which can only be dispersed by aquatic chemical
treatment. A suggested subdivision is as follows:
i. Micro organic matter: it is the fresh fraction of soil
organic matter. This consists of the most recently added
plant & animal residues/debris, which due to the
entrapment of air has a density near 1 gm/cm³ and can be
separated from the heavier mineral particles by floatation
in water.
ii. Light fraction: this consists of partially humified plant &
faunal remains, which can comprise up to 25% of the
total organic matter in grassland soils, separation from
the mineral particles is achieved after ultrasonic vibration
of the dry soil, to disrupt the soil aggregates, and
floatation of the light fraction in a heavy organic solvent
(density 2gcm-³) with the aid of a surfactant.
iii. Humified fraction: it is the product of completely
decomposed soil organic matter, adheres strongly to the
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mineral particles, particularly to the clay to form a clay-

humus complex. This organic matter can not be separated
by density floatation, and is incompletely dissolved in
metal-chelating solvents, such as acetyl acetone. It is
most effectively dispersed by strong alkalis, such as
sodium hydroxide, which acts both by hydrolyzing and
depohymerizing the large organic molecules that are
tightly adsorbed on the mineral surface. The humified
fraction or humin is subdivided further according to its
solubility in alkaline & acidic solutions.
Fractionation of soil Humus:
Soil humus consists of two major types of
compounds, unhumified substances and the humified remains of plant
and animal tissues. The humified material, which represents the most
active fraction of humus, consists of a series of highly acidic, yellow to
black colored, high molecular weight polyelectrolyte referred to by such
names as humic acid, fulvic acid, and so on.
The fractionation of humic compounds is based
on solubility in acids and alkalis. Humic substances are normally
recovered from the soil by extraction with caustic alkali (usually 0.1-
0.5N NaOH), although in recent years use has been made of mild
reagents, such as neutral sodium pyrophosphate.
After treating with NaOH solution two fractions
are obtained-
i. Black solution (humic substances)
ii. Insoluble residues of humic matter (humin) + non-
humic matter.
Then the black solution is treated with
HCl/H2SO4 and two other fractions are obtained-
i. fulvic acid (acid soluble)
ii. Humic acid (acid insoluble)
When this acid insoluble humic acid is treated with
alcohol, soluble hymotomelanic acid and insoluble humic acid are obtained.
So, based on solubility characteristics, the humic
compounds can be separated into the following humic fractions (Flaig et al.
1975):
Fractions Solubility in
Alkali Acid Alcohol
Fulvic acid Soluble Soluble -
Humic acid Soluble Insoluble Insoluble
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Hymotomelanic Soluble Insoluble Soluble

acid
Humin Insoluble Insoluble Insoluble

According to the German workers, humic acid can be

further separated with natural salt solutions into –
i. Brown humic acid (braunhuminsaure) soluble in NaOH
not coagulated by an electrolyte and are characteristic of
humic acids in peat and spodosol.
ii. Gray humic acid (Grauhuminsaure) - insoluble in NaCl,
is easily coagulated and is characteristic of humic acids
in mollisols.
In addition to the major fractions, several authors have also
reported the isolation of a green humic acid fraction (Kumada and Hurst,
1967).
The acid soluble fulvic acid also has sub-fractions as it is
adjusted to pH 4.8, such as
i. soluble fulvic acid
ii. Insoluble s-humus
A complete fractionation scheme is given in the following
page-
………………………………………………..
i) Fulvic acid gives two subtractions at pH 4.8, namely
fulvic acid (soluble) & s-humus (insoluble).
j) It is more susceptible to microbial attack.
k) According to some investigations, fulvic acids are humic
acids capable of dissolving in water.
l) Hydrolysis of fulvic acids with 5% H2SO4 showed the
presence in fulvic acids of 20-25% reducing substances.
m) Fulvic aid has the ability to enter into exchange reactions
(the capacity for NH4 absorption was 318.6 m eq for
fulvic acids from podzolic soil and 324 m eq per 100g
substance fro those from chernozen.
n) Fulvic acid are found to be rich in contain nitrogen
o) Investigations by infra-red spectroscopy have shown that
components of an aromatic nature are present in fulvic
acids (Kasatochkin; Kobo & Tatsukawa; Schwitzer et al)
p) X-ray analysis shows that the net of aromatic carbon in
fulvic acids is very weakly expressed and side radicals
predominate.
 23

q) Due to the weakly expressed aromatic structure, the ratio

C: H is generally lower in fulvic acids than in humic
acids.
r) The hypothetical model structure of fulvic acid (Buffle’s
model) contains both aromatic and aliphatic structures,
both extensively substituted with oxygen- containing
functional groups:

Humic acid:
a. The conception of ‘humic acids’ at the
present time is a group of substances
having a form of structure although not
completely identical with one another. In
the last century, humic acids were
regarded as products of the oxidation and
dehydration of single substances, mainly
carbohydrates. Further investigations
have shown that several substances
participate in the formation of humic
acids.
b. It is high molecular weight fraction of
humic matter.
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c. It is soluble in alkali, but insoluble in

acid and water.
d. Humic acids are intermediate in
resistance to degradation.
e. It has low oxygen, but high carbon
content.
f. It possesses less acidic functional groups.
g. When humic acid is treated with alcohol,
it gives hymotomelanic acid (soluble)
and insoluble humic acid, from which
again brown humic acid (soluble) and
gray humic acid (insoluble) are obtained,
when treated with salt.
h. Humic acids are dark brown to black in
color.
i. Electron microscope observations
revealed the humic acids to different soils
to have polymeric structure, appearing in
form of rings, chains and clusters. The
size of their micro molecules can range
from 60-500Aº.
j. Humic acids are thought to be complex
aromatic macromolecules with amino
acids, amino sugars, peptides, aliphatic
compounds involved in linkages between
the aromatic groups.
k. The hypothetical structure for humic
acid, shown in the figure, contains free
and bound phenolic OH groups, quinine
structures, nitrogen and oxygen as bridge
units and COOH groups variously placed
on aromatic rings.
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 26

l. The elementary composition of humic

acid: at present time, comprehensive
information is available on the
elementary composition of the humic
acid isolated from different soils. Some
investigators draw attention to a
similarity in values of this criterion in
humic acid of different origin.
Gillian (1940) found no essential
differences between the elementary
composition of humic acid isolated from
forest soil, meadow soil and manure soil.
However there is similarity in the
elementary composition of humic acids
isolated from different soils.
m. Functional groups of humic acids: Oden,
on the basis of his investigations showed
that a molecule of humic acid from peat
contains four carboxyl groups and he
reflected this in the approximate formula
C60H52O24(COOH)4 with a molecular
weight of 1350. Fuchs & Stenge (1929)
determined that four carboxyl and three
phenolic groups were present in humic
acid from brown coal. In humic acid
there may also be present alcoholic
(-OH) groups. Besides carboxyl,
phenolic and alcoholic groups, humic
acids also contain methoxyl groups
(-OCH3) up to 1-2% in amount. A quinod
group present in humic acids it may also
be assumed that in soil humic acids,
double-bond carbon groupings
[-CH=CH-] occur.
the presence of functional carboxyl and
phenolic hydroxyl (OH) groups explains one
extermely important property of humic
aicds- their participation in exchange
reactions. The participation of humic acids
in exchange reactions depends on the
 27

conditions of the soil medium: the higher the

soil reaction, the greater the number of
functional groups of humic acids
participating on the exchange reactions.
n. the aromatic ring of humic acids:
Hopppe-Seylar was the first to
demonastrate the presence of aromatic
ring in humic acids obtained from peat &
brown coal. Shumuk (1924) was the first
to show the presence of the aromatic ring
in humic acid from chernoze. Together,
with humic acids of aromatic nature also
occur humic acids with masked aromatic
rings or without aromatic rings.
o. A theoratical scheme for the
decomposition products of humic acids
compiled by Flaig(1958), is given below:

p. Reducing substances in the composition

of soil humic acids: it is not yet clear that
whether or not the humic acid molecule
 28

contains reducing substances, although

this information would be of
considerable interest fron the point of
view of the nature & origin of humic
acid. Subsequent works (Drogunor, 1948,
1950) confirmed the presence of
reducing substances in soil humic acids,
their amount depending on the method of
purification of the solution obtained by
hydrolysis of the humic acid. At present,
we can’t say for certain whether reducing
substances are a contaminent or part of
the molecule of humic acid.
q. The nitrogen-containing part of humic
acids: at present time there is no doubt
that soil humic acids contain nitrogen,
the amount being approximatly 3.5-5%.
The availability of humic acids to micro-
organisms and subsequently to plants
depends on the form of nitrogen linkage
in the humic acids. This important fact
should be taken into consideration when
estimating the nitrogen reserves of soils.
r. The structure of the humic acid
molecule: from the data at present
available, it has been established that the
humic acid molecule consists of an
aromatic ring, nitrogen containing
compounds in cycle froms and in the
form of peripheral chains’ and possible
reducing substances. The humic acid
molecules has therefore, a complex
structure. humic acids do not posseses a
clear crystalline structure; this has given
rise to ontradictory interpretations. humic
acid molecules are not compact but have
a loose (spongy) structure with a large
number of internal spaces is of great
importance in soil processes. These
characteristics of the structure determine
 29

the water-holding capacity and the

sorptive properties of humic acids to a
considerable degree.
*Elemental composition of humic substances & several plant materials:
Substances % dry ash
free basis
C H O N
Fulvic acid 44-49 3.5-5.0 44-49 2.0-4.0
Humic acid 52-62 3.0-5.5 30-33 3.5-5.0
Proteins 50-55 6.5-7.3 19-24 15.0-19.0
Lignins 62-69 5.0-6.5 26-33

3. Hymatomelanic acid:
a. hymatomelanic acid is the alcohol soluble part of
humic acid
b. in Tyrin’s opinion, hymatomelanic acid represents a
complex mixture of substances, which are humic acid derivatives, some
being more oxidized and others more reduced.
c. hymatomelanic acid, contain methoxyl, carboxyl and
hydroxyl groups.
d. they have a characteristically high carbon content
(more than 60%).
e. according to Kukharenko, hymatomelanic acids can be
formed both by synthesis from the products of decomposition of organic
residues and also during the oxydative-hydrolytic destruction of humus
substances by oxygen and moisture.
f. like huic acids, hymatomelanic acids are heterogenous.
Consequently, it is considered that hymatomelanic acids
are not an independent group of humus substances but an alcohol-soluble
fraction of humic acids. Soluble in alkali; insoluble in acid & water.
4.Humins :
a. Humin is insoluble in water, alcohol, acids and alkali.
b. It is highest in molecular weight.
c. Darkest in color.
d. Most resistant to microbial attack.
e. Humus substances not extracted from decalcified soil
during treatment with alkali solutions are placed in the humin group.
f. In the majority of soils. The humin group is
represented mainly by humic acids; their loss of the capacity for dissolving
 30

in alkali solutions is due mainly to their stable linkage with the mineral part
of the soil.
g. In soils, the humin group may be partly represented by
combined plant residues.
h. Humins participate in the formation of a water-stable
structure.
I. Humin constitutes a concentration of considerable
amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur and other elements, forming a
reserve which is gradually drawn into cycles of mineralization and
mobilized for plant nutrition.
j. it is soluble in hot alkali.
Functional groups in humic substances:
The functional groups present in humic substances are
given below:
O

i. Carboxyl (acid group) --- R-C-OH

R-C-Oˉ + H+
ii. Hydroxyl (phenol or alcohol group) R-OH R-Oˉ
+H+ [Ar-OH Ar-Oˉ +H+]
iii. Carbonyl (keto or ester group) R=O R-Oˉ
iv. Amide (ammonium group) R-NH2 R-NH3+
or, R-NHˉ (depends on pH value) R-NH3(low pH), R-NHˉ (high pH)

Properties of humus:
Humus possesses certain properties that differentiate it from
undecomposed plant and animal residues. Some of its important properties
are as under:
a. humus shows colloidal properties
b. Humus (organic colloid) is a non crystalline organic
substance.
c. It consists of very large organic molecules, whose
chemical composition varies considerably, but
generally contains 40 to 60% C, 30 to 50% O, 0.3 to
7% H, and 1 to 5% N.
d. The molecular weight of humic acids, a major type of
colloidal humus, ranges from 10, 0000 to 100,000
g/mol.
 31

e. The surface area of humic colloids per unit mass is

very high, generally exceeding that of silicate clays.
f. The colloidal surfaces of humus are negatively
charged as a result of H+ dissociation from carboxide
(-COOH) or phenolic (-OH) groups. The extent of
negative charge is pH dependent. Humus colloidal can
also retain cations, but the negative sites always
outnumber the positive ones, and a very large net
negative charge is associated with humus.
g. It is of dark brown to black color. The black color of
surface soils is usually due to the presence of humin.
h. It has a great water absorbing power; the addition of
humus to a soil increases its water holding capacity.
i. It possesses the power of addition and cohesion.
Humus is much less adhesive because of this property
that it acts as a cementing agent in crumb formation.
In sandy soil it helps to bind sand particles as its
adhesive capacity is greater than sand. On the other
hand it makes clayey soils less sticky by reducing the
coherence of clay particles. Hence, the maintenance of
crumb structure is useful for both sandy and clayey
soils.
j. It has a high ion adsorbing capacity nearly four to six
times that of clay.
k. The adsorbed cations undergo Base Exchange as they
do in the case of colloidal clay. Hence it has a high
Base Exchange capacity. Because of the highly
heterogeneous nature of the material, its cation
exchange capacity (CEC) varies widely, from 30 to
350 meq percent.
l. It is insoluble in water.
m. It dissolves readily in dilute alkali giving a dark
colored liquid. It is reprecipitated to a large extent
when the alkaline solution is neutralized with acid.
n. It behaves like a weak acid and forms salts with bases.
With alkalis it forms soluble salts such as potassium
humates, while with alkaline earths it forms insoluble
salts. Humus is electronegative like clay acid. It is
usually present in the soil in combination with bases
mainly calcium forming calcium humate.
 32

o. It acts as a buffering agent. It also acts as an

oxidation-reduction buffer.
p. It serves as a source of energy and food for the
development of various microorganisms.
q. It is comparatively more resistant to microbial attack,
yet it undergoes slow decomposition. Hence it does
not remain in the soil indefinitely.
r. It is highly dynamic as it is constantly formed from
plant and animal residues and is continuously
decomposed by microorganisms.
s. Humus is an important source of nutrients for higher
plants.
t. Although humus is transitional and does not remain in
the soil forever, it has a certain permanency and
disappears from the soil only slowly.
These properties go to show that humus has a
number of functions to perform in the soil. Physically it modifies soil color,
texture, structure and water holding capacity. It improves aeration and
drainage by making the soil more porus.
Chemically it serves as a source of food nutrients for the
growing crops, increases the buffering power of soil, and influences the
solubility of certain soil minerals on account of the continuous liberation of
CO2. It also serves as a source of food for soil microorganisms.
Humus thus occupies a very prominent place in the
increase and maintenance of soil fertility.
Structural chemistry of humic acids:
Several hypotheses have been reported on the structural
chemistry of humic acids, but apparently the hypothesis lack desirable
uniformity and much disagreement still exists.
Hypothesis of Schnizer and Khan (1972)
The concept is based on information obtained from
chemical degradation of fulvic acids. Degradation reactions do not ensure
that artifacts may not have been produced. Depending on the severe ness or
mildness of the reactions applied, any breakdown product can be obtained,
ranging from elemental C, H, O, benzene rings to heterocyclic rings.
Schmitzer & Khan were of the opinion that humic
substances must be broken down into smaller sub units to study their
structural chemistry, thus, four basic types of degradation procedures have
been used:
 33

1. Oxidation with alkaline permanganate, nitric acid, H2O and CUO-NaOH

mixture:
The degradation products were invariably benzene
carboxylic acids.

2. Reduction with Na amalgam or with Zn dust:

Fulvic acid also yielded benzene derivatives with this
method.
3. Hydrolysis with hot water, with acids or bases:
Fulvic acid yielded benzene derivative such as
hydroxybenzene and vanillic acids.

4. Biological degradation:
It is a natural and mild process. This is a method by
which fulvic acid is decomposed with the aid of microorganisms (e.g.
penicillium sp, Aspergillus sp, and Trichoderma sp- the most common 3
fungi found in soil).
 34

The compounds produced from fulvic acid by biological

degradation were also identified as benzene derivatives.

On the basis of the predominant findings of benzene

derivatives, Schnitzer and Khan (1972) assume that fulvic acid is composed
of phenolic and benzene carboxylic acids, joined together by H-bonds to
form a polymeric structure.
The latter contains many voids or openings in which
other organic compounds, such as amino acids and carbohydrates can be
trapped. Those could be present as impurities, but not as structural part.
Hypothesis of Kononova (1961)(depending on synthetic pathway)
1. Kononova is of the opinion that at least three
basic steps are involved in formation of humic
acids:
i. formation of structural units from the decomposition of
plant tissues;
ii. Condensation of three units; and
iii. Polymerization of the condensation products.
2. The result is a multi component system, called
humic or fulvic acids. They show similar structural
patterns but may differ in details of structural and
chemical composition. For example, fulvic acid
 35

has a less condensed nucleus, but has more highly

developed peripheral components.
3. In Kononova’s opinion fulvic acid can be both
predecessor and the decomposition product of
humic acid.
4. The basic structural units of humic compounds
are considered to be phenolic or quinoid, bonded
to nitrogen containing compounds and
carbohydrates, the latter chiefly polyuronides. The
inclusion of N-containing compounds and
carbohydrates as fundamental units of the humic
molecule is a matter of much controversy.
[ Several investigators regard the later as
accidental contaminants trapped in the maze work
of the humic structure(Burges, 1960; Schnitzer &
Khan, 1972) but others show evidence for the
necessary participation of carbohydrates and N-
compounds in the formation of humic acids
(Kononova, 1961; Flaig et al, 1975).]
5. Kononova (1961) suggests that the following
reaction occurs for the inclusion of N in the humic
molecule:

Such a combination produces a stable

condensation product of phenols and α-amino acids and increases the
stability of N in acid hydrolysis.
 36

Hypothesis of Kononova(1961):
The role of microorganisms as sources of
polyphenols has been emphasized by kononova in 1966. He gives a detailed
account of research in which histological microscopic techniques and
chemical methods were used to study the decomposition of plant residues.
Stages leading to the formation of humic
substances were postulated to be as follows:
Stage-1:
Fungi attack simple carbohydrates and parts of the protein and
cellulose in the medullary rays, cambium and cortex of plant residues. [ I.e.
the interval structure of plant tissue is attacked by fungi.]
Stage2:
Cellulose of the xylem is decomposed by aerobic myxobacteria.
Polyphenols synthesized by the myxobacteria, are oxidized to quinines by
polyphenoloxidase enzymes, and the quinines subsequently react with N-
compounds to form brown humic substances.
Stage-3:
Lignin is decomposed, phenols released during decay also serve
as source materials for humus synthesis.
The relative importance of lignins and microorganisms as
sources of polyphenols for humus synthesis is unknown; this may depend
upon environmental conditions in the soil. Because lignins are relatively
resistant to microbial decomposition and a major plant constituent, they are
sometimes considered to be the major, if not the primary, source of phenolic
units.
Some of the microscopic fungi that decompose lignin in soil,
produce humic acid like substances in which the phenolic units originate
from both lignin and through biosynthesis by fungi.
Modern view of humus formation:
It is generally accepted that humic acid and fulvic acids
are formed by a multiple stage processes that includes,
1. Decomposition of all plant components including lignin,
into simpler monomers;
2. Metabolism of the monomers with an accompanying
increase in the soil biomass’
3. Repeated recycling of the biomass C (and N) with synthesis
of new cells; and
4. Concurrent polymerization of reactive monomers into high
molecular weight polymers. (Flaig & Kononova, 1966).
 37

According to present day concepts, polyphenols derived from

plants (e.g. lignin), or synthesized by microorganisms, are enzymetically
converted to quinos, which undergo self-condensation or combine with
amino compounds to form N-containing polymers.
Flaig’s concept of humus formation is as follows (1966):
1. Lignin, freed to its linkage with cellulose
during decomposition of plant residues, is
subjected to oxidative splitting with the
formation of primary structure units
(derivatives of phenyl propane).
2. The side chains of the lignin building units are
oxidized, demethylation occurs, and the
resulting polyphenols are converted to quinols
by polyphenolixidase enzymes.
3. Quinons arising from lignin (as well as from
other sources) react with N-containing
compounds to form dark-colored polymers.
 38

Flaig’s Hypothesis (1975):

Flaig and his co-workers (Flaig et al, 1975) suggest
lignin to be the source, or starting point, for the formation of humic acid and
fulvic acids. Lignin is assumed to be broken down by degradation or
decomposition reactions into its basic units (i.e. coniferyl alcohol or
gluaiacyl propane monomers). The se lignin basic units are then subjected to
oxidation, followed by demethylation to substituted polyphenols and further
oxidation to quinine derivatives.
Consideration of the quinone groups with amino acids
and polysaccharides may then yield humic acid like substances. Lignin
degradation products have been detected in hydrolysis of humic acids.
Then some microbiologists said,
i. Microbial cell wall materials add extra cellular gums
which are predominantly polysaccharide like materials.
ii. Products of microbial metabolism include both
polysaccharides & polyphenols. Bacteria are known to be
an important source of polysaccharides and some fungi
of polyphenols.

Martin and Haider (1971):

According to Martin and Haider, microscopic fungi of
the imperfecti group play a significant role in the synthesis of humic
substances in soil. Their studies have shown that such fungi as Aspergillus,
Epicoccum nigrium, Hendersonula toruloida, Stachybotyrs atra, and S.
chartarum degrade lignin as well as cellulose or other organic constituents
and in the process, synthesize appreciable amounts of humic acidic
polymers. Phenolic units making up the polymer originated from lignin, as
well as theory synthesis by the fungi.
In recent studies, Martin & Haider investigated the
synthesis of humic acid-type substances from several fungi belonging to the
imperfecti group. The quantities of humic acid synthesized by fungi can be
appreciable.
Tan’s Hypothesis (1993)
The different opinions, existing on the origin and
structure of humic matter, indicate that phenolic groups and nitrogen
compounds are the building blocks fro humic matter. The latter concept is
reflected in the lignoprotein theory, which differs only lightly from
hypothesis derived from oxidation and degradation research on humic
compounds.
 39

Oxidation of humic acids yields phenols and a series of

phenol-carboxylic acids, which from humic acids by condensation and
polymerization. (Schnitzer & Khan, 1972)
The general opinion is that humic acid can not be
described in definite chemical terms, but current research data point
otherwise. Results of 13C-NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) analysis
suggest the presence of a consistent structural composition including
aliphatic, aromatic, and carboxyl compounds. Infrared spectroscopy also
provides evidence for only one basic structure related to the presence of
aliphatic C-H, carboxyl, and phenolic –OH functional groups:
In addition, the elemental composition is fairly consistent
with C content varying only from 40 to 50%, H from 4 to 5%, N from 1 to
5% and S from 0.2 to 0.3%.
For these reasons, Tan proposes the following basic
structures for the smallest possible molecule of terrestrial humic acid and
aquatic humic acid.
 40

In the 1st figure the aromatic nucleus can vary depending

on the type of the lignin monomers. The figure also shows the possibility to
add a carbohydrate molecule to the aromatic nucleus.
The latter (2nd figure) is of importance for the structure of
fulvic acids, since fulvic acids contain less N and more carbohydrates, as
 41

noticed from both NMR and infrared analysis. A complex structure can also
be built by combining several units of the basic molecule, or adding other
compounds to the aromatic nucleus.
So, the two main opinions of Tan are,
1. Carbohydrates are directly attached to the structure,
and
2. There is no existence of phenolic group.
Colloidal nature of humus:
The colloidal characteristics of humus are as follows:
1. The humic compounds are hydrophobic in nature.
2. The tiny colloidal humus particles (micelles) are composed
of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (probably in the form of
polyphenols, polyquinones, polyurinoids and
polysaccharides).
3. The surface area of humus colloids per unit mass is very
high, generally exceeding that of silicate clays. The surface
area of humus colloid ranges from 500-800 m²/g.
4. The colloidal humus must possess charge either positive or
negative. Mostly negative charges are dominant under
prevailing condition of pH.
5. At high pH values the cation exchange capacity (C.E.C) of
humus on a mass basis (150-300 c mol c /Kg) for exceeds
that of most silicate clays.
6. The water-holding capacity of humus is very high and it, on
a mass basis is 4-5 times greater than that of the silicate
clays.
7. Humus has a very favorable effect on aggregate formation
and stability.
8. The black color of humus tends to distinguish it from most
of the other colloidal constituents in soils.
9. Cation exchange reactions with humus are qualitatively to
those occurring with silicate clays.
10.Humus colloid acts as a buffer.
Function/significance of humus:
1. Store house of nutrients: Humus provides a store house for
the exchangeable and available cations- K+, Ca²+, Mg²+.
Ammonium fertilizers are also prevented from leaching loss
because humus holds ammonium in an exchangeable
available form.
 42

2. Increases water holding capacity: Humic acid is reported to

increase soil water holding capacity.
3. C.E.C: Humic acid is reported to increase C.E.C.
4. Reduce Al toxicity: Humic acid reduces micronutrient
toxicity in acid soils, especially Al toxicity.
5. Improving seed germination: Humic acid is capable of
improving seed germination, root initiation and elongation,
respiration, uptake of nutrients and development of green
mass.
6. Economical production of commercial humates: Humic
acids, occurred as natural geologic deposits, are the main
sources for the economical production of commercial
humates used as soil amendments.
7. Direct influence on plant growth: Humus is an important
source of nutrients for higher plants. Under natural
conditions, humus is probably the only source for the supply
of nitrogen to higher plants. Humus also supplies
phosphorus and sulfur required by growing plants. By virtue
of its high adsorptive capacity it is able to adsorb and retain
large quantities of various bases like Ca²+, Mg²+, etc. on its
surface, which are also available for the nutrition of higher
plants. Humus thus supplies both basic & acidic nutrient
ions for the growth and development of higher plants.
8. Influence on the aquatic environment: The presence of
humic acids and Fulvic acids in lakes & stream may
stimulate the growth of phytoplankton. Present in large
concentrations, humic acids may reduce the photosynthesis
of many aquatic green plants because of the dark brown
color that they impart to the water. Due to its enormous
chelation capacity on the other hand humic acid is capable in
detoxifying lakes that are affected by metal pollution. In the
form of cation, the reductive metals can be adsorbed and
chelated by humic acid and rendered immobile.
9. Influence on soil physical properties: Humus tends to give
surface horizons dark brown to black colors. Germination
and aggregate stability are encouraged. The humic fractions
help reduce the plasticity, cohesion, and stickiness of clayey
soil, making these soil easier to manipulate soil water
retention is also improved.
 43

10. Influence on soil chemical properties: Humus generally

account for 50 to 90% of the cation adsorbing power of
mineral surface soils. Like clays, humus colloids hold
nutrient cation in easily exchangeable form. Through its
cation exchange capacity and acid and base functional
groups, humins also provides much of the pH buffering
capacity in soils.
Amphoretic nature of humic substances:
The compounds which are capable of acting either
as a base or an acid are termed as amphoretic, e.g. amino acids which
contain both a basic group (-NH2) and an acidic group (-COOH).
The humic compounds in soil contain both a
carboxyl and an amino group. The presence of these two functional group
gives them the ability to exist as cation or anion.
In other words, the compounds which have the
ability to exist either as cation or anion are called the substance amphoretic
in nature.
For example, at pH 7.0, humic compounds act as
Zwilter ion. NH3+ amino group

H3C-C-COOˉ carboxyl group

When alkali is added, the excess proton on the amino group is

neutralized (when pH=9)
NH3 NH2

H3-C-COOˉ+OHˉ H3C-C-COOˉ+H2O

H H
That is, humic compound is acting as anion when acid is added, the
dissociated carboxyl group (COOˉ) accepts the proton (when pH=3).

NH3 NH3+

H3-C-COOˉ+H+ H3C-C-COOH

H H

The humic compound is now acting as cation.

 44

so, humic substances show amphoretic nature due to the presence of

functional groups such as carboxyl group, R-COOH; hydroxyl group, R-OH;
keto or ester group R=O and amide group. And amide group R-NH2
* What is E4/E6 ratio? What does it indicate about the nature of humic
substances?
E4:E6 is the optical property of soil humus. It is used to
identify the nature of humic substances. E4:E6 ratio determines the degree of
condensation of humic substances at various wavelengths.
E4 is the value of photometer reading at 446 nm
wavelength and E6 is at 665 nm the color ratio is
E4/E6 or Q4/6 = absorbance at 465 nm
absorbance at 665 nm
The color ratio is then used as an index for the rate of
highest absorption in the visible range. Some investigations reported that the
intensity of light adsorption was characteristic for the type of molecular
weight of humic substances. Humic acids with high molecular weights
(MW>30,000) have lower E4/E6 value (4.32-4.45) than humic acids with
lower molecular weights (MW=15,000) the lower molecular weight factors
exhibit E4/E6 value of 5.47-5.49.
Humic acid Fulvic acid
1. It is soluble in alkali, but insoluble 1. It is soluble in alkali, acid & water.
in acid & water.
2. It is high molecular weight 2. It is low molecular weight fraction
fraction of humic matter. of humic matter.
3. It is intermediate in resistance to 3. It is most susceptible to microbial
degradation. attack.
4. Dark brown to black in color. 4. Straw yellow to wine red in color.
5. It has low oxygen but high carbon 5. It has high oxygen but low carbon
content. content.
6. It possesses less acidic functional 6. It possesses more acidic functional
groups (-COOH). group (-COOH).
7. When it is treated with alcohol, it 7. Fulvic acid gives two sub fractions
gives soluble hymotomelanic acid at pH 4.8, namely fulvic acid
and insoluble humic acid fraction (soluble) & s-humus (insoluble).
which again gives brown humic acid
 45

(soluble) & gray humic acid

(insoluble) as treated with neutral
salt.
8. At present it can’t be said whether 8. Reducing substances are present in
reducing substances are a fulvic acid.
containment or part of the molecule
of humic acid.
9. The ratio C: H is generally higher. 9. The ratio C: H is generally lower.
10. Oxygen occurs as structural 10. Oxygen is present in functional
component of nucleus (e.g. In ether groups (-COOH, -OH, -CHO).
or ester linkages). 11. The half-life may be 10-50 years.
11. Depending on the environment
the half-life is generally measured in
centuries.

Terrestrial Humus Aquatic Humus

1. This is humic matter in soils.
2. It comprises mainly lignoprotein
(lignin + protein) complexes.
3. Humic acids and fulvic acids are
major constituents.
4. It can be subdivided into
i. Softwood terrestrial humus
ii. Hardwood terrestrial humus
ii. Grass or bamboo terrestrial humus
1. This is humic matter in stream,
lakes & oceans and their sediments.
2. It comprises carbohydrate protein
complexes.
3. It is composed mostly of Fulvic
acid, Humic acid is only a minor
constituents.
4. it can be subdivided into
i. Alochthonus aquatic humus
ii. Autochthonus aquatic humus

Organic matter Humus

1. Soil organic matter is any
substance of organic region that
consists of undecomposed, partially
decomposed & completely
decomposed plant & animal residues. original tissues or synthesized by the
2. It is subjected to decomposition.
3. It is a non-colloidal substance.
4. It is a complex compound.
1. Humus is a complex & rather
resistant mixture of brown to dark
brown amorphous & colloidal
substances modified from the
various soil organisms.
2. It is resistant to further
decomposition.
3. It is a colloidal substance.
4. It is even more complex.

5. Plant & animal residues are the
sources of this.
6. All the portions are not amorphous
& crystalline.
7. All the portions have no adsorptive
power.
8. Does not possess any functional
group.
9. Does not have C.E.C.
10. C/N ratio is not constant.
11. It has definite recognizable
structure. It contains-
Cellulose-20-50%
Hemicellulose-10-28%
Lignin-10-36%
Peat
1. An organic soil that contains more
than 50% organic matter & the
organic matter is partially decayed or
non-decayed, is called peat.
2. The kind of plant in the peat can
be identified.
3. Peat soils are coarse/fine textured
depending on the nature of deposited
plant residues.
46
5. Humus comes from the organic
matter.
6. Amorphous & not crystalline.
7. It has adsorptive power.
8. Possesses several functional
groups.
9.Has high C.E.C.
10. C/N ratio is more or less
constant.
11. It has no definite recognizable
structure. It contains-
Cellulose-4%
Hemicellulose-7%
Lignin-45%
Muck
1. An organic soil that contain 20-
50% organic matter & the organic
matter is completely decomposed, is
called muck.
2. The plant materials of muck
cannot be identified.
3. Muck soils are quite fine textured
as the original plant materials are
broken down.