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6 0, 0 if y = 0,
*
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1 if y = 0, ± 1 , ± 1 , . . .
π 2π
f (g(y)) =
0 other y 0s. %&
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Why doesn’t f (g(x)) have a limit? Consider the deltas and
epsilons:
lim f (x) = L would require that
x→c
Proof: Combine
f (c + o(1)) = f (c) + o(1), meaning lim f (x) = f (c),
x→c
with g(y) = c + o(1), meaning lim g(y) = c,
y→d
to obtain f g(y) = f c + o(1) = f (c) + o(1).
Notes: This works whether or not g is continuous at y = d.
The ±’s above mean that the limits in y can be
all left-handed, all right-handed, or all two-sided.
If f is continuous at x = c
and if lim g(y) equals this c,
y→d±
then lim f g(y) equals f lim g(y) equals f (c).
y→d± y→d±
Examples:
√ p r √
for f (x) = x, lim g(y) = lim g(y) = c;
y→d y→d
Proof: Combine
y = d + o(1), (since y → d)
g(y) = g d + o(1) = g(d) + o(1), (g is continuous)
and f g(d) + o(1) = f g(d) + o(1),
to obtain (since f is continuous)
f g(y) =f g d + o(1) =f g(d) + o(1) = f g(d) + o(1).
If f is continuous at g(d): lim f (x) = f (g(d)),
x→g(d)
Examples:
√ p r p
for f (x) = x, lim g(y) = lim g(y) = g(d);
y→d y→d
2
for f (x) = x2, lim g(y) 2
= g(d)2.
= lim g(y)
y→d y→d
1 1 1 1
for f (x) = , lim = = ,
x y→d g(y) lim g(y) g(d)
y→d
if g(d) 6= 0.
Now, let’s return to assuming only that f has a right-hand limit
at x = c :
f (c+) = lim f (x) = L would require that
x→c+
Example:
p p
for g(y) = y − d, lim f y − d = lim f (x).
y→d+ x→0+
(c, d)
x
We have seen that the existence of lim f (x)
x→c±
would imply the existence of lim f (g(y)),
y→d±
and their equality: lim f (g(y)) = lim f (x).
y→d± x→c±
either both exist, and are equal, or both limits do not exist.
either both exist, and are equal, or both limits do not exist.
either both exist, and are equal, or both limits do not exist.
x = g(y),
These equivalences justify limit substitutions:
y = g −1(x),
lim f g g −1(x)
lim f g(y) = = lim f (x),
y→d x→lim g(y) x→g(d)
y→d
lim f g(y) = lim −1 f g(y) = lim f (x).
y→d y→ lim g (x) x→g(d)
x→g(d)
x = g(y),
These equivalences justify limit substitutions:
y = g −1(x),
−1
lim f g(y) = lim f g g (x) = lim f (x).
y→d x→lim g(y) x→c
y→d
x = g(y) = y 2,
Example: Using √ we have
y = g −1(x) = x,
2
√ 2
lim
√ cos y = lim 2 cos x = lim cos x = −1,
y→ π x→ lim
√ y
x→π
y→ π
√ p
lim2 sin x = lim √ sin y 2 = lim sin y = 0.
x→π y→ lim x y→π
x→π 2
Example: n = m + 1,
Using lim am+1 = lim an = lim an
m = n − 1, m→∞ n→ lim m+1 n→∞
m→∞
If g(y) is monotone and continuous for d − δ < y < d + δ.
Then the limits lim f (x) and lim f g(y)
x→g(d) y→d
either both exist, and are equal, or both limits do not exist.
h = g(u) = u − x,
Example: With x a constant and using
u = g −1(h) = x + h,
x2 − 9 (y + 3)2 − 9
lim = lim
x→3 x2 −x−6 y→lim (x−3)
x→3
(y + 3)2 − (y + 3) − 6
y 2 + 6y + 9 − 9
= lim
y→0 y 2 + 6y + 9 − y − 3 − 6
y 2 + 6y
= lim
y→0 y 2 + 5y
y+6 6
= lim = .
y→0 y+5 5
xp − 1
lim = p, for any integer p
x→1 x−1
Proof:
If p > 0, we start with
(x − 1)(xp−1 +xp−2 + . . . +x +1)
=xp +xp−1 + . . . +x2 +x
−xp−1−xp−2− . . .−x −1
=xp −1.
The desired limit now becomes
xp − 1
lim = lim xp−1 + xp−2 + . . . + x + 1 (p terms)
x→1 x − 1 x→1
= 1 + 1 +...+ 1 + 1 (p ones)
= p.
For p = 0, the limit is much simpler:
xp − 1 x0 − 1 1−1
lim = lim = lim = lim 0 = 0 = p.
x→1 x − 1 x→1 x − 1 x→1 x − 1 x→1
p
1 1
p −1 x = ,
x −1
u u
For p < 0, lim = lim , using
x→1 x − 1 u→1 1 1
−1 u = ,
u x
u−p − 1 u−p − 1
= lim u = lim (−u) = (−1)(−p) = p,
u→1 1−u u→1 u−1